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like to arrive in the classroom well before the students. It gives me time to get things

organized. I create an entrance table (I use chairs or desks if there's no table) that

holds handouts for students to pick up. From day one the students learn the routine:they arrive pick up handouts on the entrance table and read the screen for

instructions. !hey know what to do and it saves time. "ere's how I recommend

introducing the routine on day one.

#. $ost your name and the name and section of the class on the screen so thatwhen students walk in they know that they are in the right place.

%. &rite: welcome on the screen and have directions that tell students what

they need to do immediately. ample: *s you enter please tell me yourname. !hen pick up a syllabus a card and a folder from the entrance table.

Fold the card so that it will stand on your desk and write your first name on it

in +I, letters. *dd your last name and ma-or in smaller print. &rite yourname on the tab of the folder (last name first then first name). ead the

syllabus until class starts. /ote: +y asking students to tell you their name as

they enter you can hear how the name is pronounced and avoid theembarrassment of pronouncing it for the first time yourself.

0. &hen it's time for class to start 1 start class2 3ate arrivals can catch up by

reading the screen.

4. For classes of %5 or less I have students do brief #61second introductions. Itell them there will be a verbal 7uiz after all the introductions and that they

can win stars if they know who is who. ("ave fun with this but remember

that these are adults and college is not like -unior high.)5. For larger classes I have students introduce themselves to three or four people

around them and then we might do stand1ups 1 stand up if you are a

8panish ma-or stand up if you are an education ma-or and so on. I eplain

that students need to know each other for our small group work and in casethey have a 7uestion.

9. I collect the file folders and put them alphabetically by student name into a

big plastic carrying case. &hen students need to turn in assignments they findthe bo on the entrance table and they put their papers in their respective

folders. &hen papers are graded they can pull their graded tests or

assignments from their folders. !he beauty of this system is that time is neverwasted by passing out papers. For small classes I put handouts in the folders

of absent students.

. *fter the introductions and the eplanation of the folder and bo system Iturn to the !oday we will list that I've written on the board posted on a

large paper flip1chart or pro-ected on the screen. I like to actually write thislist on the board so I can return to it even while pro-ecting my notes. * today

we will list outlines my plan for the day. For eample for the first day mytoday we will list says:

o 8ee screen for instruction for card and folder.

o Introductions

o !urn in folders

o ,o over syllabus completely

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o ;ini1lecture on

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critical education eperiences in which students were only observers of the clinical

encounter.#ncounters such as these are ones that may take little etra teaching time for

preceptors.

&eaching Students "elps Prevent

Physician 'urnout!eaching students reminds doctors why they en-oy medicine. 8tudents ask 7uestions that

challenge preceptors. !hese 7uestions re7uire the physicians to have an eplanation as towhy they treated a patient in a certain way and it is an opportunity to rethink the

approach to treating a certain disease state. &e are always students and the preceptor and

student can learn from each other.

(nfor) Patients &hat Students Will'e Participating in &heir Care

8ome clinics always have a student and patients know they may be seen by a student.

For those clinics that take students intermittently patients should be informed about the

studentJs presence by the receptionist the person checking in the patient or by a sign atthe reception desk. $atients who do not wish to see a student can be seen by the preceptor

alone. $atients should be apprised that their physician has been chosen to participate inthe medical schoolJs educational program which lends a measure of prestige to the

clinical faculty.

'e a *ole +odel

ole models during medical school in clerkship encounters and in residency can be astrong influence in medical studentsJ specialty choice. Donversely negative eperiences

can turn students away from specific fields. It is incumbant on all of us to provide

positive eperiences for students to enhance rather than detract from a career in family

practice.

(nclude Students in !ctivities

Outside the Clinical Setting

Invite students for dinners in your home or at local restaurants or to sports events playsmusical performances and other social events. !his gives students the opportunity to

interact with preceptors in a more1relaed situation than in the clinical setting.

+e a $receptor !hat 8tudents

3ook Kp !oLualities that students rate highly in their preceptors are respect for students and

colleagues empathy a sense of humor enthusiasm and dependability.%"ighly rated

professional 7ualities are being a good role model ability to solve conflict and fortitudeto look for alternative answers to problems.0

!eaching medical students in the private office setting can and should be a highly

rewarding eperience for preceptors and students alike.

