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Journal of Educational AdministrationDETERMINANTS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANS OF THE INDETERMINANTHIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES
YEE-LAY JACK LAM
Article information:
To cite this document:YEE-LAY JACK LAM, (1982),"DETERMINANTS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANS OFTHE INDETERMINANT HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES", Journal of Educational
Administration, Vol. 20 Iss 2 pp. 213 - 229Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb009863
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THE JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
VOLUME XX NUMBER 2 SUMMER 1982
DETERMINANTS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANS
OF THE INDETERMINANT HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES
YEE-LAY JACK LAM
Persistent concernforequal opportunitiesinhigher educationand thesignificant
decline of Universities' enrolment across Canada in the late 1970's increasingly
prompted researcherstofocus uponagrowing groupofhigh school students who
were undecided whether they should proceed with further studies orwhether they
should join
the
labour market. Data for the present study were obtained from
374
males and 423 female high school students close to graduation. Crucial socio
economic factors, school factors
and
intra-personal variables affecting their
perceived probability
for
further education
in
future were identified
and
their
conceptual causal linkages were empirically examined in two separate path
ana lyses. Som e striking similarities were located between male and female students
indicating that socio-economic factors play dominant roles accountng for the types
of school activities they engaged
in
These
in
turn exerted considerable influence
upon their educational plans and aspirations. Extreme pragmatic ou tlooks, new life
styles characteristic of students' subculture, and inaccurate assessment of the
educational level required for the professions to which they aspired were important
deterring factorstofurther studies for both groupsofstudents. On the other hand,
family size , maturity and school achievement had varying degrees
of
impact on the
two groups. Strategies aimingat more effective guidanceofstudents' choice were
entertained.
Due to declining enrolments in post-secondary institutions across North
America planners and administrators have become vitally interested in the
decisions of high school graduates. Of particular interest and importance is
a group of high school graduates who expressed the intention of delaying
further education but who had not ruled out the possibility of future study.
These indeterminant graduates constitute a growing proportion of the
secondary school population. Understanding their reasons for delaying
further education leads us to the exploration of actual and potential
barriers to higher education.
Governing the present investigation are two specific questions:
1. What are the crucial factors influencing the educational plans of grade
12 male students who expressed a preference for delaying further
education?
2 .
What are the crucial factors influencing the educational plans of grade
12 female students who expressed a preference for delaying further
education?
YEE-LAY JACK LAM
is
Chairman
of the
Department
of
Administrative
and
Education
Services, and Assistant to the Dean, Faculty of Education, Brandon University. He holds the
degreesofB.A. (Hons.) (Hong Kong), M. Ed. and Ph.D. (Toronto).
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214 Determinants
of
Educational Plans
REVIEW OFLITERATURE
For the purpose of defining the theoretical premises for the subsequent
empirical paradigms, three broad categories of variables relevant to high
school students' further educational aspirations and attendance seem to
emerge from sociological research. These three categories, for
conv enien ce, could be termed intrapersonal , immediate external , and
remote external.
Intrapers onal factors refer to attitudes, perce ptions, motivation, value
system s, an d other person al dispositions. Imm ediate exte rnal factors
refer to a wide range of school activities, academic achievement, and the
influences exerted by such significant others as pa ren ts, pe ers , and
school pers onn el. Re m ote externa l factors refer to the socio-econom ic
backgrounds of students, such as parental income, parental educational
levels,
and family size.
Among research findings falling into the first category was the report by
Bradsha w and his associates
1
that occup ational goa ls and th e kind of value
attached to post-secondary education accounted greatly for the manifested
educational aspirations of students. Frymier et al.
2
re-affirmed the
importance of motivation as a factor explaining under and over-achievers,
and differentiating between college and non-college bound high school
students. In reviewing literature concerning barriers to women's
participation in post-secondary education, Westervelt and Mannings
stressed that attitudes of women towards themselves and in relation to
others, and motivation for achievement, were important as institutional
and situational barriers.
With respect to the explanation of imm ediate external factors, Carter
4
reported that special-needs students were often hampered by teacher
behavior in the classroom. Findings of Harvey et al.
5
relating to children's
SE S and tea cher expectations substantiated the midd le class bias
hyp othe sis. Reference to literature exam ining pe er gro up influence
shows that secondary students were affected significantly by peer group
pressure. For instance Damico
6
stated that peer pressu re ha d led ma ny
students either to over or underachieve to a significant degree. Parental
expectations were proven to be even more significant than peers'
influence, both in students' academic performance and plans.
