1920s and 30s Boom and Bust

1920s and 30s Boom and BustChapter 17

The New EconomyWars are great for the economy (as long as you arent fighting at home) There was a brief recession as the war ended, but from 1923-29 there was widespread prosperity and expansion- due in part to the fact that we were the only major econ left standing after the war..Business glorified again- Calvin Coolidge said the man who builds a factory builds a temple. Economy was shifting- industry was becoming based in consumer goods (ready made clothes, appliances, electronics etc) Prices had dropped, wages had risen; Americans had to spend far less on necessities and had more to spend on luxuries. Industrial productivity rises 70%White Collar Workers Increasing- in 1900 18% were, by 1930 44% wereTransportationWe are entering the age of the automobile. Model T introduced in 1908, and prices went down as manufacturing became more efficient. By 1920 you could buy one for $400, or pay for it on credit. During the 1920s 23 million cars will be purchases- which will radically change American family and social life. Airplanes invented in 1903- and used in WWI (flying aces) Charles Lindberghs solo flight 1927 made him a national hero (with a dark side.) Amelia Earhart did it in 1931.

Electricity and RadioAlso hallmarks of the new consumer economy. By 1930 2/3 of homes had electricity (as opposed to 20% before the war) which could be used not only for light, but appliances like washing machines, refrigerators, vacuums etc, and had telephones. Again, prices for these products were dropping, so things that had been luxuries became commonplace

New Production Methods and Selling TechniquesHenry Fords great contribution wasnt really the carit was the assembly lineindustrial output grew by 40% in the 20s. He increased workers salaries from $2 a day to $5 a day if they would develop thrifty habits- and kept spies around to make sure no one was slacking on the job. Though the era of the trust is over- the war had encouraged consolidation of major industry, so there were often large corporations dominating particular markets. Chain Stores also became more common- like A &P grocery or Woolworths five and dime. CreditNew concept- the installment plan.During the 1800s the focus had been on thrift and saving, now consumers are encouraged to buy with no money down

AdvertisingAnother burgeoning industry. Buy something not because you NEED it, but because you WANT it and Youre worth it. Celebrity endorsements, (esp moviestars) catchy slogans, impossible promises.advertising is here to stay

RadioGuglielmo Marconi (Italian Immigrant) invented radio in 1890. 1st radio station 1920 (KDKA Pittsburgh) broadcast presidential election of Warren Harding. NBC founded 1926, CBS 1927- by 1929 there were 10 million radios in the USHuge with advertising- and allowed people to experience things as they happened. Helped create a national culture- could be used for propaganda, entertainment, politics, almost anything. Media quickly becomes enormously influential.

Farmers and the New EconomyMechanization meant that fewer people needed to be farmers, and migration to cities continued (majority of Americans became Urban)Farming also represented a ever decreasing proportion of the economy, only 12.7% in 1929. Not really able to take part in the new prosperity of the consumer income- a gap is widening that will become very problematic when everything falls apart in the depressionChanging American Lifestyles and Values1920s witness the birth of a widespread popular culture that crosses class lines, age brackets, and regional zones. It was a little wild and crazy (reflecting the idea that the old world order had been destroyed in the chaos of war) and from this point- every generation pushes the boundaries

Fads and FashionsThis is the Jazz Age (named by F. Scott Fitzgerald), with flappers, drinking (illegally) and smoking in public, dancing in shocking ways to shocking music (Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington and Ella Fitzgerald) all taking part in a New Morality that puts pleasure before all else, and opens up taboos. Professional Sports players and Movie Stars become the the new American Heroes. Silly competitions (flag sitting)

Womens FreedomBefore WWI Margaret Sanger published an article about how multiple pregnancies etc were bad for womens heath- and advocated govt distribution of birth control. (contraception had been against the law since 1873)Opened the 1st family planning clinic in 1916 (jailed) 1921 founded American Birth Control League (Planned Parenthood)Freuds theories about sexual repression causing emotional/mental problems (esp for women) were widely believed- therefore expressing greater physicality was healthy.The Womens Movement19th Amendment approved in Congress in 1919- ratified in 1920But while women had the vote, most Americans did not question that they should remain in their traditional subordinate roles. Many felt that women needed additional legal protections, to prevent long work hours, or force men to pay child support. Divorce laws liberalized in many states- with preference for child custody going to the mother 1 in 6 marriages ends in divorce in the 1920s. Equal Rights Amendment proposed in early 1920s by Alice Paul- proposed eliminating all legal distinctions based on sex. Failed (as it did in the 1970s too)

