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The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the

expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country

territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this publication

and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not comm

the Organization.

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission

of UNESCO.

Any communication concerning this publication may be addressed to:

Human Security, Democracy and Philosophy Section

Social and Human Sciences Sector

UNESCO1, rue Miollis

75732 Paris Cedex 15

France

Tel: +33 1 45 68 45 52

Fax: +33 1 45 68 57 29

E-mail: m.goucha@unesco.org; philosophy&human-sciences@unesco.org

UNESCO Office in Rabat

35, Av. du 16 novembre

1777 RabatMorocco

Tel. +212 (0)537 67 03 72/74

Fax: +212 (0)537 67 03 75

E-mail: s.saad-zoy@unesco.org

Published by the United Nations Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Organization

7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France

UNESCO, 2009

All rights reserved

Printed in France

(SHS/PH/2009/PI/ARB)

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mailto:goucha@unesco.orgmailto:sciences@unesco.orgmailto:zoy@unesco.orgmailto:zoy@unesco.orgmailto:sciences@unesco.orgmailto:goucha@unesco.org

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Teaching philosophy

in the Arab region

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Background

On 11 and 12 May 2009 in Tunis, Tunisia hosted the High-Level Regional Meeting on theTeaching of Philosophy in the Arab Region, co-organized by the Ministry of Education andTraining of Tunisia, the Tunisian National Commission for Education, Science and Culture, the

National Centre for Pedagogical Innovation and Education Research (CNIPRE) and the United

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

This meeting was inaugurated by H.E. Mr Hatem Ben Salem, Minister of Education and Training o

Tunisia. It gathered some forty participants, among whom the representatives of twelve countries from

the region: Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, the Palestinian

Territories, Sudan and the Syrian Arab Republic. The meeting was also attended by philosophers

philosophy inspectors and teachers in primary, secondary and higher education, as well as experts and

members of philosophy associations.

This publication was elaborated by UNESCOs Secretariat on the basis of a study published in 2007

under the title Philosophy, a School of Freedom Teaching Philosophy and Learning to Philosophize

Status and Prospects. The debates and discussions that took place during the Tunis meeting allowed

UNESCO to update and complete the data initially collected for the 2007 Study. A series o

recommendations, elaborated and validated by the meeting participants, are addressed to Membe

States, to National Commissions for UNESCO, to philosophers, to philosophy teachers and to UNESCO

and are included in the present publication, from page 48 to page 50.

The Social and Human Sciences Sector of UNESCO and the UNESCO Office in Rabat would like to

express their deepest gratitude to:

The Tunisian authorities and their partners for their steadfast support and their warm hospitality;

The representatives of the participating Arab countries for their engagement and active participation;

The philosophers, experts and representatives of philosophy associations and institutions for thei

substantial contribution to the debates.

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Table of contents

Foreword.....................................................................................................page 06

Preface........................................................................................................page 08

Teaching Philosophy at Pre-School and Primary Levels ............................page 10

Teaching Philosophy at Secondary Level ...................................................page 20

Teaching Philosophy in Higher Education...................................................page 32

Recommendations for the Teaching of Philosophyin the Arab Region ......................................................................................page 46

Annexes

Address by H.E. Mr Hatem Ben Salem,Minister of Education and Training of Tunisia .............................................page 54

List of Participants in the High-Level Regional Meeting on the Teachingof Philosophy in the Arab Region, Tunis, Tunisia, 11-12 May 2009 ............page 56

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Foreword

The country in which the father of sociology and philosophy of history, Ibn Khaldun was born, the

country where Saint Augustine, that lover of wisdom, studied and then taught for a long time

can only be delighted to welcome this high-level regional conference dedicated to the teaching o

philosophy. I should like to express my warmest thanks to UNESCO for choosing Tunisia as the

host country for this event.

It is a matter of the utmost importance today to discuss the teaching of philosophy.

Some people consider that our world is one of uncertainty, of unstable values and a loss of bearings, to

say nothing of the multifarious threats hanging over humanity and life on Earth.

What can philosophy achieve in the face of these threats?

Our answer to that question depends on our capacity to examine what is understood by the word

philosophy.

If it is confined to philosophy as a secondary-school subject or a university specialization, then it would

be considered only from a pedagogical standpoint, which, however important it may be, cannot meet ou

requirements concerning the relationship of philosophy to everyday life and its place in society outside

the classroom.

A more judicious approach would be to start with the original meaning of philosophy, dating back to

Pythagoras, who defined it as the love of wisdom. All philosophers have since understood it thus. A

have suggested that humanity follows a line of conduct, whether Stoic, Sceptic, Epicurean or Dionysian

for example ways of thinking that are ways of being. Socrates was the first to establish philosophy a

the heart of society, engaging his contemporaries in a dialogue on the issue the essential issue o

the sort of Man they wanted to be. His disciple Plato aimed to bring Man out of the cave so that he migh

take himself in hand and change his way of life. The project of the Arab philosopher Al-Farabi in outlining

his Ideal City and its wise inhabitants was hardly different. Here we must call to mind Averroes, the

Aristotelian who sought to unite reason with revealed Law.

That aside, we now return to the matter under consideration, the teaching of philosophy.

Experts unanimously agree that the difficulty in all learning endeavours is that of meaning. Learning is

especially relevant and effective if it is meaningful to the learners, in other words, if they grasp its

relationship to their own lives.

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This raises the following question: Why teach philosophy? To my mind, any philosophy is built around

what it rejects. So is education. Their common enemy is stupidity, the daughter of ignorance.

Drawing on this strong conviction, we have given pride of place to philosophy in our schools, so that it

will enlighten the minds and sharpen the critical faculties of our young people.

H.E. Mr Hatem Ben SalemMinister of Education and Training of Tunisia

Tunis, Tunisia, May 2009

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Preface

Creating UNESCO was in itself a philosophical undertaking.

Let us look at the history of our Organization. It witnesses to the fact that philosophy has alwaysbeen at the heart of UNESCOs action. So it is that, since UNESCO was founded, this organicbond has manifested itself in the existence of a programme devoted to philosophy and to the

promotion of its teaching. Philosophy is understood here as working for peace, which is UNESCO

primary and fundamental mission. Indeed, building lasting peace requires thoroughgoing and eve

renewed reflection on the very foundations of the action to be undertaken, which in turn call upon

most creative and diverse philosophical convictions.

The teaching of philosophy is undeniably one of the keystones of a quality education for all. It contributesto open the mind and to build critical reflection and independent thinking, which constitute a defence

against all forms of manipulation, obscurantism and exclusion.

The Memorandum on the philosophy programme of UNESCO announced as early as 1946 that, [i]t is

not enough to fight against illiteracy. It is still necessary to know what one is going to have people read

This reflection, philosophically significant in its own right, conveys a powerful and relevant message tha

applies, and will continue to apply, to todays and tomorrows educational dynamic.

Since 2005, UNESCOs Member States have been intent upon strengthening the Organizations

philosophy programme through, on the one hand, the adoption by the Executive Board of a three-faceted

Intersectoral Strategy on Philosophy comprising philosophical dialogue facing world problems, theteaching of philosophy, and the promotion of philosophical thought and research; and on the other hand

the proclamation by UNESCOs General Conference of a World Philosophy Day and the inclusion of a

reminder of the inherent bond between philosophical reflection and analysis and the building of peace

in the Organizations Medium-Term Strategy for 2008-2013.

Philosophy, a School of Freedom, the study on the state of the art of the teaching of philosophy in theworld, published by UNESCO in 2007, represents a milestone in the implementation of the Intersectora

Strategy on Philosophy. Based on the results of a worldwide qualitative and quantitative survey

addressed to Ministries of Education, National Commissions for UNESCO, philosophers, researchers

experts, teachers, educationalists, UNESCO Chairs in Philosophy and any other UNESCO privileged

partner in the field, this unprecedented work describes what exists, but also, and especially, deals withkey questions and, as much as possible, provides proposals, innovative ideas and orientations.