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FORTY SUCCESSES

+y &illiam &atson $urkey and Gohn ;. /ovak

(nviting School Success &adworth #BA4

!he following lists of inviting and disinviting verbal comments personal behaviorphysical environments and printed signs have been identified by educators and

students as indicators of the 7uality of life in schools. !hese lists are only illustrative

but the presence or absence of items on these lists may help to identify the inviting ordisinviting stance taken by those who live and work in and around schools. !hese

items may also serve as a checklist for those in schools who are already doing good

things and who want to do them even better.

er!al Comments

Forty Inviting Comments Forty Disinviting Comments

Good morning.Thanks very much.Congratulations.Let's talk it over.How can I help?Tell me about it.I appreciate your help.Happy birthday

I en!oy having you hereI understand."e missed you.I'm glad you came by.I like that ideaI think you can."elcome.I like what you did."elcome back.#ou are uni$ue.That's even better.I've been thinking o% you.How are things going?

How are you?I'd like your opinion.Happy holiday"hat do you think?Let's have lunch."hat can I do %or you?&% course I have the time.That's &.I am impressed.

eep out."hat (ary is trying to say is...)se your head.It won't work.#ou'll have to call back.#ou can't do that.I don't care what you do.*ot bad+ %or a girl.

,on't be so stupid."ho do you think you are?He can't be disturbed."hy didn't you stay home?"oman driverThey don't want to learn.They don't have the ability.#ou can't be that dumb.They're all right+ in their place."ho's calling.#ou should not %eel that way.#ou ought to know better.#ou must do as I say.

How could you?-hape up or ship out.

nybody can do that."hy do you bother coming to school?That's a childish viewpoint.That is dead wrong.Hi+ Chubby.#ou goo%ed.Get lost.

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#ou made me %eel good.#es./lease come in.I've always got time %or you.I think you can do it./lease tell me more.

(ay I help you?Let's do it together.Come back soonI en!oy our time together.

That's stupid.-o what?0ecause I said so+ that's why."hat+ you again?1orget it.#ou'll never make it.

-it down and shut up.nock it o%%.I know you're not that stupid."hat's your e2cuse this time?

Personal "ehaviors

Forty Inviting Behaviors Forty Disinviting Behaviors

rela2ed postureLending a book-milingListening care%ully

/atting a back-haking hands&pening a door %or someoneGiving a %riendly wink-haring lunch together0eing on time-ending a thought%ul note0ringing a gi%t-haring an e2perience

ccepting praiseGiving wait3timeGa4ing warmly#ielding interest*oticing new clothesLearning names&%%ering re%reshments-ending a valentineHugging 5where appropriate672tending an apology 5wherere$uired6-haring a poem/icking up litter/lanting a %lower"aiting your turnHolding a door72tending a handCongratulating someone

8emembering important occasions-haring a sandwich)sing a napkin&%%ering someone a chair0ringing %lowers-cratching someone's back72pressing regret"aving with both handsGiving a thumbs3up sign

Giving a thumbs3down signInterruptingLooking at your watch#awning in someone's %ace

-haking your %inger at someone-cowling and %rowning-lamming a door)sing ridiculeTurning you back on someoneCutting people short(aking %un o% a personLooking away %rom someoneLeaving someone to answer the phoneHitting someone0eing obsceneLaughing at someone's mis%ortuneThrowing paper on the groundTapping a pencil 5%idgeting6Chewing gum loudly0reaking a promise1orgetting an important dateGawking at an accident)sing sarcasm(imicking1orgetting a birthday0lowing your car hornTalking with your mouth %ull/laying with your nose7ating loudly-howing lack o% concern-neering

0eing late-taring at someoneLittering-hoving ahead-tamping your %ootTelling a lie,umping ashtrays in the streetInsulting a personTalking during a movie