Conflicts Between Old and New ValuesObviously not everyone was going to jump on board with new ideasOne group strongly opposed were Evangelical (Born Again) who resented the secular nature of the age, and the pushing of boundaries away from biblical standardsFought hard when pushed to try and maintain traditional valuesScopes TrialIn 1925 a Biology teacher named John Scopes was arrested in Tennessee for teaching evolution (which many felt was representative of a moral breakdown in US Christian values- ACLU had asked for a teacher to challenge in order to get the case)Trial became a national sensation- and debate about freedom of thought. Clarence Darrow (pro) vs. William Jennings Bryan (against)- broadcast on the radio.Scopes found guilty, but case essentially disappeared. Evolution became more accepted in schools. (still controversial in some)

ProhibitionThe last of the great progressive reforms- 18th amendment passed in 1919, prohibiting the sale of alcohol. Unfortunately the age of reform had passed, and people werent really interested in restriction- they are interested in pushing boundaries- and this became one more thing to rebel againstVolstead Act: set criminal penalties for sale- and created Prohibition Bureau within the Treasury Department.At first it seems to go well- by 1921 alcohol consumptions drops to 1/3 of where it had been in 1914. But

Problems with ProhibitionIts hard to enforce a ban on something most people dont think of as a real crime, plus there are loopholes. Doctors can prescribe alcohol, and it wasnt a crime to manufacture or drink- just sell (bathtub gin)People still want alcohol, and were there is a demand, a supply will follow. Bootlegging became a huge business, bars become speakeasies.Organized crime really born in US during 1920s- gangsters like Al Capone/Lucky Luciano made $$ off illegal alcohol, and took care of competition however they needed to- over 500 gangster related murders in Chicago in the 1920s, and once prohibition ended, gangsters moved on to gambling, prostitution, drugs etcBu 1929 alcohol consumption was 70% of what it had been in 1914- and the Volstead Act was a national joke

Red ScareThe Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, and communist movements in general really freaked people out in the 20s (so much so they ignored the larger threat of Fascism as it rose) There were about 70,000 members of the US communist party in 1920. Transfer existing fears about new immigrants to this group.In 1919 there were a series of violent strikes and labor disputes (Seattle General Strike, Boston Police Strike, United Mineworkers Strike)- blamed on radicals (as the Haymarket riots had been) And a mysterious series of threats on the government ( 30 bombs sent through the mail- no one killed or seriously injured) and suddenly people see communists behind every tree- Witch hunt mentalityAttorney General Mitchell Palmer determines to stamp out the communist movement- Palmer Raids arrest 6000 people- 500 of whom (mostly Russian) are eventually deported.

Sacco and Vanzetti1921 Most publicized red case- and a representation of how fear throws reason out the window. Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti (Italian immigrants) arrested for the murder of a factory guard in Massachusetts. The main evidence against them was that the men were known to be anarchists, atheists and draft dodgers. Sentenced to death in 1927- probably innocent- case overturned in 1977

Nativism, Immigration and Racism Red scare led to calls to restrict immigration- esp from southern and eastern Europe who are thought to be polluting native values (good news is- we now like Germans and Irish whom original know nothings had protested)1921 Immigration Act: Congress limited immigration to 350,000 people a year, 1924 National Origins Act lowered to 164,000. It also set quota system saying that of those people allowed to come it could only represent 2% of that countrys immigrants in 1890 (heavily favoring western Europeans) Cut immigration in half- actually more people left the country in 1930 than arrived. No limitations on immigration from other parts of the Americas- significant numbers of Mexicans (they had a revolution in 1910- hot mess) and French Canadians arrive

Decline of the Labor MovementUnions became associated with socialism (which they are), communism and other radical elements. After all, workplaces are much safer now (after progressive reforms) what else do workers need? Bloody summer of 1919 had seen 4 million workers on strike- and cost them public support. Many states passed open shop laws forbidding unions from forcing membership, and businesses created blacklists of union agitators KKKRevived in the 20s (Birth of a Nation 1915- great recruiting film- and 1st blockbuster movie in history)- targeting not only African Americans, but immigrants, esp Communists, Catholics and Jews (you have to be a WASP to be KKK)In 1925 there are 5 million klansmen- who make no effort to hide activities saying that they are cleansing society (they are an extremist reaction to Jazz age shifts in morality)Eventually their violence (along with some other scandals like embezzlement) will discredit