UNESCOs ambition is now to go one step further by involving the largest number of concerned and

committed Member States in providing durable support for philosophy within the educational system, both

formal and informal. Within this framework, high-level regional meetings on the teaching of philosophy

were organized in Tunis, Tunisia, in May 2009, for the Arab region; in Manila, Philippines, in May 2009

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for Asia and the Pacific; in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, in June 2009, for Latin America and the

Caribbean; in Bamako, Mali, in September 2009, for African Francophone countries; and in Port-Louis,

Republic of Mauritius, in September 2009, for African Anglophone countries. The principal objective of

these high-level encounters was to engage in concerted action with UNESCOs Member States so as

to accompany them in the formulation of policies favouring the teaching of philosophy.

To this end, Member States have been invited to perform a diagnosis that is as thorough as possible of

the crucial questions concerning the teaching of philosophy at national level, as well as suggestions for

action that would deserve to be implemented.

By means of this publication, UNESCO wants to contribute to deepening the on-going debate by putting

forward a certain number of facts, practices having proven their worth and live questions raised by the

teaching of philosophy, notably in the debates and discussions that took place in the Tunis meeting in

May 2009. We are convinced that combining the preliminary diagnoses performed at national level and

UNESCOs specific contribution during each of the regional meetings will lead to a promising synergy.

The ultimate goal will be to facilitate the establishment of national action plans, especially through

strengthened regional cooperation.

We are most delighted to see the joint efforts undertaken by UNESCO and its Member States in favour

of the teaching of philosophy.

Moufida Goucha

Chief of the Human Security,

Democracy and Philosophy

Section (UNESCO)

Pierre SanAssistant-Director General for

Social and Human Sciences

(UNESCO)

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Teachingphilosophy at

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pre-school

and primarylevels

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Quality basic education is education that does not perceive schools as places for the mere

transmission and assimilation of knowledge, but as places for questioning and as the best time

to learn to learn.1 The 1996 report to UNESCO by the International Commission on Education fo

the Twenty-first Century, presided by Jacques Delors, stated that it is at the stage of basic

education (which particularly includes pre-school and primary school teaching) that attitudes

towards learning are forged that last all throughout ones life.2 In the Arab region, alongside the

outstanding literacy movement which resulted in many children learning to read and write, it is

quality basic education that will be the strength of a youth confronted by the major challenges the

region is to take on.

For several years, Philosophy for Children,3 or more broadly the idea of introducing Philosophy in

Schools4 and of developing philosophical inquiry, has inspired growing curiosity and enthusiasm

throughout the world since it fills a major gap in education today. Indeed, the importance of stimulating

reflection and questioning at the youngest age, and of doing so within the framework of basic quality

education, is increasingly acknowledged. Even though learning to philosophize at pre-school and primary

levels has not yet been developed in the Arab region, this region can contribute to enriching this innovative

approach, which is undergoing constant experimentation.

Learning to philosophize in schools for a quality basic education

The idea of learning to philosophize in schools assumes that a children only fully blossom in school when

encouraged to take active, deliberate steps to seek to respond to the questions about existence tha

they raise at a very early age. Children are actually perceived as being spontaneously philosophers by

virtue of their extensive, radical existential questioning. The idea of learning to philosophize in schools

has given rise to very diverse experiments throughout the world in order to attempt to take this

philosophical uniqueness of children into account.

So it is that certain countries make the most of opportunities for discussion and debate about philosophica

themes in the classroom and others are rethinking the teacher/pupil relationship in a way that appeals

to the pupils intellectual curiosity. According to recent research and available information, including

responses to the UNESCO Questionnaire,5 no initiative seems to exist in the field of philosophy fo

children. The region seems to be a blind spot as far as philosophy for children is concerned, which is an

issue that needs to be looked into. Yet, many of the essential questions in philosophy were heavily

debated by Arab philosophers of the Middle Ages, and this debate continues today, in particula

concerning the relationship between faith and reason critical to the design of education systems and

the practice of teaching with children. These debates take on board the matter of the social status of

children and their status within the school system, as well as the matter of schools role in their education

the role of reason in early learning and the function of philosophy within children development.

1 Learning: The Treasure Within, Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century,

Paris, 1996, p. 131.2 Ibid., p. 125.3 This term was first coined by Matthew Lipman. See in this publication, Practices that are tried and true, p. 16.4 Term adopted in Australia about 10 years ago.5 UNESCO online Questionnaire on the state of the art of philosophy teaching, whose results are published in the UNESCO Study

Philosophy, a School of Freedom, Paris, UNESCO Publishing, 2007. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001541/154173E.pdf

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001541/154173E.pdfhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001541/154173E.pdf

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These measures, scattered as they are, are contributing in their way to the reflection of education experts,

who stress that confrontation, through dialogue and exchanging arguments, is one of the tools necessary

to education in the 21st century. [] More than ever, the essential role of education seems to be to confer

upon all human beings the freedom of thought, judgment, feeling and imagination that they need to make

their talents blossom and also retain as much mastery of their destiny as possible.6

UNESCO makes a resolute commitment to encourage learning to philosophize inschools

Teaching philosophy for children and learning to philosophize had already been the object of a UNESCO

study in 1998,7 which had stressed that it was possible, and even necessary, to present philosophical

principles in simple language accessible to young children. Reflection upon this matter went still further

in UNESCOs 2007 publication, Philosophy, a School of Freedom, which takes into account discussions

currently underway on the subject of learning to philosophize in schools and formulates the principal live

questions which, in themselves, constitute suggestions for reflection that altogether shed light on the

forms of education we want for our children. What is at stake with learning to philosophize in schools

concerns the very meaning we wish to give to tomorrows schools, which will have to be places that

foster independent thought, reflective citizenship and the blossoming of the child. If education in general

must provide children with the maps of a complex world in a perpetual state of agitation, philosophy can

probably be the compass enabling one to navigate in that world.8

The impact of philosophy on children may not be immediately appreciated, but its impact on tomorrows

adults could be so considerable as to make us feel astonished at having refused or marginalised

philosophy for children up until now.

Live questionsIs educating children in philosophy possible, is it desirable?

Ethical and psychological questions often come up when philosophy for children or learning to

philosophize in schools is brought up.

Are children ready to reflect at such a young age?

During the different stages of their psychological development, children naturally raise questions of a

philosophical nature. And since they ask questions, at times anxiously so, it is preferable to accompany

them in their questioning and to reassure them with regard to the different questions about existence.

There is also the assumption upon which philosophy for children is based that exhorts us to demystify

childhood and look at reality, since many children experience very difficult situations, regardless of their

social milieu or the state of development of their country. To confront this situation, one can resort to

6 Learning: The Treasure Within, op.cit., pp. 101-1037 Philosophy for Children, Meeting of Experts, Report, Paris, UNESCO, 26-27 March 1998.8 Learning: The Treasure Within, op.cit., p. 91.

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learning to philosophize in which rational thinking enables one to understand an existential experience

and acquire distance with respect to the emotions felt. This work is all the more operative within the

context of the classroom since it is collective. In fact, it enables each and every person to experience

being drawn out of their existential solitude and become aware that their questions are those of each and

every person, which is reassuring and produces feelings of participating in a shared human condition

helping one grow in community.

Box 1 What is at stake with the learning to philosophize in schools

1) Thinking for oneself

Being a matter of existential, ethical, aesthetic questions, thinking for oneself presupposes a reflective

process that formulates problems, conceptualizes and argues rationally. Beginning to learn this as

early as possible means guaranteeing awakening enlightened reflection on the human condition in

children.