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&verlooking a %au2 pas

Ph#sical Environments

Forty Inviting Environments Forty Disinviting Environments

1resh /aint/leasant smellsLiving plant

ttractive+ up3to3date bulletin boards-o%t lighting0ig and so%t pillowsLots o% books1resh air1ireplaceCom%ortable %urniture8ocking chair1lowers on the desk&pen doors

Candy !ar with candy-o%t musicttractive picturesCom%ortable temperature

cup o% co%%ee+ tea or !uice/orch light at night/orch swing0irthday cake1resh towels"ell3tended park0ooks and maga4ines-tu%%ed animals-unny roomGame boardThick carpetThis morning's paperHoliday tree(atching colors0irthday card/ositive worded signs0lue !eans and cotton shirts0right hallwaysClean aromas0rightly lit parking lotClean windowsClear %loors&ld pick3up truck

,ark corridors0ad smells,ingy colors1ull trash cansHard lightingInsects 5%lies+ roaches672cessive noise-moke3%illed room0are wallsLe%tover %ood,irty co%%ee cups1ull ashtrays0are lightbulb

-tack o% out3o%3date materials1luorescent lights that bu44,ark parking lots

%ull pencil sharpener,ead plantLong lines,ingy curtains0urned3out lightbulb-idewalks going where people don't&pa$ue windowsCold roomLukewarm co%%ee

rti%icial plants and %lowersCigarette butts on a plate-ink %ull o% dirty dishes72haust %umes-traight rows7mpty mail bo2,irty %ingerprints/eeling paint and plaster*othing to read,usty+ cobwebby shelves-tu%%y room-ticky %loors0roken windows-igns with letters missing-pray3painted gra%%iti

Printed Signs

Forty Inviting Signs Forty Disinviting Signs

/lease )se -idewalks"elcome9isitor /arking/lease Leave (essage

&%%ice Closed,o *ot ,isturbeep o%% GrassTo Trespassing

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&pen+ Come in*o ppointment *ecessary/lease )se &ther ,oorThank #ou %or *ot -mokingCome 0ack -oon&pen House

"e're Glad #ou're HereHandicapped /arking-orry I (issed #ou+ /lease Come0ack9isitors "elcomeHappy Hour/lease /ut Litter HereCome s #ou re&pen to the /ublic8est reaTake (eClean 8estroomsHelp eep Hawaii 0eauti%ul

LibraryHave Lunch with )s-tudents "elcome 0ack/lease 72cuse the InconvienceGood ,ayHappy Holidays*o "aiting#ou're Here/lease TouchCome on In/ardon &ur ,ust

mple /arking in the 8ear(ay "e Help #ou?0e 0ack at :::/lease "atch #our -tepHelp )s Conserve 7nergy,irectory ssistance"elcome to Hawaii 5or HCC6

*o Talking*o 8unning in Halls*o dmission without /ass9isitors (ust 8eport to*o -moking

*o dmittance0e -eatedeep &ut,o *ot 7nter*o ,eposit+ *o 8eturnTow way ;one0y ppointment &nly&ut o% &rder*o Children llowedClosed to the /ublic/rivate 0each*o Checks Cashed*o -pitting on -idewalk(embers &nly

"e ,o *ot Give ChangeTake a *umber and "ait-hop Li%ters "ill 0e /rosecutedherself to the other sometimes with specific instructions to share a certainpiece of information. For eample !he one thing I am particularly proud of is...

*fter five minutes the participants introduce the other person to the rest of the

class.

D"**D! =8DI$!I/8. "ave students write down one or two

ad-ectives describing themselves. $ut these on a stick1on badge. "ave class

members find someone with similar or opposite ad-ectives and talk for five

minutes with the other person.

I'M =/ 8;!"I/, CK "*M/'! =/. "ave each person introduce

themselves and then state something they have done that they think no one else in

the class has done. If someone else has also done it the student must statesomething else until he>she finds something that no one else has done.

FI/= 8;/. ach person writes on a blank inde card one to three

statements such as favorite color interest hobby or vacations. $ass out cards so

everyone gets someone else's card. "ave that person find the person with theircard and introduce themselves.