The Lost GenerationMany people who had survived the war found themselves struggling to create a place in the world. Traditional values no longer seemed solid, emerging culture seemed shallow after all they had been through what had all that death and sacrifice been about? Quest to find meaning inspired great art, esp in literatureGreat writers: TS Elliot- the Waste Land (a collection of poems about pessimism of the modern world)F Scott Fitzgerald- The Great Gatsby (the glamour and cruelty of materialistic society)Sinclair Lewis Main Street (debunked small town hypocrisy)Ernest Hemingway- A Farewell to Arms (disillusionment of WWI) Ex-patriots- many young intellectuals left their homes to move to artist colonies in the west (Santa Fe) or Paris (Getrude Stein)

Harlem RenaissanceThe same feelings of confidence and despair that existed in society overall could be found in the African American community as well. Had fought, worked, and still were not being allowed to move forward in society.So they decide to stop apologizing and revel in their own culture I am Negro, and I am beautiful. Creators of Ragtime (Scott Joplin) and Jazz (Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington) Moved north from New Orleans- A generation of artists and writers made Harlem (Cotton Club) a center of poetry, music, and art that came from African inspiration (Chicago important as well)Langston Hughes- poet, voice of Harlem, disillusioned with society, but proud of culture. Marcus Garvey- Political leader. United Negro Improvement Movement- promoted return to Africa, which didnt happen often, but spoke of racial pride, reclaiming roots, and separation by choice as superior group.

The Politics of ProsperityPolitical Pendulum (I like alliteration) swings away from progressive idealism, especially as it is discredited by the struggles of prohibition, and towards a business 1st approach. Republicans control the white house and congress through the 20s, ushered in by Warren G Hardings promise of a return to normalcy. This is where Republicans, the party of reform under TR and Taft, become more of their modern conservative selves (the progressive element had bolted in 1912)Presidential Rankings: C-Span Survey, 2009Abraham LincolnFranklin RooseveltGeorge WashingtonTheodore RooseveltHarry TrumanJohn KennedyThomas JeffersonDwight EisenhowerWoodrow WilsonRonald ReaganLyndon JohnsonJames PolkAndrew JacksonJames Monroe15. Bill Clinton16. William McKinley17. John Adams18. George H.W. Bush19. John Quincy Adams20. James Madison21. Grover Cleveland22. Gerald Ford23. Ulysses Grant24. William Taft25. Jimmy Carter26. Calvin Coolidge27. Richard Nixon28. James Garfield29. Zachary Taylor30. Benjamin Harrison31. Martin Van Buren32. Chester Arthur33. Rutherford Hayes34. Herbert Hoover35. John Tyler36. George W. Bush37. Millard Fillmore38. Warren Harding39. William Harrison40. Franklin Pierce41. Andrew Johnson42. James Buchanan41The Harding YearsBelieved in cooperation between business and government- with govt main job being to help business make $$. Harding himself was one of our more ordinary presidents- and that was his appeal. The public was tired of big personalities and crusades and speechesHarding was just a normal guy. BUT he also did a little spoils system. And while some were good administrators, others were known as the ohio gang and maybe werent good choices for public trust, several were implicated and convicted of bribes etc.and therefore Harding ends up fairly far down the list of American leadersIn 1923 Harding died (natural causes- though possibly stress induced), and his VP Calvin Coolidge took over.

Teapot Dome and Arms ReductionThe biggest scandal came to light after Harding died. Secretary of the Interior (Albert Fall) arranged for the transfer of naval oil reserves in Teapot Dome Wyoming to his department, and leased the land to private contractors- accepting a bribe of $400,000 to do so. Secretary Fall ends up in prisonOne of the best achievements of the Harding presidency was the Washington Naval Arms conference in 1922. League of Nations and US worked together to slow naval buildup, and create a ratio of ships for 5 major powers (US, Eng, Jap, Fr, Italy) 5-5-3-1.7-1.7

Calvin CoolidgeCabinet scandals did not scare people away from the Rep party, Coolidge won re-election easily in 1924Nicknamed Silent Cal- he neither offered or achieved much changekept tariffs high, taxes low, and businesses running smoothly. He was a believer in trickle down economics: keep things good for the rich (esp low taxes), and their wealth will be invested in business which will flow down to lower levels of society. Deliberately rejected programs that would help ordinary citizens or local issues, for ex, to help after a devastating flood that hit Mississippi, or building dams in Tennessee- these are jobs for local governments and charities- not the federal system. Decided not to run in 1928 with the following speech I do not choose to run