2) Educating for reflective citizenshipLearning to think for oneself develops freedom of judgment in future citizens, protecting them from

ideological indoctrination and persuasive advertising. Teaching philosophizing through the debating of

ideas encourages confronting others with reason while aiming for the truth, an ethical and intellectual

requirement of genuine democratic debate.

3) Helping the childs development

Learning how to reflect is important for the construction of the personality of children and adolescents.

It is an opportunity for them to experience that they are thinking beings, which strengthens their self-

esteem and helps them grow in humanity by experiencing disagreement in discussion in peaceful

coexistence. This, in turn, raises the threshold of tolerance with respect to others and prevents violence.4) Facilitating the mastery of language and speech

Verbalizing in order to think develops cognitivo- and socio-linguistic capabilities. By working on the

development of their thought, children work on the need for precision in language.

5) Conceptualizing the philosophizing

Practicing reflection with children calls for a redefinition of philosophizing, for a conceptualization of its

beginnings, its nature and the conditions for it.

6) Developing a theory of teaching philosophy adapted to children and adolescents

Theories about teachingphilosophyarealso brought into question. One cannotteachphilosophy to children

in big lecture halls, with major works or essay writing. But, one can theorize about their learning to reflect on

their relationship to the world, to others and to themselves, by means adapted to their age group.

Michel Tozzi,

Professor Emeritus in Education Sciences,

University of Montpellier 3, France

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What about their lack of scientific knowledge?

There is also the question of knowing whether children can engage in reflection without having the

necessary scientific knowledge. The objection that is often made to philosophy for children is based on

the argument that one philosophizes as an after effect of constituted knowledge, in order to go back to

the knowledge one has and understand the process in which it was built up. According to that paradigm,

philosophy is placed at the end of the course of study.

This argument displays contempt for the scientific processes integrated as early as primary school by

children, upon which they may reflect with the help of the teacher, especially when the methods are

active, by working on the process and not only on scientific findings to be learned and memorized. Indeed,

answering philosophically significant questions for children to which science cannot respond, such as

ethical questions, keeps them from thinking for themselves. These questions are ones to which the

children themselves will have to find their own answers in the course of their lives and by evolving in their

own reflection. So, although one must not answer for them prematurely, one must accompany them as

they go along in order not to leave them defenceless. This is the role of teachers at school supporting

them in this searching, by proposing situations to them in which they are going to develop tools forthinking that will enable them to understand their relationship to the world, to others and to themselves,

and to orient themselves in these terms.

A matter of approach and pedagogy

Within the framework of philosophy for children, it is appropriate to speak more about learning to

philosophize, or to develop philosophical inquiry, than merely about teaching philosophy. The traditional

model of teaching philosophy is based on what is called the transmission model.As for the way in which

learning to philosophize in schools is practiced, this involves a new pedagogical approach, that of a

teaching-learning process that places the pupil at the heart of the learning dynamic.

Indeed, since it is a matter of young children, who naturally cannot understand a purely theoretical course,

learning to philosophize in schools fits in with a paradigm that is more problem-oriented and more focused

on a logic of learning. It is thus the cultivation of questioning and not of answering that is aimed at in this

case. Most of those practicing this method support the idea of leaving the questions open, in order to keep

up the exploration of possible solutions.

How, therefore, does one transmit philosophical not-knowing if not by continuing to circulate it as a

desire?That implies two fundamental attributes on the part of the teacher: on the one hand, modesty with

respect to possessing truth; on the other hand, the requirement regarding the desire for truth, where the

status of the discussability of the remarks allows for a cooperative, shared and non-dogmatic quest forknowledge.

The pupils are therefore principally placed in the foreground in their role of actors rather than recipients.

In this case, the process of learning to philosophize in schools is principally based on the discussional

approach, in contrast to the institutionalized approach where the expository aspect for the most part

prevails (it is the case at secondary and university levels). Of course, discussion as the way to learn to

philosophize can generate some reservations on the part of advocates of traditional teaching, for whom

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classroom discussion would be a superficial pedagogical method, while the teachers course would sti

remain the norm.

However, discussion is understood here as being an interactive process within a group of oral exchanges

surrounding a specific subject with the teacher having intellectual responsibility. Many dimensions of this

discussion may be philosophically oriented, knowlingly the very nature of the subject dealt with oftenformulated as questions, and the manner in which students are going to infuse this questioning through

a rational and not just emotional approach. Besides, discussion is only one of the possible forms o

learning, which does not exclude written work or traditional courses.

More generally, the pedagogical approach underlying learning to philosophize in schools requires the

necessary conditions for bringing philosophical reasoning by and for children into play. Social psychology

and the sciences of education often have recourse to the idea of the Pygmalion effect. Teachers

confident about the success of what they are doing, will create the material conditions necessary fo

practicing philosophy, and pupils, finding that teachers have faith in their abilities, will see their self

confidence and their personal self-esteem grow.

A matter of teacher training

Another important aspect requiring adapted action concerns the low level of philosophical training of primary

school teachers. In fact, non-institutional training is left to volunteers and is often provided in a private

context, or even by associations. Finding teachers without actual philosophical training, or who have only

studied philosophy at secondary level, the first reaction would consist in proposing to provide them with

classic academic training. This teaching would have its limits, however, because having knowledge is no

enough to train skills. It is entirely a matter of having the teachers learn to philosophize, and not only learn

philosophy, for them to awaken childrens minds to reflective thinking. It is the whole question of a theory

of learning to philosophize that is raised for teachers, as well as for the children themselves.

The appearance of a new subject in primary school should therefore lead the institution to introduce into

the educational system both in initial and in-service training a consistent education of teachers in

specific required practices in line with the objectives pursued by the programmes.

Practices that are tried and true

Ever since its founding by Matthew Lipman in 1974, the Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy

for Children (IAPC), a pioneering institution as concerns Philosophy for Children, has given rise to

several methods and practices throughout the world. Today, one finds a variety of models for teaching

children to philosophize at pre-school and primary levels.

The Lipman method

This method is recognized as being the one that has most influenced the development of Philosophy fo

Children in the world. When it was created, the Lipman programme was the only systematic philosophy

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programme for the 6-16 age group. It was therefore a model for many other countries, which translated

and adapted it.

In contrast to the Cartesian tradition, for which childhood is the place and time of prejudice and error, Lipman

hypothesized that children are capable of thinking on their own once a method adapted to their needs is

employed. Themethod that he developedincludesinstruction material that is consistent, useful to all teacherswho have not received philosophical training. Lipman wrote seven novels (see Box 2) taking into account

the major philosophical questions and the age of the children and covering the entire course of study from

nursery school to the end of secondary education. Each of the novels is accompanied by a teachersmanual,

which consolidates what is learned in the discussions and supports what the pupils and teacher do with

diversified exercises which are suggestions, and not obligations, leaving the teacher completely free to use

initiative. This method counts at least three well-established strong points: first, cultivating questioning in the

schoolroom by relying on the questions of the children themselves; second, proposing written supporting

material that is narrative, in order to facilitate the childrens identification with the characters and situations,

and has highly anthropological content; third, setting up a place in the classroom organized for speaking and

exchanging ideas about human problems, where the speaking is democratically shared, but with a criticalrequirement for which the duty of argumentation is the counterpart of the right to express oneself.

Michel Tozzis democratic-philosophical method

This method pursues goals close to those pursued by Lipman, but proposes a structured democratic

mechanism, assigning specific functions among the pupils, and philosophically oriented intellectual

requirements (problem-solving, conceptualization and argumentation). Practice is enriched by

coordinating debates about the interpretation of a text (literature for young people) and philosophically

oriented discussion, as well as by the use of myths as a basis for reflection.