F*;K8 $8/. $eople write a famous name on a piece of paper and pin it

on someone else's back. $erson tries to guess what name is pinned on his>her byasking others around the room yes or no 7uestions. Mariation: Kse famous place

instead of famous person.

;C /*;. $eople introduce themselves and tell what they know about why they

have their name (their mother wanted to name me after her great aunt "elen whoonce climbed $ike's $eak in high heels etc.). It could be the first middle or

nickname.

"& = CK F3? *sk the students to write down words or phrases that

describe their feelings on the first day of class. 3ist the responses on the

blackboard. !hen ask them to write down what they think you as the teacher are

feeling this first day of class. 3ist them on the blackboard in a second column and

note the parallels. +riefly comment on your feelings and then discuss the -ointstudent>teacher responsibilities for learning in the course.

D;;/ ,K/=. !his works best for small groups or for each small group

sitting together as a team (419 learners). ,ive the group a specific time (perhaps 5

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minutes) to write a list of everything they all have in common. !ell them to avoid

the obvious (we're all taking this course). &hen time is up ask each group how

many items they have listed. For fun ask them to announce some of the mostinteresting items.

; !. !his also works best for small groups or foe each small group sitting

together as a team (419 learners). veryone in the group gest #6pennies>toothpicks>scrap of papers etc. !he first student states something he>she

has done (e.g. water skiing). veryone else who has done the same thing admits it

and puts one penny in the middle of the table. !hen the second person statessomething (e.g. I have eaten frogs' legs). veryone who has done it puts another

penny in the center. Dontinue until someone has run out of pennies.

!hese are -ust a few of the hundreds of icebreakers. +e creative and design your own

variations. =on't be afraid to eperiment and try different approaches and above all havefun and start that most important first day of class on the right foot2

Inde) of Ice!reakers* +ames* and 'ctivities

Ice!reakers !# group si,e

8mall group

,ames for %15 people

;edium group

,ames for 51#6 people

3arge group

,ames for #6106 people tra 3arge group

,ames for 06 or more people

Ice!reakers !# categor#

*ctive

*ction packed icebreakers that might cause you to

break a sweat2

,et1to1know1you

Icebreakers that help people get to know each other. !eam building

*ctivities to build teamwork and unity.

Sponsored (inks

#5

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Ice!reakers !# name

+igger and +etter

!he classic teambuilding game of trading and upgrading 1 try to get the biggest

and best item to win2 Dandy Introductions

* fun game that uses multicolored candy to help people get to know each other.

=efend the gg

* teambuilding activity that asks teams to protect a fragile egg by building a

protective stucture out of simple supplies.

=id Cou Nnow? +ingo

*n interactive game that helps people discover interesting facts about other

people.

Fabulous Flags

epresent yourself by designing your own flag2

Fear in a "at* teambuilding activity that asks people to anonymously share their fears and to

place them into a hat.

Four Dorners

* get1to1know1you game involving the four corners of a room.

Icebreaker Luestions

* list of simple 7uestions that are very useful for breaking the ice.

Ning lephant

* silly action game that involves hand motions and acting as animals.

3ost on a =eserted Island

If you were stranded on a island what items would you take with you? * get1to1

know1you game. /ever "ave I ver

* game to see who has and hasnJt had various eperiences2

$ersonal !rivia +aseball

* fun trivia game that combines baseball with a way to learn interesting facts

about people.

$hoto 8cavenger "unt

*n active teambuilding game that sends teams off to take photos of interesting

things in a scavenger hunt2

eact and *ct ,ame

* fast1paced game of improv acting2

8ardines!he classic game of reverse hide1and1go1seek.

8orts and ;ingle

* fun way to see the similarities and differences people have.

8tring ,ame

*n icebreaker that makes use of string or yarn to help people introducethemselves.

#9

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8uperlative ,ame

!he fun game of superlatives2

!elephone Dharades

* hilarious twist on the classic game of telephone involving charades and acting

down the line2

!rust &alk !eambuilding *ctivity!he classic teambuilding activity that re7uires trust and reliance on teammates.

!wo !ruths and a 3ie

*s people introduce themselves figure out which statement is true and which one

is a lie2

Kni7ue and 8hared

*n icebreaker that helps people see their commonalities and uni7ue

characteristics compared with others.