7
In addition, stud ents ' involveme nt in school activities an d the am oun t of
information they secured pertaining to post-secondary education were
carefully investigated. Snyder
8
and Ot to
9
sepa rately confirme d that
participation in extra-curricular activities tended to have a salutary effect
upon achievement, and, as shown by Bradshaw
1 0
and Meyer
11
influenced
in many instances the educational goals which were cherished.
With respect to the information that students could secure from their
schools which would enhance their opportunity of furthering their
education, no factor was more important than the financial one. Jackson
and Weathersby
12
, in their review of literature on individual demand for
higher education, concluded that increasing financial assistance statistically
improves access to higher education. Brossman
13
stressed the ne ed for
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Lam 215
more techniques to insure that potential students be made aware of the
opportunities for post-secondary education. All of these pointed to a
significant role which counsellors in schools had to play.
Turning to the rem ote external factors that might delay further
education, the Education Department of New York State
1 4
indicated,
among other factors postulated, that family income, familial values and
influence, an d social class w ere all im po rtan t. M ore specifically, H olde r
15
indicated that significant relationship existed between the occupational
class of parents and the academic results of students. Query and
Kuruvilla
16
found that the educational and occupational levels of the
mother exert a definite influence on both adolescent sons' and daughters'
academic records. Rehberg, Sinclair and Schafer
1 7
repor ted that
achievement practices conducive to a college expectation were more
characteristic of middle than of working class families. Given the wide
empirical support that parental expectations strongly affected students'
ex pe cta t ion s , M ey er ' s obs erv ed tha t the in f luences of sex ro le
differentiation and of social class situation were more readily reflected in
paternal orientation than in either maternal or student orientation. In
probing parental control over adolescents, Peterson and Kunz
19
found that
control efforts increased with increasing family size in middle class families,
whereas no such clear pattern existed in the working class.
CONCEPTUAL PREMISESOF THEEMPIRICAL MODELS
In synthesizing into some causal m odel the se thre e categories of variables
which are found separately to be significant to the academic aspirations
and attendance of post-secondary education students, i t would not be
difficult to perceive that the intrapersonal factors which trigger the ultimate
decision of pursuing or not pursuing a higher education are themselves the
end products of the interactive effects of immediate and remote external
factors. In other words, the value system, motivation, attitudes and
self-
image that students possess are in many instances the results of beneficial
or detrimental influences exerted upon them by various personal and
situational factors in the process of socialization. While remote external
factors tend to exert an under-lying persistent influence upon students'
ultimate decisions, many such influences are tempered and modified by
the immediate external factors most visible in the school environment.
Diagramatically, the theoretical linkage of these three sets of variables can
be expressed as Fig. 1:
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21 6 Determ inants of Educational Plans
METHODOLOGY
(a) Sample
The sample of the study was extracted from the PDEM-II data file
compiled by the Manitoba Department of Education, Canada, during the
academic year of 1976-1977. Essentially, all the Grade 12 students were
stratifiedrandomly selected on a regional basis so that there is a
proportional geographical representation across the province. Of the data
collected, those who expressed an intention to delay further studies were
singled out for analysis. Th us, 79 7 G rade 12 students (374 male and 4 2 3
female) w ho constituted a bout on e-fourth of the total sam ple in the PDEM -
II file were utilized.
(b) Variables Selected and Initial Treatm ent
Some 70 items and sub-items which constituted part of the
questionnaire distributed to 1976 and 1977 Grade 12 students, and
pertaining in nature to the three broad categories of variables previously
reviewed, were initially selected. The criterion variable for this study was
the likelihood of pursuing further studies . This is assessed by a five-point
scale ranging from no probability (scale score 1) to extremely high
probability (scale score 5).
In order to construct the causal model with tenable variables, a number
of measures were taken to reduce the 70 items and sub-items selected:
(1) By simple addition, subtraction, or cross-checking, a great num ber
of items or sub-items have been subsumed under certain composite
variables. Thus, items pertaining to the number of dependants and siblings
were com bined so as to constitute the ne w variable Financial ne ed s .
Comparison of the figures given by respondents with their professed
Aw arenes s of student aid m ad e possible the develop me nt of Degree of
true awareness of student aids .
Scale scores of both utilitarian and morale value of Education were
synthesized to provide a com posite score for Value of Edu cation .
Likewise, the scale scores measuring adequacy of three different types of
counsellingeducational, financial, and careerwere summed up and
translated into a score for Counse lling a de qu ac y .