Even if the themes of the discussions vary, the mechanisms remain practically the same: the questionsthat are the object of the reflections have come from the life of the classroom. The children form a circle.

The mechanism is set up through the assigning of various different functions: the chairperson oversees

the exchanges by recalling the rules of functioning; the reformulators explain in their way what they have

understood about what has just been said; the synthesizersums up the progress of the exchanges; the

scribe notes the important ideas he has isolated on the blackboard; the discussants participate in the

exchanges by giving their opinion; the observers have chosen not to participate in the discussion, in

order to help a schoolmate make progress in their speaking; the person running the group (generally the

teacher) endeavours to maintain the intellectual requirements of philosophizing. Organized in this way,

this discussion among peers initiates the children both to reflecting philosophically and to practicing living

together as citizens.

Oscar Brenifiers Socratic method

This method harks back to Socratic maieutics, with significant guidance of the group by the teacher with

a view to progressive and logical reflection on the basis of questions, reformulations and objections. This

method has generated a substantial amount of internationally published teaching material.

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It is the teacher who guides the class with intellectual requirements. Faced with a question, a pup

proposes an idea that others must reformulate in order to understand whether they have understood i

well. If not, reformulations continue until the idea is understood by everyone. Then, the speaker asks i

anyone disagrees with this idea and why. Pupils reformulate the objection until everyone understands it

The teacher then asks the group to respond to this objection, etc. The progress of the groups ideas can

be followed on the blackboard in accordance with a methodical, rigorous process.

Jacques Levines method

The objective of this method is to foster the development of the childrens personality by anchoring it intheir condition as thinking beings, by having them experience their ability to comment on a fundamenta

question that people, including themselves, face. As early as 1996, Jacques Levine formulated a set o

practical and research guidelines based on his experience as a developmental psychologist and

psychoanalyst. This approach is put into practice as follows.

Box 2 The teaching material for the Lipman method

Whether it is a matter of an innovation to be introduced or to be strengthened, of experimentation to

begin, or in progress, or yet the institutionalization of this type of practice, learning to philosophize in

primary school can be greatly facilitated with the help of teaching material that already exists or is yet

to be created. Several options are possible after the fashion of what many countries have been doing,namely:

1 - Translating Lipmans novels into the language of the country, as well and as the manuals he

designed for teachers, with many complementary proposals for discussion between and with students;

2 - Adapting the content of Lipmans novels to the local culture, by transforming certain episodes in a

way that makes them more meaningful for the culture, traditions and context of the country concerned;

3 - Writing new Lipman-style novels, conceived in terms of the same objectives for the same process,

but rooted in the specific culture of the country concerned;

4 - Producing new supporting material on the basis of Lipmans material, such as albums with

pictures, comic books, or other audio-visual materials.

Lipmans seven novels

Elfie, 3 volumes, 1988 Kio and Gus, 1986

Pixie, 1981 Mark, 1980

Harry Stottlemeiers Discovery, 1974 and 1980 Suki, 1978

Lisa, 1976.Adapted from the publication Philosophy, a School of Freedom,

Paris, UNESCO Publishing, 2007, p. 23

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First, the teacher tosses out a subject or a question of interest to mankind and to all children (for example,

growing up), expressing his/her interest in finding out the childrens opinion. The teacher then voluntarily

remains silent.

Second, children are asked to express their opinions about this topic for about ten minutes. They thus

become the author of their own thought, no longer expecting a right answer from the teacher. The sessionis recorded.

Third, in the presence of their peers, the group listens to the tape for ten more minutes, and children can

interrupt whenever they want to express themselves again. By means of this exercise, the conditions of

psychological possibilities of constructing autonomous thinking are worked out so as to allow the

individual to become aware that he/she is thinking in connection with others, but remains nevertheless

distinct from them. Children undergo a community experience that binds them together in a common

culture of shared oral expression. This confers on each of them a feeling of being both serious and

pacified.

Children philosophize

UNESCO, Philosophy,

a School of Freedom,

Paris, UNESCO

Publishing, p.31

Wondering-Questioning

Thinking-Talking

Valuing-Acting

GoalsInput

PhilosophicalProcess

Output

- Orientation

for Meaning

Philosophical Sources,Childrens' Questions,

Concrete Situations in Life

Philosophical Methods,Dialogical Techniques

Philosophical Attitude in Daily Lifethrough Social Actions, PoliticalParticipation within the Society

- Dialogical Skills

- Finding Values

- Good Judgments

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Teachingphilosophy at

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secondary

level

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Teaching at secondary level comes at a time of profound change in an individuals life that of

adolescence. The evolution-revolution experienced during this period has significan

consequences to be taken into account in education. During adolescence, ones relationship to

the world, with others and with oneself sets into motion a process of structuring and problematic

restructuring, with its questioning, fears, joys and suffering. In addition, ones perception of others

changes by becoming a determinant factor in the way one sees oneself and reacts. Adolescence

is, therefore, a propitious time for philosophical questioning.

Teaching philosophy at secondary level should thus find a legitimate place in the educational system.

To that end, it is necessary to restore the place of teaching philosophy, often the first to be sacrificed in

comparison to literature and history which generally benefit from being firmly anchored in the cultura

identity of the different countries. It is also necessary to restore the place of the human sciences in

general, which they continue to lose to the benefit of the scientific and technical fields. As secondary

education has a tendency to become increasingly technical in an overall context of pursuing economic

growth, it is fitting to envisage development in terms of all of its dimensions: ethical, cultural, social and

human.

Overview

As a general rule, philosophy in secondary education has a long tradition in some of the Arab states

According to the UNESCO Questionnaire9, philosophy is taught at secondary level in Algeria

Bahrain, Egypt, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Mauritania, Qatar, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia and

Yemen. In the contrary, philosophy is not taught in Iraq, Jordan, Libya, Malta, Oman, Saudi Arabia, no

Sudan. Regarding other countries of the region, no information has been received as to now.

In certain countries, philosophy is taught at secondary level in conjunction with scientific, literary, economic

or social studies, as well as in the technical and professional branches of study.

In what follows, the principal questions concerning philosophy teaching at secondary level are set out and

some possible responses are presented for the purpose of contributing to the future formulation o

appropriate policies on this subject.

9 UNESCO online Questionnaire on the state of the art of philosophy teaching, whose results are published in the UNESCO Study

Philosophy, a School of Freedom, op. cit.

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ChallengesWhat place for philosophy in quality teaching?

It is necessary to stress that teaching philosophy aims at training people to think independently and atfostering a critique of knowledge, rather than mere assimilation. Two main questions that emerge fromUNESCOs Study inquire on the place of philosophy and its links with the other subject matters.

On the one hand, one of the main challenges is not confusing teaching philosophy with teaching civics, ethics

andreligion, whoserespective goals areby naturedifferent. In otherwords, it is a matter of granting philosophy

its full place and autonomy because philosophy, like other human sciences, has often been marginalized

compared to other disciplines in a number of countries in the region. Philosophy has its own requirements and

methodology for educating about the values and ethical principles indispensable for peace and democracy to

set indurably. One of the mainchallenges for the educational systems intheArab region concernsthe provision

of sufficient time dedicated to philosophy teaching. In this respect, the participants in the high-level regional

meeting on the teaching of philosophy in the Arab region, which took place on 11 and 12 May 2009 in Tunis,Tunisia10 highlighted the importance of generalizing philosophy teaching and of not confining it exclusively to

be an optional subject matter. Philosophy must have a real place in secondary education. Somecases can be

mentioned as examples of the diversity of existing schemes: inAlgeria, in the two last years of high school, 4

hours per week are allotted to a philosophy class for the literature branch, and 2,5 for the science branch; in

Bahrain, 50 minutes per week are allotted to this discipline in the three years of high school, in the literature

branch; in the Syrian Arab Republic, 50 minutes per week are allotted to the course entitled Principles of

philosophyand sociology inthe first year of highschool; inYemen, 3 hours per weekareallottedtoPhilosophy

and logic course in the last year of high school in the literature branch, etc.