&ho =one It?

* game in which you try to identity who did it2

8hare !his

Introduction

It's the first day of a new semester. In addition to the enthusiasm and optimisminherent in a new beginnings we as teachers also must confront a humbling task: how

to learn the names and faces of the %6 to 46 unfamiliar students epectantly sitting

before us.

*nd we must learn them 7uickly2 In teaching as in so many other fields first

impressions count for much. +efore becoming teachers all of us were studentsE welearned if only subconsciously that teachers who were slow in learning the names of

their students tended to be uninspired and uninspiring. *lthough we certainly don't

want our students to come to that harsh pre-udgment of us we are only human.*lmost all of us find it difficult to put together names with the faces of so many new

people in short order. !he only individuals who seem to succeed apart from

professional memory trainers and sales representatives are politicians.

*ctually there is a techni7ue that can reliably be used to associate the names and

faces of at least 5O of a typical first day class size of %6146 new students. ven

better skillful use (i.e. the right amount of showmanship) of this techni7ue can leave

the impression that you have gotten to know almost all the students' names and facesby the start of the second class meeting.

Step -

+efore coming to class read the class roster several times. Focus on the last names

and honorifics (;r.>;s.). ;emorize as many of them as you can.

#

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+y familiarizing ourselves with the names beforehand we set up a kind of cognitive

dissonance: If we know there is a Gones in the class them we can concentrate on

looking for Gones and remembering what he or she looks like. Knder this procedureparadoically students with unusual names become easier to remember. *t this point

there is no need to focus on the first or given names. !hat -ust increases memoryburden without yielding initial benefits.

Step .

8tart the class by introducing yourself and describing your background and

epectations for the course. Donclude by saying that you would like to learn more

about them but there isn't time for everyone to be as longwinded as you've been.

"and out a 8tudent pectations 8urvey that asks for a nameaddress and phonenumber(s) and includes an open1ended essay 7uestion about backgrounds and

epectations. *llow students at least #5 minutes of writing time.

&hile the students are busy writing take the opportunity to study their faces clothing

styles posture haircuts 1 anything in short that you can use to personalize theindividual student. !his visual information also sets up a cognitive dissonanceE you'll

certainly want to learn the name of the punk rocker with the purple hair.

!he writing eercise is not only a chance to study the physiognomy of your students but is also a way

to take attendance and gauging the overall intellectual potential and interests of your new class.

Step /

In addition to absorbing the tableau of visual information presented by individualstudents set up a mnemonic position framework. For eample in a traditionalclassroom layout call the first row on your left * the second row + and so on.

8imilarly call the first student in row* #E the second % etc. ;odify this positional

framework to fit various possible seating arrangements.

!his framework is the heart of the techni7ues presented. It relies on a curious fact ofstudent sociobiology: students almost invariably return to the same seat they occupied

during the first class or in reasonable proimity. For eample students who choose

to sit in the back of the room on the first day will almost never voluntarily changetheir seats to the front and vise versa. 8tudents who seem to prefer 7uick access to

the door will sooner die than sit over by the windows and vice versa.Step 0

Dollect the student papers. !hen starting with position *# ask the students tointroduce themselves and say a few words about themselves and their epectations

for the course.

#A

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*gain this step like the preceding ones is not very different from ordinary

classroom practice and sound group leadership. +ut it does set up the net step.

Step 1

&hile listening as carefully as possible to what student *# is saying find the nameon the class roster and code *# net to it. (bviously if the student is not on the

roster write in the name and the code.) If you have memorized or nearly memorized

the set of names and have carefully studied the faces and appearances of yourstudents then the positional code will serve as the link or inde between names and

faces2

*t first glance 8tep 5 appears to be the result of cross1pollinating cognitive

psychology with an electronic spreadsheet like 3!K8 #1%10. =espite theresemblance it isn't. Cou might be surprised to learn that the techni7ue described

above is virtually identical to the method used by ancient orators like Dicero todeliver comple orations without reading them to their audiences. (For more

information on the techni7ues consult any scholarly work on ancient oratoryparticularly Frances Cates.)