Hoover in the White HouseRepublicans ran Herbert Hoover in 1928, who was well qualified to be president- had served with distinction as head of Food Board in WWI and Secretary of Commerce for 2 administrations. Radio speeches (national campaigning) significant for the 1st time promising Poverty will be banished from the nation, there will be a chicken in every potand the Democrats ran Al Smith- a Catholic (Nativist uproar) Even a couple southern states vote for Hoover!As Hoover entered the white house in March of 1929 the US had never been more optimistic, more sure that they were heading towards and endlessly bright future..

The Stock Market Crash: RootsThe Depression came from a variety of factors- a perfect storm of economic issues- and while the Crash was the explosion, it wasnt really the startOverproduction of Agriculture all through 20s- falling crops prices meant farmers were losing $$, and therefore less able to buy manufactured goods (so overproduction there too) Many industries were weak- stuck in 1880s (cotton textile, RR, coal- the backbones of the 2nd IR). Uneven distribution of income and taxation from trickle down. Unstable banking system with no federal protection. Weak International econ b/c of war and tariffsSpeculation in stocks- with buying On the Margin (10% down, which only works as long as value of stock goes up) Many people counseled caution- including HooverEasy Credit was too easy- people in debt

ResultsA Recession began in August of 1929, and then on October 29th 1929 (Black Tuesday) a selling frenzy began- which led to a dip, then a crash ($30 billion in paper profits lost in a month)market and economy fall until rock bottom of July 1932Major blame for govt comes not from letting crash happenbut for inactivity once it did.

Impact on Europe and JapanAs market had begun to stumble in early 1929, US had stopped making loans to Germany which is how they had been paying their reparations to France and England, which is how France and England had been repaying their war loans to the US (House of Cards)As banks struggle in Europe and US with international $$ issues- they stop making loans to businesses, who then lay off workers, who then cant buy goodsJapan also very hard it- heavily dependent on exports to US (they fix it by shifting to military production)Effect on the EconomyAt first it seemed impossiblethings had been so good for so long- which is one reason that there was such panic as the fall started (which helped the bottom drop out entirely)By 1932- 5,761 banks (22%) had failed, and 20,000 businesses were bankrupt, business investment had dropped by 95%. 13 million Americans (25% of working population) were unemployed nationally- as high as 50% in certain areas- unskilled labor hit hardest (unemployment had been 3.2% in 1929)American confidence turns to despairThe Great DepressionRemember- Adam Smith says this is perfectly normal, and laissez faire capitalism is the American way (at that point) so govt should just ride it out, and things will take care of themselves eventually (the Depression actually ends up discrediting and destroying this as a viable theory)The Dust Bowl (on the next page of your outline)Because things werent challenging enough. In 1930 nature had thrown the US a curveball with a period of severe drought that destroyed topsoil layer in OK. TX, KA and CO. Displaced over 1 million farmers okies who moved west. (Grapes of Wrath)

Hoovers PoliciesHoover is a Laissez Faire guy- and he genuinely thinks government Interference in the econ crisis will hurt American character he calls Rugged Individualism (determination overcomes adversity) Advocated Volunteerism urging all citizens to contribute to charities to ease suffering (he donated generously) and asking business to economize where possibleRaises the Tariff (Hawley Smoot Tariff 60%) to protect US Business, which actually made things worse as it restricted tradeSo as the economy continued to freefall.he did very little (though he did try, and paved way for new deal).which is what puts him near the bottom of the list..Pump PrimingHoover did feel that the govt could put a LITTLE $$ into the econ to jump start.Govt hired people for public works projects (New Deal will do the same thing- just on a massive scale), Created an Agricultural Marketing Act (Farm Co-ops) and The Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to lend $500m to banks, who were then supposed to lend the $$ to start new businesses. None of these programs were really successful, Hoover wasnt willing to create govt debt, so didnt spend enough for programs to be effective. And administered foolishly too- govt would buy farm surplus, and throw it away rather than give handouts, or by cutting Bonuses to be paid to WWI veterans, 14,000 of whom then marched on DC in a Bonus Army and occupied the capital- and were driven out by the ArmyElection of 1932People are angry, and even though the Crash wasnt Hoovers fault- the Depression seemed to be. And it happened to be the rock bottom of the depression.Democrats nominated Franklin Roosevelt- Gov of NY (TRs 5th cousin, there are lots of Roosevelts) Campaigned aggressively, and personally, and like his cousin, it was his personality, vision, and Optimism in the face of despair (the only thing we have to fear is fear itself) that would convince the people he should be president- won by a landslide, and is elected 3 more times