On the other hand, as a genuine asset for quality education, philosophy must be conceived of as enablingpeople to think about knowledge acquired all throughout their secondary education, within a dynamic of

complementarity with the other subject matters. Teaching philosophy must thus inspire concrete

interdisciplinary reflection that in turn develops the criteria for asking questions about knowledge acquired

in other fields. Philosophy courses will then be a special opportunity to encounter different kinds of

knowledge, providing coherence in tune with other disciplines taught, through practicing dialogue based

on the desire to question. In this regard, in Tunisia, a specific law stipulates that one of the objectives of

the educational system is to accomplish a good balance in young generations education between

different disciplines, so that studentsinterest for sciences, humanities, technique, or manual skills, as well

as the cognitive, moral, affective and practical dimensions are equivalents.11 Philosophy is also conceived

as a discipline that develops critical thinking regarding scientific knowledge itself. In Egypt for instance,

philosophy has been taught at secondary level since 1925. Courses are entitled The principles of

philosophy and Logic and scientific thought (available in all branches) and Philosophy and logic

(available as part of the literature branch). The primary focus is on Islamic philosophy, Muslim

philosophers and their contribution to the history of science.

10 The debates that took place during this meeting will be designated in this publication as the Tunis debates.11 Law N. 91-65 of 29 July 1991, according to UNESCO-IBE, Tunisie, World Data on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva, 2006-

2007. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fr/dans-le-monde/afrique/tunisie/profile-of-education.html

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Box 3 Excerpts from the Paris Declaration for Philosophy

We, the participants in the International Study Days on Philosophy and Democracy in the World

organized by UNESCO in Paris on 15 and 16 February 1995, []

Emphasize that philosophy teaching encourages open-mindedness, civic responsibility,

understanding and tolerance among individuals and groups;

Reaffirm that philosophy education, by training independently minded, thoughtful people, capable of

resisting various forms of propaganda, prepares everyone to shoulder their responsibilities in regard

to the great questions of the contemporary world, particularly in the field of ethics;

Confirm that the development of philosophical debate in education and in cultural life makes a major

contribution to the training of citizens, by exercising their capacity for judgment, which is fundamental

in any democracy.

Committing ourselves to do everything in our power in our institutions and in our respective countries

to achieve these objectives, we therefore declare that: []

Philosophy teaching should be maintained or expanded where it exists, introduced where it does

not yet exist, and designated explicitly as philosophy; []

Philosophy as the free pursuit of inquiry, cannot consider any truth to be final, and encourages respect

for the convictions of the individual but should in no circumstances, at the risk of denying its own

nature, accept doctrines which deny the liberty of others, affront human dignity and sow the seeds

of barbarity.

Quoted from Intersectoral Strategy on Philosophy, 171 EX/12, UNESCO Executive Board,

Paris, 2005. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001386/138673e.pdf

What approaches to teaching at secondary level?

Among other things, the UNESCO Study relayed the opinions of many professors pleading for a critica

relevant reshaping of programmes. Indeed, in an age of rapidly accelerating globalization, the traditiona

manner of teaching philosophy has reached certain limits. Would it not be appropriate to establish newapproaches that, while presenting certain ideas and concepts, would open the way to broader debate?

Should one, and how, revolutionize or reform the ways and means of teaching philosophy?

Too often, in fact, philosophy is taught in a pompous, esoteric, even pedantic way, by summoning up the

great names of the history of philosophy. This way of teaching tends to discourage students and to

deaden their interest in the field. While teaching philosophy undeniably fundamentally involves a

presentation of the history of ideas, it cannot, nevertheless, be limited to that. In that case, would it not

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be appropriate to develop new methods oriented also toward the knowledge underlying the theories of

the major Arab as well as Greek and Western philosophers in such a way as to stimulate or create

genuine philosophical reflection in the students?

The teaching methods must certainly be adapted to different contexts and the most varied audiences,

while keeping in mind that philosophy teaching is supposed to educate free, aware, responsible citizensand not necessarily philosophers. Philosophy teachers surely sometimes find themselves defenceless

before listeners unaccustomed to analysis or uncomfortable with abstract subject matter that can seem

dull by definition.

This question cannot be dissociated from that of supporting materials, such as textbooks, the teaching

tools and instruments that should always take into account both the audience to which they are destined

and the issues that philosophical reflection grounded in ethical considerations raises. Thus, by starting

from concrete examples drawn from daily experience, one can also lead students to ask questions about

their conscience, actions, etc. Philosophy taught using these kinds of flexible supporting materials can

thus provide students opportunities to think and compare, particularly in relation to their concerns. Finally,

the question of traditional types of evaluation should also be dealt with, and especially the preponderance

of written exercises such as essays. Why not, for example, envisage taking oral participation throughout

the year into consideration when it comes to evaluation, and not just written work? It is fundamental to

envisage means of evaluation other than just the written exercises often deemed to be the means par

excellence of expressing reasoning. Students must be brought to free themselves of commonplace ideas

and reflexes they possess in order to reason fully and autonomously without reciting a lesson. In this

regard, the Egyptian Ministry of Education encourages teachers to develop examination systems [that]

should not be confined to measuring the information content learnt by heart, but go beyond that to the

measurement of the pupils ability to deduce, relate, synthesize and criticize.12

What kind of teacher education?

As for other regions, one of the principal findings regarding the Arab region concerns the lack of

preparation of philosophy teachers at secondary level.

The first point is that the training the teachers have received are not always adapted to the real demands

of teaching at secondary level. According to the Study, three main scenarios can be identified : cases in

which a university diploma in philosophy is required, as in Bahrain and the Syrian Arab Republic; cases

in which teacher education is required, as a complement or not, to philosophical training; and cases in

which other credentials, such as university diplomas in other subjects, qualify one to teach philosophy,

as in Algeria, where a degree in social sciences is considered adequate for teaching philosophy in

secondary schools. The last case shows that the educational system has a tendency to consider that

teaching philosophy at secondary level does not necessarily require specialization. Added to that is the

lack of in-service training, essential to keeping teachers interest alive, improving skills and updating

knowledge of the field.

12 Ministerial Decree No. 71 of 1993, according to UNESCO-IBE, Egypt, World Data on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva, 2006-

2007. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fr/dans-le-monde/afrique/egypte/profile-of-education.html

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The second point is that teaching in schools only represents one of the professional opportunities open

to philosophy graduates, and not always the most enticing one. This situation partly leads to a gap

between the number of philosophy teachers and the number of university graduates. Moreover, a

coherent, complementary link is missing between, on the one hand, the training offered in universities

and, on the other hand, the needs of teachers at secondary level.

The problem of insufficient teacher training in the field of philosophy is also related to a general difficulty

in particular in the case of some countries in the region which are still in conflict or post-conflict situations

Data of the International Bureau of Education indicate for instance that approximately 44% of teachers

in Lebanon are not prepared to accomplish their job, be it in terms of scientific or pedagogical preparationHowever, a large teacher training campaign was launched both in the private and public sectors after the

programme reform launched in 1995.13 It is vital that countries in post-conflict situation accord a particula

importance to the familiarization of teachers to pedagogical methods that are favourable to the education

of peaceful citizens. In this sense, in its 2004 survey on the state of the art of the Iraqi educational system

Box 4 Reform of philosophy teaching in Morocco

Towards proactive learning. The reform process of the Moroccan educational system was launchedin 1999. This reform has changed the pedagogical approach to philosophy teaching, since it favours

the students proactive learning instead of professors lectures. Authorities responsible of the reformstress that changes in philosophy teaching have brought up fundamental questions and led to a

deepened examination of the act of teaching itself.