(2) Factor Analyses were em ploye d to extract basic underlying factors
from the numerous available items and to eliminate colinearity problems
that might contaminate linear models to be constructed later.
Three Factor Analyses dealing respectively with items assessing
influences of different gro ups of pe op le , high school activities, and possible
events that may induce students to pursue further studies were
undertaken:
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Lam 217
Table 1.Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix of People's Influence on Students' Plans
PERSO NNEL
Friends
Parents
Other Relatives
High School teachers
Counsellor
A College/University Student I know
College/University Representatives
Religious Leader
Employer(s) met
Others
Eigenvalue
% of variance
FACTOR LOADING
FACTOR 1
.11
.17
.20
.61
.72
.37
.46
.18
.01
.00
2.30
5 9
FACTOR 2
.53
.59
.54
.26
.12
.38
.20
.25
.05
- .01
1.06
27
FACTOR 3
-.05
- .07
- .01
- .03
- .04
- .02
.01
.04
.77
.68
.51
13
Three factors emerged from items measuring influences of different
groups of people (Table 1). By associating items with resultant factors, it
would se em that Factor I could best be terme d Influence of teach ers an d
university pe rso nn el ; an d Factor II, Influence of pa ren ts an d friends .
Factor III, whose eigen value was less than 1 and accounted for only 13
per cent of the variance was eliminated from further analysis.
Table 2.Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix of influence of High School Activities on Students'
Plans
ACTIVITIES
Activities having usefulness
Skills for immediate employment
Prepared for continuing education
Personal contact with university
personnel
Those interested in my plans
Counselling service
Assistance in job-finding
Information for continuing training
and education
Others
Eigenvalue
% of variance
FACTOR LOADING
FACTOR 1
.37
.03
.60
.59
.53
.51
.10
.60
.11
1.83
5 2 %
FACTOR 2
.01
.00
.03
- .03
.01
.01
.00
.02
.67
.92
26%
FACTOR 3
.07
.43
- .22
.07
.24
.17
.65
.03
.00
.72
2 0 %
From the sec ond Factor Analysis (Table II) three factors were dev elop ed
from items measuring influences of various high school activities. In terms
of the item s that constituted the se factors, F actor I could be labelled
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218 Determinants
of
Educational Plans
Activities related to con tinu ou s ed uc atio n ; Fac tor II, Extra-curricular
activities , an d Factor III, Activities rela ted to em plo ym en t .
Table 3.Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix of Influence of Circumstances on Students' Plan
CIRCUMSTANCES
Present State of Employment
Employment Opportunities
Recreation Program
Social Life
New Life Style Desired
Opportunities to be away from home
Reputation of Instructor Chosen
Religious Relationship
Others
More Financial Assistance
Worsening Economic Condition
Easier Admission Requirement
Opportunities to train on the job
Repayment based on Salary
Opportunities to work and attend
Evening School
Opportunities for Home Study
Opportunities to take Post-Secondary
Courses at Regional Centres
Opportunities to take courses on the
Job
Large number unemployed in chosen
occupat ion
Reception of Large Wage Increases
Opportunities to attend private
educat ion programs
Repayment of Loans over 15 Years
Eigenvalue
% of variance
F l
- .04
- .04
- .01
.03
.00
.01
.11
- .22
- .02
.91
.94
.93
.90
.95
.94
.95
.96
.94
.92
.93
.95
.94
11.56
7 4 %
F 2
.54
.66
.31
.43
.17
.00
.15
.24
.04
.05
.01
- .02
- .03
- .02
- .03
- .03
- .01
- .04
- .00
- .04
.00
- .03
1.88
12%
F 3
.08
.04
.06
.34
.85
.38
.43
.08
.07
.04
.04
.03
.03
.00
.03
.01
.02
.02
.01
.02
02
.03
1.00
6 %
F 4
.00
- .02
- .07
- .09
- .06
.04
- .01
.01
- .84
.02
.00
.03
.00
.02
.00
.02
- .01
- .01
- .02
- .01
- .01
.02
.64
4 %
F 5
.04
.05
.23
.26
.07
.24
.45
.42
.00
.04
.01
- .03
.01
.03
- .00
- .00
.00
.02
.01
- .00
- .01
- .04
.34
2 %
From the third Factor Analysis (Table III) five basic factors were
generated from items measuring the influence of various possible
circumstances and events. Reference to the items that made up these
factors allows so m e labelling. Factor I pertains to Fa vo ura ble future
opportunities for further education ; Factor II Knowledge and skills for
employment ; Factor III New life-style ; Factors IV and V which had
small eigen values an d con stituted only small proportions of variance we re
excluded from further analysis.