Presidential Rankings: C-Span Survey, 2009Abraham LincolnFranklin RooseveltGeorge WashingtonTheodore RooseveltHarry TrumanJohn KennedyThomas JeffersonDwight EisenhowerWoodrow WilsonRonald ReaganLyndon JohnsonJames PolkAndrew JacksonJames Monroe15. Bill Clinton16. William McKinley17. John Adams18. George H.W. Bush19. John Quincy Adams20. James Madison21. Grover Cleveland22. Gerald Ford23. Ulysses Grant24. William Taft25. Jimmy Carter26. Calvin Coolidge27. Richard Nixon28. James Garfield29. Zachary Taylor30. Benjamin Harrison31. Martin Van Buren32. Chester Arthur33. Rutherford Hayes34. Herbert Hoover35. John Tyler36. George W. Bush37. Millard Fillmore38. Warren Harding39. William Harrison40. Franklin Pierce41. Andrew Johnson42. James Buchanan59The New DealFDRs plan to remake the American Economy. A break with straight capitalism- FDR follows the philosophy of John Maynard Keynes, who says that the best way to solve econ problems is for the govt to spend big $$, investing in the nation at a time when private business can or will not. To pay for programs, taxes go up, and so does the deficit. Change is scary, and FDR was hated and loved by large segments of the population. Gave weekly addresses- Fireside Chats on the radio where he would explain policy, and bolster confidence. Promises Americans the 3 Rs Relief, Recovery, and Reform

First 100 DaysMarch- June 1933. Determined to hit the ground running. Called congress for a special session. Gathered a Brain Trust of advisors and experts in addition to the Cabinet (Dollar a Year Men) Looking for out of the box solutions- and planned to spend in ways the govt had never dreamed, not just jobs, but with social welfare and safety net programs until govt became the primary force in the economy. Did many by executive order so he did not need approval from congress. Became an important measure of a presidents effectiveness

Programs (See Chart p 488)Banking: declared a Bank Holiday- closing every bank in the country so Congress could create a new regulatory system. Emergency Banking Act: govt will bail out failing banks. Glass- Steagall Act: Said banks could not buy/sell stock. Created FDIC to protect peoples $$ (up to $5000). Took US off gold standard to get more $$ circulatingAgriculture: Agriculture Adjustment Act: subsidies and Farm Credit Act: prevent forclosures Unemployment: Civilian Conservation Corps (young men working in national parks) National Industrial Recovery Act/National Recovery Administration: promote econ planning with govt planningTennessee Valley Authority/Rural Electrification Act: Build dams to control flooding and create hydroelectric power for depressed areas (esp in South)And he keeps a campaign promise legalizing the sale of Beer and Wine. The 21st amendment will get rid of prohibition entirely later in 1933

More ProgramsCivil Works Administration (CWA) added to the PWA of Hoover to expand public construction projectsSecurities and Exchange Commission (SEC) created to regulate the stock marketFederal Housing Administration (FHA) provide low cost housing (projects) and loans to buy houses for low income families

Opposition to the New DealAs the economy turned the corner, some people began to question the policy of extreme govt action- esp the higher taxes etc..Some felt that govt interference was damaging liberty, others that New Deal programs favored certain groupsStill others didnt feel the New Deal went far enough- like Huey Long, the socialist governor of Louisiana whose Share Our Wealth program advocated a govt salary of $2000 per year to every family in US- gotten by taxing incomes over $1m at 90%

Supreme Court DecisionsOften VERY critical of New Deal- it seemed FDR was rewriting the powers of the executive branch, and giving it a LOT of powerDeclared National Industrial Recovery (Schechter v. US) Act and Agricultural Adjustment Act (US v. Butler) unconstitutional- which shut down two major facets of New Deal policyWhen FDR is re-elected in 1936 he will take it as a mandate to end obstacles of the court.