Philosophy teaching reinforced. Three salient points should be distinguished in this reform:philosophy teaching starting from the first year at secondary level; generalization of philosophy teaching

to all branches with no exceptions; and integration of Islamic philosophy in general philosophy

programmes as part of universal philosophical thought.

The programme introduced. The authors of the curricula have opted for a programme of introductionto philosophy and the promotion of its advantages. This is the reason why only two themes appear in

the curriculum accompanied by specific directives that take into consideration the age range ofstudents. These themes are: What is philosophy? and Nature and culture. At lower secondary-

school level, Citizenship educationis also included. Concepts that are drawn from everyday language

are the starting point for analysis, reflection and questioning. The students manual has become a

collection of philosophical texts, whereas before it was made of courses on the history of ideas from

which philosophical texts were essentially absent. In 2003, the reform institutionalized the necessity

to liberalizeschool textbook publishing, in order to diversify school manuals by introducing competition.

Adapted from the publication Philosophy, a School of Freedom

Paris, UNESCO Publishing, 2007, pp. 61-64

13 UNESCO-IBE, Lebanon, World Data on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva, 2006-2007.

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UNESCO concluded that the development of Iraqi teacher training implies a transformation of teaching

methods, aiming at fostering an interactive student-centred approach that would stimulate a spirit of

enquiry and cooperation, as well as critical thinking.14 Philosophical reflection can usefully contribute to

the aim, notably through the learning of questioning and of critical thinking, as well as through a

participative and dialogical approach in the teacher/student relationship.

Which discipline for which philosophies of education?

Observing the principles and general objectives of education and analysing the education priorities of

countries of the region give a rather clear general overview of the different educational approaches in

place. The philosophies of education which come out from almost every educational system in the Arab

region put an emphasis on two main orientations. The first orientation emphasizes the participative and

critical approach to education and to the learning process. The second orientation stresses the moral and

religious dimensions that education has to transmit onto young generations.

The Tunis debates highlighted that often religious teaching takes place at the expense of the teaching

of philosophy.

The question is to understand how philosophy teaching takes position between these two orientations,

bearing in mind that: 1. the first orientation is founded on a dynamic teacher/student relationship and on

the search for student-centred curricula as to foster democratic culture and to develop a spirit of tolerance;

2. the second orientation aims at guaranteeing transmission of cultural and spiritual values, mainly

through secondary education.

Some significant but non-exhaustive examples can be provided in order to illustrate the two orientations

mentioned above.

First orientation

In Saudi Arabia, it is stipulated that teaching is, in general, no longer limited to providing the learner with

information, but it is extended to the development of personality, inclinations and capabilities, so as to

nurture a qualified citizen.15 In Bahrain, the main objective of the two documents that define future

orientations of the educational system adopted in 2003 is to enhance the democratic concepts and

implant the spirit of tolerance.16 Likewise, one of the principles of education as defined by Djibouti

stipulates that teaching methods, in their conception and application, must aim at favouring a spirit of

observation, of analysis and of synthesis, so as to combat prejudice and behaviour that threatens social

cohesion, by means of promoting a culture of tolerance and respect of others.17 In Egypt, recent curricular

14 UNESCO, Iraq, Education in Transition: Needs and Challenges, 2004, Paris, 2005, pp. 142-143.15 UNESCO-IBE, Saudi Arabia, World Data on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva, 2006-2007.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/access-by-country/arab-states/saudi-arabia/profile-of-education.html16 Bahrain, Fundamentals Directions for Education Development and the Future Vision of Education Development approved by the

Cabinet on 13 April 2003, according to UNESCO-BIE, Kingdom of Bahrain, World Data on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva,

2006-2007. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fr/dans-le-monde/etats-arabes/bahrein/profile-of-education.html17 Djibouti, Education System Guidance Law of 10 August 2000, articles 8 and 10, according to UNESCO-IBE, Djibouti, World Data

on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva, 2006-2007.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fr/dans-le-monde/afrique/djibouti/profile-of-education.html

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reforms have included: focusing on the acquisition of skills rather than the acquisition of information

replacing rote learning by understanding and analysis by means of discussion and cooperative work, with

a view to developing students feeling of citizenship.18 In Iraq, renewal of curriculum and textbooks is an

urgent challenge, with a need for update, especially in the sciences and technology, and infusion of the

values of peace and human rights, respect for others, active citizenship and democracy.19

In the SyrianArab Republic, the main principles of secondary education include the development of students abilities

of abstract reasoning, of objective thinking and comprehension, of their intellectual freedom and o

positive criticism skills. These skills should then allow students to study national heritage critically

discarding fanaticism and racial discrimination.20

Second orientation

ForAlgeria, education is in charge of developing the spiritual values, traditions and the Algerian peoples

fundamental choices.21 Bahrain considers that one of the missions of education is to inculcate pride in

belonging to the Arab and Islamic nations based on the awareness of the genuine value of Arab Islami

thinking.22 In Egypt, religious education has been emphasized as a way to foster and deepen religioussocial and ethical values.23 In Jordan, the educational process is to be geared in a manner which develop

the ability to analyse, criticize, initiate, create and dialogue positively; and promoting values derived from

Arab, Islamic and human civilization.24 In Kuwait, education must simultaneously aim at safeguarding the

societys values and ethics, strengthening the Arab/Islamic cultural heritage, and making world culture

accessible in the areas of the sciences and the arts.25 In Libya, education aims at instilling in the studen

a sense of self-esteem and confidence regarding his/her Arabic and Islamic identity, and building his/he

ability to actively communicate with other civilizations.26 In Qatar, the principal objective of education is

to create open-mindedness in the students towards other cultures, experiences and human

achievements; encouraging mutual dialogue and interaction while remaining committed to Arab-Islamic

cultural identity, legacy and values.27

Within this global scheme of educational objectives based on some examples, philosophy, founded on

the practicing of reasoning and of independent thinking, can contribute significantly to concretely

implement the main educational principles that Arab countries aim at reaching. Furthermore, philosophy

18 Series of National Conference for curricula Development from 1993 to 2000, according to UNESCO-BIE data, Egypt, World Data

on Education, op. cit.19 UNESCO, Iraq, Education in Transition: Needs and Challenges, op. cit., p. VI.20 UNESCO-IBE, Rpublique arabe syrienne, World Data on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva, 2006-2007.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fr/dans-le-monde/etats-arabes/republique-arabe-syrienne/profile-of-education.html21 UNESCO-IBE, Algrie, World Data on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva, 2006-2007.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/access-by-country/africa/algeria/profile-of-education.html22 UNESCO-IBE, Kingdom of Bahrain, World Data on Education, op. cit.23 UNESCO-IBE, Egypt, World Data on Education, op. cit.24 UNESCO-IBE, The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, World Data on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva, 2006-2007.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/access-by-country/arab-states/jordan/profile-of-education.html25 UNESCO-IBE, Kuwait, World Data on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva, 2006-2007.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/access-by-country/arab-states/kuwait.html26 UNESCO-IBE, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, World Data on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva, 2006-2007.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/access-by-country/africa/libyan-arab-jamahiriya/profile-of-education.html27 UNESCO-IBE, Qatar, World Data on Education, 6th edition, Paris / Geneva, 2006-2007.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/access-by-country/arab-states/qatar/profile-of-education.html

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teaching can contribute to educate individuals capable of critically reflecting upon their own identity,

culture and religion, as well as their relationship and interaction with other forms of thoughts, traditions

and sociopolitical systems. Philosophy should indeed be confronted not only to artistic and scientific

uncertainties, but also to cultural and religious certainties. To this end, the different modalities of this

teaching should be thoroughly studied, taking into account the very diversity of scientific productions as

well as those of spiritual traditions that belong to different cultural backgrounds. The Tunis debates

affirmed that the issue here is to avoid the isolation of the discipline in a privileged reference. In this

respect, the International Federation of Philosophical Societies (FISP) showed itself open to the idea of

supporting training courses for secondary education teachers, in order to enable the integration of the

different cultural aspects in the teaching of this subject.

