1850-1870

desire to create nation-states based on common language, history, and customs England, France, and Spain were already

nation-states Austria consisted of various nationalities

under one empire Italy and Germany consisted of provinces

that shared a common culture but no common government

Revolution formulated concept of loyalty to the state vs. loyalty to a ruler “King of the French”

replaced “King of France” France began to represent

French ideals, rather than simply French territory

Nationalism spread throughout liberals in other European states

Congress of Vienna balanced power in Europe by granting control of various provinces to foreign rulers Nationalism would inspire people under

rulers of a different nationality to rebel Habsburgs controlled various nationalities

within empire

Unified Italy and Germany would threaten balance of power in Europe

The push for unification was most prominent in the liberal aristocracy and upper middle class

Nationalist newspapers and brochures spread idea

Hatred of Austria, which still dominated parts of Italy including Venetia, fueled movement

Most supporters, including Cavour and Mazzini, hoped to united Italy under the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia, the most powerful Italian province

Camillo di Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia

King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia

Guiseppe Mazzini, radical who encouraged revolt

MAZZINI

Italian Patriot who organized nationalist rebellions while in exile

Dreamed of Italy free of the rule of Austria and the Pope

Proposed freedom and equality for all people

Cavour united with France against Austria in 1859 Napoleon III hoped to annex Savoy and

Nice from Piedmont-Sardinia Napoleon proposed dividing Italy into four

states, three of which would be dependant on France’s support

Austria sparks war by drafting citizens of Italian provinces

Napoleon worries Cavour is getting too powerful, signs armistice with Austria

Cavour’s defeat of Austria inspired Nationalist uprisings in Bologna, Tuscany, Modena, and Parma

Treaty of Turin in 1860 granted above provinces to Piedmont-Sardinia, but Venetia remained under Austrian control

Garibaldi brought volunteer troops to aid citizens of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilys who rebelled against their Bourbon ruler Declared dictatorial power

in region on behalf of King Victor Emmanuel II

Cavour joined his troops with Garibaldi’s to take Naples

Garibaldi’s volunteer soldiers were know as red-shirts

Victor Emmanuel II declares himself King of Italy in 1861

Venetia remained in the possession of Austria to the dismay of its citizens

Rome still controlled by the Pope and the Catholic Church, defended by French troops

Italy joined Prussia in its war against Austria in 1866 Gained possession of Venetia following

Austrian defeat French troops left Rome in 1870 to fight

Franco-Prussian War Italian troops took the opportunity to occupy

Rome and declare it the Italian capital Law of Papal Guarantees of 1871 took all

Pope’s territory with the exception of the Vatican

Italy had police, army, navy, and common written language, but few common people actually considered it a united nation Citizens, particularly in south, remained loyal

to region and local leaders “Italy” was seen as northern ploy to raise

taxes, draft southerners, and undercut legitimate local rulers

North dominated politics and economy Catholic Church refused to support unification

and insisted Catholics show no loyalty to government

Supported primarily by the middle class Upper class Junkers (nobility) opposed for

fear of challenge to status quo and calls for equality

Not clear if Austria or Prussia would be dominant power in unified state

“small German” proposal: Prussia dominates and Austria is excluded

“big German” proposal: Austria dominated Germany, including Prussia

Prussia Effective

bureaucracy One German-

speaking, Protestant people

Recent territorial additions and economic growth

Supported by strong nobility

Austria Consisted of diverse

people of various languages and nationalities

Threatened by nationalism

Parliament exercised power over funding to combat power of Prussian military

Liberal groups arose to push constitutionalism, including National Union and German Progressive Party

King William appointed ultra-conservative Count Otto von Bismarck as Prime Minister to challenge liberals

Determined to create Germany that would not be too large to be dominated by Prussia or too democratic to be ruled by Hohenzollern monarchy

Unification would be through “blood and iron” not liberalism

Limited freedom of press, refused to confirm election of progressive mayors, and banned discussion of political issues at municipal council meetings

Bismarck supported Russian in its conflicts with Poland to ensure a future ally and cause tension between Austria and Russia (Austria had large Polish population)

Bismarck went to war with Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein, which was controlled by the Danes and had expressed desire to join unified Germany London Protocol of 1852 placed Schleswig-

Holstein under Danish control Prussia and Austria allied to free from Denmark

Prussia takes Schleswig and Austria takes Holstein

Bismarck prepared for war by attempting to gain support of smaller German states, France, and Italy France agrees with Prussia to remain

neutral, but signs secret treaty with Austria in which the French provide support in exchange for Venetia upon Austrian victory

Italy offers to support Prussia in exchange for Venetia in case of Prussian victory

Prussia leaves German Confederation, which votes to send troops against Prussia

Prussia defeats Austria in three weeks

Eliminated Austria as a rival in quest for domination of a unified Germany

German Confederation dissolved North German Confederation formed

Consisted of constitution and parliament Dominated by Prussians

William I president and Bismarck Federal Chancellor Bavaria allied with Prussia in case of

French attack Schleswig-Holstein, along with other

territories, became part of Prussia

Businessmen supported Bismarck in hopes that unification would alleviate tariffs

Liberals were willing to support Bismarck if it meant German unification Some members of Progressive Party joined

National Liberal Party South German states became closer to

Prussia with economic and military alliances

Napoleon III started war over Hohenzollern candidacy for Spanish throne

The majority of Europe supported Prussia Italy still resented the loss of Nice and Savoy Prussia had supported Russia during conflicts

with the Polish Austria angry that France had supported

Piedmont-Sardinia Prussia won easily in 1871

France gave up Alsace and Lorraine and five billion francs

Chateau of Versailles January 18, 1871 Declared Germany a unified state King William I becomes Emperor William I

of Germany North German Confederation and

Constitution formed framework Based on Prussian political system of

alliance of ruler, nobility, and military Parliament (Reiongtag) had little power

Bismarck doubted loyalty of Catholic Center and Social Democratic Parties Feared Catholics would listen to Rome rather

than Berlin Socialism challenged Prussia’s dependence on

the middle class State campaign against Catholics

(Kulturkampf) Ended when Bismarck realized he needed

Catholics to combat Socialists Antisocialist legislation denied socialists

freedom of Assembly, Association, and Press

Austria was heavily threatened by the growth of Nationalism Habsburgs controlled various ethnicities and

tensions were prevalent among them Italian and German Unifications took lands

that previously belonged to empire Habsburgs depended on German Middle

Class and bureaucracy, nobles of various nationalities, the prevalence of Catholicism, and the Imperial Army.

1881 Habsburgs begin period of neo-Authoritarianism to repress Nationalism and Liberalism

Croats, Magyars, and Poles began to question effectiveness of German rulers after failure of Austro-Prussian War and demand greater influence The Compromise of 1867 created dual

monarchy of Austria-Hungary New Constitution (Ausgleich) supported

equality in principle but allowed inequality to persist

Hungarians continued to resent Austrian dominance

Austrian Prime Minister Count Eduard von Taaffe balanced off competing interests by allowing presence of minority languages