T h u s ,
after these initial treatments, the 70 items and sub-items selected
were reduced to 20 factorized and unfactorized variables which would be
used to construct the empirical models (Table IV).
ANALYSIS
AND
INTERPRETATION
The two models emerging separately from the path analyses were
presented in order as follows:
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Table4 .Effects ofVariablesin aModelforMale Grade 12StudentswhoDelayed Further
Education.
DEPEN
DENT
VARIA
BLE
X1
INDEPE
NDENT
VARIA
BLE
Xa
Xe
Xf
Xg
Xi
XI
x
P
Xq
Xs
TOTAL
CO VAR
.2462
.1872
.1974
.1580
.2457
.1725
.2457
.1477
.1816
CAUSAL
DIRECT INDIRECT
.1252
.1355
.1611
.1350
.1584
.1502
.0793
.1065
.1236
.0163
.0433
.0013
.0204
.0029
.0019
.0295
.0028
TOTAL
.1252
.1369
.1178
.1363
.1788
.1473
.0774
.1360
.1208
NON
CAUSAL
.1210
.0503
.0796
.0217
.0669
.0252
.1683
.0117
.0608
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DEPEN-
DENT
VARI A-
BLE
Xa
Xb
Xc
Xd
Xe
Xh
Xi
Xj
Xm
I NDEPE-
NDENT
VARI A-
BLE
Xc
Xe
Xh
Xi
Xj
Xn
Xp
Xq
Xa
Xe
Xf
Xi
Xj
Xm
Xp
Xe
Xk
Xs
Xc
Xe
Xg
Xi
Xj
Xf
Xg
Xh
Xk
Xm
Xn
Xq
Xk
Xm
Xo
Xp
Xr
Xs
Xk
Xn
Xp
Xe
Xf
Xh
Xk
Xl
Xm
Xp
Xg
XI
Xo
Xa
TOTAL
CO VAR
. 1505
. 2183
. 1022
. 1899
. 1256
. 1224
. 1183
. 2072
. 2965
. 3175
. 1844
. 1509
. 2184
. 3702
. 1562
. 1765
. 1586
. 9984
. 1072
. 1612
. 1364
. 2918
. 1765
. 4688
. 3121
. 1317
. 3761
. 3613
. 1022
. 1003
. 1384
. 3559
. 1022
. 1348
. 1038
. 1999
. 1500
. 1037
. 1442
. 1704
. 2375
. 1394
. 2477
. 2007
. 2794
. 1986
. 0729
. 1883
. 0701
. 0577
CAUSAL
DI RECT
. 1102
. 1182
. 0726
. 1627
. 1209
. 1086
. 0957
. 1379
. 2007
. 2082
. 1176
. 0720
. 1925
. 3058
. 0845
. 1667
. 1141
. 0977
. 0933
. 1203
. 1190
. 2877
. 1201
. 2909
. 0736
. 0739
. 2529
. 3262
. 0814
. 0700
. 1351
. 2590
. 0863
. 1268
. 0982
. 1880
. 1424
. 0883
. 1056
. 0986
. 1913
. 0927
. 1729
. 1970
. 2269
. 1141
. 0634
. 1862
. 0633
. 0358
I NDI RECT
_
. 0301
. 0087
. 0204
. 0096
. 0206
. 0104
.
. 0274
. 0670
. 0326
. 0243
. 1062
. 0548
.
. 0421
. 0019
. 0273
. 0077
.
.
.
. 0099
. 0191
.
.
. 0094
. 0093
.