Which language for philosophy teaching?

The Tunis debates also put forth the importance of the language of teaching at secondary level.

Participants highlighted that the issue of the language in philosophy teaching is closely linked to the

history of the Arab region, since this teaching entered with the colonizer. Consequently, the image ofphilosophy in the Arab region is charged from a historic point of view.

According to some participants, there is a generalized Arabization in philosophy teaching in the Arab

countries which, within the framework of a struggle against the colonizer and his language, provokes the

loss of a lot of elements in this subjects teaching. Philosophy is a transmissible good which does not

belong to anyone. It is a heritage it can be appropriated but it cannot be considered as one region or

anothers property. As regards language, it does not belong to anybody and can only be enriched by

translation.

According to other participants, it remains important that teaching is conducted in the Arabic language,

there being a direct and undeniable link between the language of teaching and the construction of nationalidentity. Nevertheless, this should not prevent Arab states from recognizing that philosophy remains a

necessity, a human concern, whichever the language used to teach this discipline.

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Point of view The complex relationship with the Other highlighted in a study in fourTunisian high schools

Deficiency of the pedagogical practice in philosophy.Analysis of interviews with Tunisian studentsshows clearly the concurrent frequency of two inferred variables: social and cultural obstacles to the

practice of philosophy, and the shortcomings in philosophy teaching in the country. In fact, the structureof philosophy courses seems based on a unidirectional model in which discussion, seen as a value that

emerges from the teaching of philosophical themes, is not given any concrete pedagogical weight.

Interviewee X7 said that in class, students try harder to receive than to participate because it is a heavy

curriculum and theres not enough time. Students are only thinking about remembering what is being

taught so that they can use it later. Given how little time there is, from the moment he or she enters the

classroom the teacher tries to dictate the lesson to us and thats it.

Prejudices. Even though the value of openness to other cultures or ideas is something touched uponfrequently in philosophy lessons, the students actual images of different cultures or different world views

are not in fact influenced by philosophical concepts, and instead conform to narrow traditional views,

bearing witness to an absence of any reflexive link to philosophy. Thus the interviewees image of theWest is a mixture of a number of different aspects, with scientific progress, atheism, technological power

and the colonial past all mixed together. This image remains strongly tied to the collective imagination in

terms of prejudice, reductionism and distrust with regard to Western philosophy. Students can feel inspired

to criticize Western philosophical culture, but they do so not to rethink particular ideas, nor to reveal the

limitations or what is unsaid in a particular philosophical system. Their criticisms serve more to underline

contrasts with the traditional values of Islam, from which they draw an essential element of their identity.

Reactions to defend collective identity. That is why there is an ideological cast to the doubts andcriticism they express. They are acting out a withdrawal into the self more than a natural openness to

philosophy. Consequently the collective and conformist we that assimilates the individual wins out overthe reflexive I, as students comments show. Interviewee X16 said that it is within the reach of anyone

who has studied philosophy to enter into a dialogue with Western cultures and to adopt whatever suits

his or her personality, society and culture. For example, we can study the intellectual and literary aspects

of these cultures, but in studying their philosophies we are still trying to critique them and to adopt

whatever suits our thinking and our society, above all because we are essentially a religious society.

Difficulties to dialogue. We have to conclude, then, on the basis of these ambivalent attitudes toother cultures, that these students are not contemplating the values of dialogue and communication

in their rational and critical senses. The philosophy that is being taught is not perceived as a form of

analysis that enriches the universality of human thought, in what it calls reason or the analytical faculty

potentially possessed by every human being. Imprisoned in the elevation of their own beliefs and apurely utilitarian relationship with other people or cultures, the students see in Western philosophical

thought only advantages or disadvantages understood in reference to their religious values. That it is

impossible to consider this sort of relationship with other people or cultures as real openness is amply

proven by the contradictions that we witness in these students comments.

Zouari Yassine (Tunisia), Philosophy, a School of Freedom,

Paris, UNESCO Publishing, 2007, p. 88

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Suggestions for possible action

There is a great variety of means of transmitting a taste for philosophizing and awakening interest

and curiosity for this field. The Arab region is a space where innovative practices, when it comes

to teaching philosophy, can be engaged in using the rich human and intellectual potential underlyingeach countrys educational system to the best advantage.

Strengthen the place of philosophy in schools

Accord a full, complete, autonomous place to philosophy. In doing so, a complementary and

interdisciplinary approach in relation to other disciplines can be envisaged.

Rethink and study the specific contribution of philosophy teaching to the accomplishment of the

principles of education mentioned in different countries official texts.

Initiate innovative approaches

Foster creativity and innovation with regard to methods of teaching philosophy. To this end, draw in

particular from the store of innovative practices developed for learning to philosophize, such as

according value to oral expression in the evaluation process, the use of philosophically oriented

discussion, etc.

Support the exchange, diffusion and circulation of knowledge and practices related to the teaching of

philosophy at intra-regional and international levels.

Optimize the production of philosophy teachers and students manuals and textbooks through a

permanent search for quality. This requires incorporating innovative teaching methods and taking into

account challenges facing philosophy teaching in the Arab region.

Conciliate philosophy and the different cultural aspects of teaching.

Conceive adequate training for philosophy teachers

Accord value to specializing in philosophy in order to ensure specific professional opportunities,

knowingly to ensure that philosophy teaching posts at secondary level are filled by faculty members

who are specifically trained for that function.

Guarantee the training of philosophy teachers at primary level that combines both a didactic and

pedagogical content and a specialization in philosophy.

This training could be sustained and updated with relevant in-service training.

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highereducation

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The hybrid nature of university teaching a mixture of teaching/educating and research is all the more

at work in the area of philosophical studies since they do not in general have other institutional place

where they can develop. University teaching does not only contribute to shaping characters and building

up human beings in their multiple dimensions cognitive, emotional, moral, cultural or social. It is above

all intent upon putting students in a position to produce new knowledge and making them capable o

reacting to the incessant transformations that characterize knowledge within different cultures.

Philosophical knowledge is taught at universities in the form of research methods, categories, concepts

criteria of valid argumentation and more or less formal structures enabling people to construct physica

historical, moral and rational worlds. Whether it is a matter of educating educators, of nurturing historica

culture, of learning universal structures of reasoning or of building up the culture of tomorrows teachers

researchers, it is definitely the presence of technical knowledge of the field and of a properly philosophica

savoir-faire that sets university teaching apart and is the basis of all its relevance. Moreover, in the

countries where philosophy is taught in the schools, the dynamic between the secondary school teachers

and those in higher education constitutes an essential asset in the philosophical educational process.

It is worth noting that this part does not deal with the question of actual philosophical research, but ofteaching philosophy at university level. Even though it is obvious that the university structure

encompasses the research component, this will be the subject of a separate UNESCO study, since the

issues involved there are of a different nature from that of actual university teaching.