Step 2

*s soon as you can after class read the 8tudent pectations 8urveys covering up

the names of the student. *ttempt to remember the name based on your recollectionsof what students said in class about themselves. efer to your class roster and

position1code the 8tudent pectations 8urvey so that you can triangulate if

necessary.

!his step provides additional reinforcement of the links between names faces and

places.

Step 3

+efore the second class meeting review the surnames and honorifics of the studentson the class roster. eread the 8urvey and attempt to recollect names faces and

places.

+y this point the ma-ority of the names faces and places should be almostcommitted to memory and if during the second class you don't mind using the rosterwith positional codes as a kind of crib sheet 11 well you can make it seem as thought

you know more names and faces that you really do. In fact with the right amount of

showmanship you can appear to be a close relative of the *mazing Nreskin.

C45C(6SI45S

#B

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;ake no mistake: this techni7ue does re7uire a certain amount of work. 3ike

anything else practice makes it easier and easier to apply. +it is it worth the effort?

!here is no doubt in my mind at least that the pain is worth the gain. In my owncareer as a student I remember that my best teachers always seemed to take some

etra effort to learn (and use) students' names as 7uickly as possible. !he worst (i.e.graduate assistants in large undergraduate lecture courses) never bothered. !eachers

cannot claim to be concerned about how well their students learn if they themselvesdo not try as hard as they can to show they care about one of the most important

possessions anyone can have in a mass civilization: a face and a name

$GIC##Y %#ERN% STUDENTS& N$ES IN $INUTES+y =oug ;adden

"onolulu Dommunity Dollege. $rinted with permission *ugust %9 #BBB.

Cears ago when I was an undergraduate student at the Kniversity of ;iami I had aspeech teacher who amazed me as well as I'm sure the entire class with hisetraordinary recall and ability to memorize things almost instantly. I think most of

my impression was based on his having learned the names of all %5 or so students

in -ust a few minutes. ;uch more recently though when I took a non1credit class inmagic tricks I realized he had probably fooled everyone in the class. emembering

how he demonstrated his purported skill I now think he used a simple old trick

known as pushing a card a magic trick usually performed with playing cards.

&hat the instructor did was have everyone print his or her name ma-or home cityand state and special personal interest (or something like these things) on a 05 card.

"e then collected the cards row by row laid them out in order on his desk took -ust a

couple of minutes to appear to be connecting the information on the cards to thestudents' faces or something then neatly gathered the cards together by row each row

into a small pile. "e then placed the piles upside down one on top of another so that

the last row was on the bottom of the stack and the first row was on the top. ne

eception: I don't actually remember him having done this but I'd guess he lookedespecially hard at the card of the first person in the first row and made sure that that

card ended up out of place on the bottom of the stack.

"e then proceeded to recall the names supposedly from memory. In doing so heessentially introduced the students one by one. From having looked at the first

person's card before he placed it at the bottom of the stack he was able to correctly

introduce the first person. "e then turned over the top card of the stack looked at it

and confirmed that he'd been correct. emember that he'd previously placed the cardof the first person on the bottom of the stack so he was really looking at the card of

the second person.

&hen he went on to the second person of course he knew the person's name because

he'd -ust looked at that person's card (in pretending to be confirming the first person's

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name). "e went through the entire class like this always one card ahead of the one he

was pretending to be reading to confirm a name. ccasionally he'd pretend to have a

little difficulty but in the end he always came up with the correct name. Gust asamazing (so I thought at the time) was his ability to recall where a person was

from what a person's ma-or was etc. Interesting huh?

&ould I recommend this first day activity to other instructors? =one as I !"I/N my

own instructor did it years ago I think it'd be a fairly clear case of misrepresentationand I would not recommend that. +ut with probably a group of students I already

knew and with a clear eplanation at the end that it was really a trick it could be fun

11 and it might serve a good purpose. !he ob-ective ought to be a novel way ofintroducing students and could include opportunities for students to add to their

introductions and respond to other student or instructor 7uestions. &hen at the end it's

revealed to be only a trick it could also provide a light or humorous break in thenormal tension of a first day. *nd of course the instructor ends up with the cards to

use for other purposes later. 8tudent interest in how the trick was done might alsovaluably promote first day involvement and interaction of students. !he activity is

offered here however only as a possibility or idea not as a recommendation andprobably not for everyone.