. 0286
. 0073
. 0240
. 0422
. 0340
. 0009
TOTAL
. 1102
. 1483
. 0813
. 1831
. 1209
. 1182
. 1163
. 1483
. 2007
. 2356
. 1846
. 1046
. 2167
. 4120
. 0297
. 1667
. 0720
. 0996
. 0933
. 0930
. 1267
. 2877
. 1201
. 2909
. 0736
. 0739
. 2430
. 3453
. 0814
. 0700
. 1351
. 2590
. 0769
. 1268
. 0982
. 1973
. 1424
. 0883
. 1056
. 0986
. 2199
. 1000
. 1969
. 1248
. 1929
. 1132
. 0634
. 1862
. 0633
. 0358
NON
CAUSAL
. 0403
. 0700
. 0209
. 0068
. 0047
. 0042
. 0020
. 0589
. 0958
. 0819
. 0002
. 0463
. 0017
. 0418
. 1265
. 0098
. 0866
. 8988
. 0139
. 0682
. 0097
. 0041
. 0564
. 1779
. 2385
. 0578
. 1331
. 0160
. 0208
. 0303
. 0033
. 0769
. 0253
. 0080
. 0056
. 0026
. 0076
. 0154
. 0386
. 0718
. 0179
. 0394
. 0508
. 0459
. 0865
. 0854
. 0095
. 0021
. 0068
. 0219
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Lam 221
(a) Mo del for male students who d elayed further education
In the case of male students who wished to delay further education, the
perc eived Minimum educational level required for the job (Xa), the
Activities related to con tinuou s edu catio n (Xc), enga ged in by stud ents
in the high school, the De gree of influence exerted upo n stude nts by
teachers, counsellors, and university representatives visiting the school
(Xf), the De gree of influence par ents and intimate friends ha ve (Xg), the
A m oun t of financial nee d a stude nt exp erien ced (Xi), the kind of New
life-style (Xl) stud ents des ired, tog ethe r with stu de nts ' Family size (Xp ),
Fa the rs' educa tional levels (Xq), and their A ges (Xs), w ere all factors
in promoting their likelihood of going on to higher education. In examining
these variables m ore closely, it would see m that the perceived Minimum
educ ational level required for the job (Xa) is the m ost dom inan t factor a s
its total effect up on the possibility of further edu catio n is direct, an d tha t
many of the significant factors listed above exerted their impacts upon the
criterion variable through this intrapersonal factor.
Th e extent of involvem ent in Activities related to con tinuo us
ed uc atio n (Xe) in school by thes e male stud ents , while contributing to the
greater likelihood of post-secondary education at a future date, also
exerted substantial influence upon the occupation preferred, as well as
upon the type of value attached to further education. In terms of the
number of significant paths it established, this seems to be the most
influential external factor affecting many of the intrapersonal factors in the
model .
That a negative relationship existed in terms of the impact of school and
university personnel (Xf) upon students and their decision to delay further
education is indeed surprising. However, as school personnel also
involved th em in activities relate d to em plo ym en t (Xj), it be co m es clearly
evident that the desire for further education gave way for work after
graduation.
The influence parents, relatives and friends (Xg) had upon students'
educational plans is more straightforward. Their major influence is in the
encouragement of students to participate in activities related to further
education (Xe) in school. On the other hand, such influence did not
succeed in prompting those with financial problems to find out more about
Manitoba student aid programs.
Financial need (Xi) contributed significantly to the delay of their further
education for this group of students. Not only does it have an adverse
direct impact upon their educational plans, but it tends to shape their
values regarding further education, and reduces them to the necessity of
assessing realistically the minimum educational level required for
employment. The fact is, unfortunately, for members of this group, that
the gre ater their financial ne ed , th e less w as their awa rene ss of the stud ent
aid program.
The new life-style (Xl) cherished by this group seemed also to have an
adverse effect upon further education. Closer examination of its effect
upon other variables indicates that the new life-style encourages the
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222 DeterminantsofEducational Plans
students to lean more toward activities related to employment rather than
to continuous education, and this accounted for their greater concern
about a minimum educational level for employment, and a lesser one
about the value of continuous education.
The size of the family (Xp) had also an unfavourable direct effect upon
immediate continuous education. Indirectly, it accounted for the degree of
financial need and the greater involvement of students in school activities
related to employment preparation, which subsequently aroused the
students' awareness of the minimum amount of education required for job-
hunting.
The educational level of fathers (Xq) had a direct positive effect upon
students' involvement in activities related to further education in school. Its
effect was also felt in alerting students to the minimum educational level
required for the job desired.
Age (Xs), as an indicator of degree of maturity, also had a positive direct
effect upon the greater likelihood of furthering education. On the other
hand, the close relationship of age with poorer academic achievement
(older students experienced more failure than younger ones in the same
class) and the fact that older students perceived more favorable
opportunities for education in the future, and therefore set a lower value
upon immediate further education, reduced somewhat the effect of such a
positive direct impact.