Overview

In most Arab countries, philosophy is taught in higher education. Philosophy is doing relatively wel

and has a relatively prominent position: subject matters entitled Philosophy are taught almos

everywhere. According to reactions collected by the UNESCO Questionnaire,28

in spite of a certainnumber of difficulties, philosophys position in universities is perceived as stable and only in certain

particular cases as threatened by ministerial or academic policies. A majority of respondents (56%

noted a tendency to increase philosophy teaching in higher education. 29

For instance, in Egypt, philosophy is taught as a separate subject matter in higher education. The

Philosophy Department of the American University in Cairo offers both a major and a minor in philosophy

and accepts students beyond the introductory level. Courses tackle questions arising from reflections into

religion, ethics, art, politics, science and the theory of knowledge. In Lebanon, a notable increase in the

number of philosophy courses at university level, and the introduction of a major in philosophy are to be

noted. In Tunisia, there are four philosophy departments: in the Faculty of Social Sciences at the

University of Tunis, at the Institute of Social Sciences at the Al-Manar University, at the University oKairouan and at the University of Sfax. Philosophy courses are also taught in the countrys literary and

scientific preparatory schools; in schools and institutes of technology, cultural sciences, theology o

primary-school teacher education; in institutions of applied arts; and in university faculties of socia

sciences, law and, to a lesser degree, science.

28 UNESCO online Questionnaire on the state of the art of philosophy teaching, whose results are published in the UNESCO Study

Philosophy, a School of Freedom, op. cit.29 We do not have any exhaustive list of countries of the region where philosophy is taught as a separate course.

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In some countries, however, such as Oman and Saudi Arabia, philosophy is entirely absent from almost

all levels of education.

ChallengesPhilosophy studies and then what?

The links with the working world and the essential question of professional opportunities for

philosophy graduates play a key role in the responses to UNESCOs Questionnaire. The

responses collected by UNESCO in fact reveal some sense of the weakening of philosophy

teaching throughout the region due precisely to the lack of job opportunities after specializing in the

field. Testimonies assembled by the Questionnaire return a vague concern: the tenuous nature of

professional positions does nothing to encourage in young people the idea of undertaking studies

in philosophy. There is no work for graduates explains a Jordanian academic. In Tunisia, graduate

unemployment and the job market are seen as the worst enemies of philosophical studies.

The problem is that philosophy in the Arab region, as in other regions, is often considered as not being

very apt to contribute to economic and scientific progress and is therefore considered as marginal, or even

useless. It is as if economic development displayed contempt for philosophical reflection. Philosophy

also suffers from the redeployment of resources to satisfy other priorities, especially those of the applied

sciences and industrial research. According to the International Bureau of Educations data, since 1983

in Djibouti, the Ministry of Education has limited the educational sectors that do not offer sufficient job

opportunities. This is the reason why scholarships were no longer granted for higher education in the

fields of social and economic administration, sociology, psychology, ethnology, etc. More recently,

students at the end of high school are preferably orientated towards science and mathematics instead

of literary branches.30 This is a phenomenon found in other regions of the world as well and could be an

area of possible intervention.

Most philosophy graduates in the Arab region manage to find employment corresponding to the training

received, even if it can take a longer time than for other types of careers. Not everything is discouraging

therefore, even though it is true that a philosophy degree often gives access to a limited number of

professions, mainly restricted to the field of education and research. This is shown by Figure No. 1:

teaching provides most of the job opportunities for philosophy graduates, followed by research; private

sector employment comes in the third position, only representing 25% of job opportunities. In this context,

a proposition made during the Tunis debates was to encourage the private sector to recruit graduates in

philosophy.

This being said, it is important not to analyze the educational system exclusively through the lens of

professional training. The recent education reforms in Morocco show that attempting to relate curricula

to job opportunities in the market must not lead to neglecting the whole set of knowledge which is

absolutely essential for educating citizens. Therefore, and in order to show that philosophy is not a

30 UNESCO-IBE, Djibouti, World Data on Education, op. cit.

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discipline that is marginal to life in society, it is important to make it more attractive. To this end, philosophy

and its teaching could deal more with the major world contemporary problems and tackle questions

which concern particularly the everyday life of people. The reforms in Morocco have thus given a more

important place to the teaching of philosophy, seeking to create greater links between academic training

and job opportunities.

Human resources above all

The link between secondary and higher education teaching

It is important to contemplate the ties and interaction between secondary and higher education

particularly from the angle of professional opportunities and in-service training for philosophy teachers

Porosity between the two levels seems endangered today in many cases.

On the one hand, universities need to know what is happening in secondary education. On the othe

hand, secondary-level students and teachers should be able to benefit from research carried out a

university level. Nevertheless, the most frequent case today is that secondary-level teachers are no

able to reach university teaching, which leads in consequence to a true breach in the secondary - highe

education link. Teaching at secondary level thus no longer leads to a subsequent development to

university careers, which may result in a loss of motivation for teachers. In order to find a remedy to thisituation and to reinforce the link between secondary and higher-level teaching, the Tunis debates pu

forth a proposition to create of research laboratories at national and/or regional level that would involve

teachers and professors from both levels.

Figure No.1

Job opportunities,

university level

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For mobility but against brain-drain

The issue of the brain-drain in the Arab region in the framework of philosophy teaching was largely

discussed in the Tunis debates. Some regretted exchanges involving visiting professors and students in

the field of philosophy taking place mostly in the direction North-South. Teachers and students mobility

in both directions North-South and South-North should thus be encouraged. Other participants highlighted

the importance of solving the problem of the exodus of high quality Arab researchers to European, North

American, and in the future, undoubtedly, Chinese universities, where they settle permanently, which

considerably diminishes the attractiveness of the academic community to young students from theArab

region. It is therefore legitimate to ask the question: how a sufficient number of philosophers can be

trained to ensure the continuity of the discipline and its teaching.

Innovative, varied written resources

As indicated by the World Communication and Information Report 1999-2000,31 theArab region imports

more books than it exports, resulting in a negative balance in this respect. In Arab countries the number

of libraries is limited, but many campaigns have been carried out for their expansion. These [campaigns]were first intended for children but are now aimed at a wider audience.This same Report notes that the

Arab civilization has been closely linked with the production of books and other printed matter. Historically,

its efforts in translation have been instrumental in transmitting the works of Ancient writers, and Arab

contributions in many fields of knowledge are well known. Today, the publishing situation is different and

the basic production is translated from Western sources. Most of the textbooks used at university level

in certain faculties are in English or French, even if the original is Russian or Japanese []. However,

an important exchange of books is taking place among the Arab countries, including those in the western

region. This is facilitated in part by the use of a common language.

These remarks echo the UNESCO Questionnaire, and Figure No. 2 shows that nearly 50% of

respondents from the Arab region are unsatisfied regarding philosophical documentary resources in

universities libraries. As to Figure No.3, it illustrates the most important deficiencies in secondary-school

libraries or documentation centres in the respondents opinions, as far as philosophy is concerned.

Respondents from the Arab countries emphasize the lack of access to philosophers works, and in

particular to translations of original works.

Efforts still must be made with a view to providing universities with documentation centres in which to find

written sources in the field of philosophy, be it translated works or books in their original languages. There

exist many contemporary scholarly publications about philosophy, and international colloquia are held

throughout the world, producing proceedings which are important in order to follow the advances in the

field. It is those publications, among others, that Arab universities must endeavour to acquire for theirlibraries.

Moreover, today, information and communication technologies can provide certain solutions, provided that

they are well-conceived and adapted. Access to computer technology in fact constitutes an essential

factor in strengthening university training and teaching. With regard to higher education, the Union ofArab

31 UNESCO, World Communication and Information Report 1999-2000, Paris, UNESCO Publishing, 1999, pp. 206-207.

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Universities guarantees the coordination between these institutions. According to the World

Communication and Information Report 1999-2000, [a]lmost all Arab universities are connected to the

Internet, although there is not yet an Arab Backbone Network. In some countries, universities are a

connected to a single network. For example, Egypts twelve universities are linked through the Egyptian