101 !YS TO CO'E !ITH STRESSDourtesy of the !ripler *rmy ;edical Denter "onolulu "awaii

#. ,et up #5 minutes earlier

%. $repare for the morning the night before

0. *void tight fitting clothes

4. *void relying on chemical aids5. 8et appointments ahead

9. =on't rely on your memory ... write it down

. $ractice preventive maintenanceA. ;ake duplicate keys

B. 8ay no more often

#6. 8et priorities in your life##. *void negative people

#%. Kse time wisely

#0. 8implify meal times#4. *lways make copies of important papers

#5. *nticipate your needs#9. epair anything that doesn't work properly

#. *sk for help with the -obs you dislike#A. +reak large tasks into bite size portions

#B. 3ook at problems as challenges

%6. 3ook at challenges differently%#. Knclutter your life

%%. 8mile

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%0. +e prepared for rain

%4. !ickle a baby%5. $et a friendly dog>cat

%9. =on't know all the answers

%. 3ook for a silver lining

%A. 8ay something nice to someone%B. !each a kid to fly a kite

06. &alk in the rain

0#. 8chedule play time into every day0%. !ake a bubble bath

00. +e aware of the decisions you make

04. +elieve in yourself05. 8top saying negative things to yourself

09. Misualize yourself winning

0. =evelop your sense of humor

0A. 8top thinking tomorrow will be a better today

0B. "ave goals for yourself46. =ance a -ig

4#. 8ay hello to a stranger4%. *sk a friend for a hug

40. 3ook up at the stars

44. $ractice breathing slowly45. 3earn to whistle a tune

49. ead a poem

4. 3isten to a symphony4A. &atch a ballet

4B. ead a story curled up in bed

56. =o a brand new thing5#. 8top a bad habit5%. +uy yourself a flower

50. !ake time to small the flowers

54. Find support from others55. *sk someone to be your vent1partner

59. =o it today

5. &ork at being cheerful and optimistic5A. $ut safety first

5B. =o everything in moderation

96. $ay attention to your appearance

9#. 8trive for cellence /! perfection9%. 8tretch your limits a little each day

90. 3ook at a work of art

94. "um a -ingle95. ;aintain your weight

99. $lant a tree

9. Feed the birds9A. $ractice grace under pressure

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9B. 8tand up and stretch

6. *lways have a plan +#. 3earn a new doodle

%. ;emorize a -oke

0. +e responsible for your feelings

4. 3earn to meet your own needs5. +ecome a better listener

9. Nnow your limitations and let others know them too

. !ell someone to have a good day in pig 3atinA. !hrow a paper airplane

B. ercise every day

A6. 3earn the words to a new songA#. ,et to work early

A%. Dlean out one closet

A0. $lay patty cake with a toddler

A4. ,o on a picnic

A5. !ake a different route to workA9. 3eave work early (with permission)

A. $ut air freshener in your carAA. &atch a movie and eat popcorn

AB. &rite a note to a far away friend

B6. ,o to a ball game and screamB#. Dook a meal and eat it by candlelight

B%. ecognize the importance of unconditional love

B0. emember that stress is an attitudeB4. Neep a -ournal

B5. $ractice a monster smile

B9. emember you always have optionsB. "ave a support network of people places and thingsBA. Luit trying to fi other people

BB. ,et enough sleep

#66.!alk less and listen more#6#.Freely praise other people

+/K8: ela take each day at a time...you have the rest of

your life to live2

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$OTI(TING STUDENTS) * SI$'#E RU#ES FOR TECHERS

+y 3ana +ecker and Nent /. 8chneider ast !ennessee 8tate Kniversity

beckerPetsu.edu or kentPetsu.edu

eprinted from !he !eaching $rofessorby permission from ;agna $ublications Inc. ;adison &is.

www.magnapubs.com. 8ubscriptions and submissions at custservPmagnapubs.com

*ugust>8eptember %664

$rinciples of *ccounting has the reputation of being a hard and boring course. It isdifficult to motivate students to invest the time and effort necessary to succeed in the

course. !o meet this challenge we have assembled a list of eight simple rules for keeping

students focused and motivated. !hese rules are not original and they aren't -ust for thoseof us who teach accounting classes. Indeed most of these time1honored suggestions

apply to any course students find hard and boring and we think that makes them broadly

applicable.