Two other intrapersonal factors deserve close attention. The
occupational range preferred by this group (Xc) reflected some degree of
discrepancy between what they aspired to do and the level of education
they w ished to attain. A search for an explanation from th e m od el suggests
that those involved in activities related to continuous education were less
realistic in their career aspirations than thos e w ho acquired kno wle dge an d
skills for more immediate employment. Such an unrealistic assessment of
occupational aspiration could in part be the result of either an ineffective
counselling programe in school or the infrequent use of such a service by
the students concerned. Furthermore, the discrepancy between
educational and occupational aspirations could in part reflect the lack of
aw are ne ss of stude nts confronted by financial problem s of the existence of
aid programs. Accordingly, they expressed little desire for continuing
education, but cherised the hope of securing a better-paid job.
The value attached to education (Xb) by this group of students seemed
to be the net balan ce of a vast hos t of conflicting factors. It cou ld be se en to
be a product of the extent of financial need, as well as to be traceable to the
size of the family, and to the more favorable opportunities perceived by
some students in the future, together with the activities they engaged in in
school which prepared them for employment, all of which factors
contributed to the lower value students attached to higher education, as
against the m inimum educa tional level required for the job. A higher value
attached to higher education was traceable to students' participation in
activities related to continuous education, together with the degree of
influence they had been exposed to in school and from university
personnel .
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m
3
b) Modelforfemale studentswhodelayed further education
Included in the list of relevant factors accounting for the likelihood of
further education in this group were two distinct clusters: the first cluster,
co m po se d of the perceived Minimum educ ational level required for
em plo ym en t (Xa), participation in Activities related to continuo us
ed uc atio n (Xe) in school, the receptivity to the Influence of par ents an d
peers
(Xg), Scho ol ach ieve m ent (Xh), Kno wledge and skills for
em ploy m en t acquired in scho ol (Xk), an d Family inco m e (Xx), all
enhanced the probability of post-secondary education; whereas the
seco nd cluster of factors, co m pos ed of great Financial ne ed (Xi),
participa tion in Activities related to em plo ym en t (Xj) in sch ool, N ew
life-style (Xl) prefe rred, an d Fav oura ble future op po rtu nity of further
ed uca tion (Xn) all dec rease d such likelihood. A m ore detailed
exploration in the m odel of an explanation for such a ph en om en on see ms
to be in order.
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ble
5.EffectsofVariablesin aModelforFemale Grade12StudentswhoDelayed Further
Education
DEPEN-
DENT
VARI A-
BLE
Xl
Xa
Xb
Xc
Xd
Xe
Xn
Xi
Xj
Xm
I NDEPE-
NDENT
VARI A-
BLE
Xa
Xe
Xg
Xh
Xi
Xj
Xk
XI
Xm
Xt
Xb
Xc
Xi
Xq
Xs
Xe
Xj
Xk
Xl
Xn
Xs
Xt
Xh
Xj
Xp
Xq
Xt
Xf
Xg
Xk
Xm
Xn
Xm
Xo
Xp
Xf
Xl
Xm
Xn
Xs
Xg
Xk
TOTAL
CO VAR
. 2049
. 2360
. 1813
. 1096
. 1718
. 1848
. 1003
. 1374
. 2712
. 1610
. 1715
. 2011
. 1287
. 0913
. 1714
. 2944
. 1188
. 1393
. 1073
. 1031
. 1230
. 1041
. 2007
. 1733
. 2506
. 0883
. 1495
. 4829
. 3274
. 2819
. 4102
. 1558
. 5036
. 2814
. 1326
. 2204
. 1372
. 1802
. 1584
. 2157
. 1802
. 1052
CAUSAL
DI RECT I NDI RECT
. 0963
. 1332
. 1125
. 0977
. 1351
. 1403
. 0711
. 1292
. 2413
. 0809
. 1198
. 1568
. 0818
. 0767
. 1209
. 1996
. 1115
. 1129
. 0941
. 0862
. 1209
. 0809
. 0976
. 1698
. 1499
. 0823
. 1024
. 3687
. 1787
. 1394
. 3559
. 0839
. 3695
. 0829
. 1046
. 2118
. 0845
. 1769
. 0607
. 0677
. 0935
. 0534
_
. 0023
. 0463
. 0015
. 0078
. 0013
. 0158
. 0030
. 0126
. 0009
. 0009
. 0006
. 0094
. 0100
. 0075
. 0158
. 0333
. 0190
. 0328
TOTAL
. 0963
. 1355
. 1588
. 0992
. 1429
. 1416
. 0553
. 1322
. 2539
. 0818
. 1198
. 1568
. 0818
. 0767
. 1218
. 1966
. 1115
. 1123
. 1035
. 0762
. 1284
. 0751
. 0976
. 1698
. 1499
. 0823
. 1024
. 3687
. 2120
. 1204
. 3559
. 0839
. 3695
. 0829
. 1046
. 2118
. 0517
. 1769
. 0607
. 0677
. 0935
. 0534
NON
CAUSAL
. 1086
. 1005
. 0225
. 0104
. 0289
. 0432
. 0450
. 0052
. 0173
. 0792
. 0517
. 0443
. 0469
. 0146
. 0496
. 0948
. 0073
. 0270
. 0038
. 0269
. 0054
. 0290
. 1031
. 0035
. 0009
. 0060
. 0471
. 1142
. 1154
. 1615
. 0543
. 0719
. 1341
. 1985
. 0280
. 0086
. 0855
. 0033
. 0977
. 1480
. 0867
. 0518
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Lam
225
Th e perceive d Minimum educ ational level required for em plo ym ent
(Xa) is still by far the most important intrapersonal factor having a direct