2nd New DealThe 100 days programs had been about Recovery- (with some Reform) beginning in 1935 FDR created new programs for Relief: designed to improve the lives of working people- saying that a primary function of govt was to ensure a safety net standard of living below which no American would be allowed to fall. Public Works Administration (PWA) and Works Progress Administration (WPA)Hired unemployed (of all ages CCC had been young men) for building projects: Roads, bridges, water plants etc And artistic endeavors. Employed 8.5 million people on 1.7 million projects at cost of $11BPainters, musicians, writers and actors hired to decorate public projects (Guardians of Transportation!) and create work to lift the spirits of the American People

Resettlement AdministrationBought worn out land from farmers and sharecroppers (esp cotton land and areas effected by dustbowl) and helped them buy farms in new areas with low interest loans, leased equipment and adviseSocial Security ActProbably most famous part of New Deal- represents a radical shift in thinking. Old Age Insurance: Workers and business would pay in during their careers- and then draw out when they retired. Actually fairly conservative as it was self funded rather than government funded. Also created unemployment benefits, and funds for widows/children if a worker was killed on the job Wagner ActGuaranteed Unions the right to organize and bargain collectively. Outlawed blacklisting and other techniques to prevent unionization. National Labor Relations Board created for arbitration and mediation in Labor disputesThe Wealth and Tax ActIncreased income tax rates for wealthy. Incomes over $1m taxed at 75%, Inheritance taxes set at 50%. The goal was to limit the power of the superwealthy, and ensure more equitable distribution without resorting to the extremes of Huey Longs schemes. Election of 1936 and the New Deal CoalitionFDR planned 2nd New Deal with elections in mind (Republicans condemned waste of too much govt spending)New Deal Coalition: different groups of voters came together to support FDRs programs- urban workers/labor unions, the white south, blacks, immigrants (esp Jews, Catholics and Eastern Europeans) and intellectuals those disposed by the business climate of the 20s and hurting from the crash.

Court PackingFDR saw their viewpoint as contrary to the will of the people and their elected representatives, and began to think how to create a shiftAsked Congress for legislation which would reorganize the court by allowing the president to add a new justice for every justice over 70 who did not wish to retire(these were the ones declaring New Deal programs unconstitutional)- adding up to a maximum of 15 justices instead of 9.The legislation was overwhelming defeated, but the message, (which was the real plan) was received by the court several justices DID retire- and others started backing New Deal legislation. The stitch in time that saved Nine

Labor and the New DealUnions had made gains during the progressive era, and then lost ground during the 20s. Roosevelt supported them (they became a cornerstone of the New Deal Coalition) and they became an important political force. But in 1935 John Lewis resigned as VP of the AFL to help found the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) to try to rekindle the idea of industry wide unions- specifically in the automobile, steel, and textile industries. CIO brought together millions of workers including women and blacks. Used new techniques like the sit down strike (occupy a factory rather than picket outside) Some strikes successful: United Auto Workers at General Motors, others not Republic Steel plant in Chicago.Fair Labor Standards Act 1938: created a federal minimum wage (40 c an hour), a Maximum 40 hours workweek with time and half for overtime, and outlawed child labor under 16Women and the New DealFDR had the 1st female cabinet member, (Frances Perkins, Secretary of Labor) the 1st female ambassador and more female judges than had ever been appointed. His wife, Eleanor, transformed the role of First Lady to be a true political partner rather than simply white house hostess. Still, women as a whole struggled during the depression, at work and at home. Many businesses laid women off so they could hire more men- the idea being still engrained that it was the mans job to support the family. Blacks and the New DealNow that there are significantly larger numbers of African Americans in the North (where their voting rights are less likely to be restricted) Blacks become a political force for the 1st time since reconstruction. Blacks had been loyal republicans.until the New DealDiscrimination meant African Americans had higher than average unemployment rates at the start of the Depression- so they New Deal provided desperately needed relief. But FDR took no specific steps to create civil rights legislation, and turned a blind eye when states segregated programs etc. (Nor did he actively back an anti-lynching law being lobbied by the NAACP)Eleanor far more active in civil rights and fighting discrimination, speaking publically, and encouraging the appointment of an African American as the head of the National Youth AdministrationEnd of the New DealNew Deal has been debated by many historians. Did it save the US economy, or do more damage in the long run (by encouraging deficit spending etc which would create all new problems later)The power of the presidency grew enormously- the 1930s were the decade of charismatic leadership (as the 20s had been of laissez faire) but again, there are arguments about whether that is a good thing or a bad thing in the end.