impact upon the ultimate decision of the female students. This was
affected by the occupations these students preferred, by the value they
cherished regarding further education, by the degree of their financial
ne ed s (Xi), by their Fath ers' educational level (Xq), and by the d egre e of
their maturity represe nted by A ge (Xs). Further analysis indicated a
positive value in post-sec ondary edu catio n, a nd a m aturity that led them to
perceive a higher educational level required for employment, whereas the
other factors exerted an opposite effect. The activities related to
continuous education (Xe) in which they participated in school increased
their educational motivation and allowed them to develop positive values
towards their education, and this, in turn, raised their perceived
educational level required for employment.
The influence of parents and peers (Xg) upon this group of students as
regard s undertaking further educ ation is both direct and indirect. T hroug h
their direct persuasion for post-secondary education, and through their
encouragement that students should be involved in activities related to
continuous education in school, the likelihood of further education tends
to be enhanced.
The impact of school achievement (Xh) upon the choice of further
educ ation is an interesting o ne . While better acade mic perform ance
positively enhanced the probability of undertaking higher education, it did
not encourage students to select better occupations, nor did it assist
students to assess the educational requirement for employment properly.
The relatively little impact school personnel and counselling services
exerted upon this group may likely be held to have been responsible.
Tha t Kno wledge and skill (Xk) acqu ired for em ploym ent by this gro up
should enhance rather than reduce the likelihood of further education, can
be traced most clearly in the model through its indirect relationship with
other factors. The acquisition of knowledge and skills by the female
students actually encouraged them to involve in activities related to
continuous education as well as alerting them to the value of further
educat ion.
Family income (Xt), while deferring the possibility of further education
for those of limited means, surprisingly, is also positively and causally
related to awareness of student aid. In other words, the better off students
are the more familiar they are with the aid program. This implies that
financially more capable female students are more likely to resort to the
program than the really needy ones are.
Among factors that decreased the likelihood of further education,
financial feasibility (Xi) is a pro m ine nt o n e . Affected almost exclusively by
the family size, the degree of financial need tends to lead students to
underrate the educational level required for employment. This factor is
also reflected in the extent stude nts participated in Extra-curricular
activities .
The extent female students participated in activities related to
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2 2 6 Determ inants of Educa tional Plans
employment in school (Xj) tended to increase their awareness of student
aid prog ram s in M anitoba , bu t it did no t lead to greater likelihood of further
education. Rather, such activities decreased their values toward higher
education and, in turn, reduced their probability of pursuing further
education.
The new life-style (Xl) professed by the female students induced them to
be more involved in activities related to employment and to perceive less
favourably any future opportunity for continuous education.
Those who held negative views regarding future opportunities for
further education were less susceptible to the influence of their parents and
peers. The amount of knowledge and skills they acquired in school
explains their relatively favourable assessment of future educational
opportunities.
DISCUSSION
In examining these two models accounting for the postponement and
discontinuation of further education for both male and female students,
one is struck by the very similar overall general pattern, and by the
somewhat dissimilar specific details. Further extraction of these are
essential to render subsequent recommendations more meaningful.
a) Similarities ofthe Two Groups
In a broad perspective, the theoretical linkages among different sets of
external and intrapersonal factors are all substantiated in the form of
separately derived empirical models. Socio-economic factors play
dominant roles accounting for students' involvement in a vast spectrum of
school activities which have both a direct and an Indirect effect on their
attitudes and concept values, and which account for the likelihood of
further education or of observed educational aspirations.
In both models presented, one is impressed with the pragmatic outlook
which students share with respect to higher education and which has a
determinant effect upon their educational plans. The perceived minimum
educational level required for the job they desired largely explains what
level of education they want to attain.
Another striking similarity is the inaccurate assessment of the
educational level required for the professions to which they aspire. This,
coupled with the fact that in both cases great financial need still is a major
stumbling block to further education and does not lead to greater
awareness of student aid programs available in Manitoba, raised the
question of whether counselling services in high schools are adequate.
Reference to both these cases shows that such services are of limited
influence and on no occasion have they had any direct impact upon the
likelihood of further education. Apparently more services are needed in
this area.
Another feature common to both groups is that the kinds of activities
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Lam 227
students were involved in in school determined to a considerable extent
their educational plans and aspirations. For those who are greatly involved
in activities related to continuous education, i.e., seeking information
pertaining to continuing training and education and contacting
representatives of institutions of higher education, the likelihood of their
further education is enhanced. For those who are greatly involved in
activities related to employment, their chances of and aspirations to further
education are reduced.
In both cases, too, the new life-style professed by students had a
detrimental effectdirect, indirect and bothupon further education.
Unless more and more effective family and school interventions deal
squarely with such as are the norms of student sub-culture, more
sec ond ary stude nts will be deprived of the cha nce of continuing edu catio n.
Socio-economic backgrounds still exert a persistent influence upon
students' activities in school, and upon their future educational plans.
Ou tstanding in such a list are family incom e an d fathers' edu cation al level.
While more income and higher paternal education tend to enhance the
ch an ce of further ed uc atio n, it is perp lexing to note that the better-off
families are the ones which are more aware of student aid programs and,
therefore, make better use of them than the really needy ones. Reference
to a Canadian national survey
20
shows that nearly 60 per cent of post-
secondary students have never borrowed to finance their education. This
raises the question of how effective the student aid program is in elevating
their chances of further education. A related concern voiced elsewhere as
well
21
is w hethe r the wealthier sections ha ve learned to use the system in
such a way as to attract the lion's share of the money spent.
b) Differences
of
the
Two Croups
Differences detec ted from t he two m ode ls seem t o reflect very m uch the
de ep -ro ote d social expe ctat ions of different ge nd ers . Sch ool
ac hie ve m en t increas ed the likelihood of further educ ation for female
stud ents while it had no direct effect up on their ma le cou nter parts . Family
size
greatly reduced male students' opportunity to continue further
education whereas such a factor exerted no impact upon the female
students. Maturity as indicated by age enhanced male students' likelihood
for further education while for the female group, no direct effect was
de tec ted . Scho ol ach ieve m ent increase d the likelihood of further
education for female students who wished to delay, but it had no direct
effect up on their male cou nterp arts. Family size greatly redu ced
opportunities to continue further education.
Another interesting finding from the analysis was that mothers'
educational levels tended to affect their son's but not their daughter's
academic performance. This indeed signifies a partial rejection of Query
and Kuruvilla's conclusion
22
. More research perhaps needs to be done to
shed light on such a phenomenon.
A host of factors have been identified from the path models to be directly
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2 2 8
Determinants of Educational Plans
or indirectly responsible for the future educational plans of the
indeterminant high school graduates. While some factors like socio
economic status are too deeply rooted in our social structure to be
amended, a few measures addressed to the school system can still be
attempted in order to equalize the educational opportunities for more
students. These are:
(1) There is a necessity to examine the effectiveness of the counselling
service in school. Information pertaining to higher education, to the
Manitoba Student Aid Program, and to the educational requirements
of various jobs, should be more widely disseminated to the student
body.
(2) T he te achin g staff sh ould ta ke a closer look at the sub -culture no rm of
the students. The provision of opportunities to discuss the new life
style may assist students to develop a more realistic attitude to
education and life.
(3) Activities related to the acquisition of knowledge and skills for
employment should not be viewed by the staff in the high school as
terminal activities for the less academically capable. Rather, they
should be linked to more advanced studies offered by the community
colleges and other post-secondary institutions.
(4) To ensure that students are better versed in the value of general
ed uc ati on , t he liberal arts subjects sho uld not be sacrificed in favour of
the vocational ones. If high school is not to be considered as the
terminal point for youth there is every necessity to controvert the
pragmatic outlooks so noticeable among today's high school students.
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2 .
Frymier , J .R. ,
et al.
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Journal of
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Bradshaw, T.
op. cit.
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Qu ery, Joy M.N. and Kuruvilla, T .C . Male and Female Adolescent Ach ievem ent and
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