7ule -:mphasize the most critical concepts continuously. eiterate these concepts inlectures and assignments throughout the course. Include 7uestions relating to these

critical sub-ects on every eam thus rewarding students for learning retaining and

hopefully applying this knowledge in a variety of contets.

7ule .:$rovide students with a visual aid when possible to eplain abstract concepts.* significant proportion of today's students are visual learners. For these students a

simple diagram or flowchart truly can be more valuable than a thousand words in a tet

or a lecture.

7ule /: ely on logic when applicable. $oint out to students which information is merelyfact that must be memorized and which course material is based upon logic. 8how

students how to employ logical thinking to learn and retain new information. For

eample in the double1entry bookkeeping system debits e7ual credits and debitentries cause assets to increase. !hese are facts or features of the systemE they are not

based on logic. "owever once the student accepts the system logic can be used to

operate within the system. Dontinuing the eample if debit entries increase assets it islogical that credit entries will cause assets to decrease.

7ule 0:Kse in1class activities to reinforce newly presented material. *fter a new concept

or sub-ect has been presented via tet reading lecture or class discussion allow thestudents to put the concept into action by completing an in1class assignment. !heseassignments can be short but they must be developed to ensure that the students

understand the critical concepts underlying the new material. !ypically the most learning

takes place when the students are permitted to work in small groups to refer to their tetand notes and to ask 7uestions of the instructor while completing the assignment. If these

in1class assignments are part of the course grading scheme class attendance also

improves.

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7ule 1:"elp students create a link when teaching something new. If the student can

link the new material to something already learned the odds of learning the new

material are greatly increased. amples of possible links include: prior material learnedin this course (e.g. the critical concepts described in ule #) material learned in

prere7uisite courses and real1life eperiences of the students outside the classroom.

7ule 2:ecognize the importance of vocabulary in a course. 8tudents often struggle with

new vocabulary in many courses especially introductory ones. !o succeed in thesecourses students must become comfortable with the new terminology. *s sub-ects are

presented new and>or confusing terms should be identified and introduced to the

students. $resent real1world definitions and alternative terminology in addition totetbook definitions. ne way to help students assimilate the course vocabulary is to

create a living glossary on the instructor's website where new terminology is added

eplained and illustrated throughout the course.

7ule 3:!reat students with respect. $atronizing behavior may be epected in primary

school teachers and :drill sergeant strategies may be effective in military book camps."owever most college student will not respond well to these techni7ues. ,ive students

their dignity and they will give you their best efforts.

7ule 8:"old students to a high standard. If students are not re7uired to maintain aspecified level of learning and performance only the most highly motivated students will

devote the time and effort necessary to learn. In contrast maintaining high standards not

only will motivate student learning it will also be the source of student feelings ofaccomplishment when those standards are met.

ach of these rules can help motivate even the most lethargic student but ule and A

are the most important. If students are not treated with respect and held to a highstandard scrupulously following the first si rules will have much less impact and mightend up being an eercise in futility.

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+0 THINGS !E "NO! FOR SURE BOUT DU#T #ERNING+y on and 8usan Qemke

(nnovation !bstractsMol MI /o A ;arch B #BA4

* variety of sources provides us with a body of fairly reliable knowledge about adultlearning. !his knowledge might be divided into three basic divisions: things we know

about adult learners and their motivation things we know about designing curriculumfor adults and things we know about working with adults in the classroom.

Motivation to (earn

#. *dults seek out learning eperiences in order to cope with specific life1

changing events11e.g. marriage divorce a new -ob a promotion being firedretiring losing a loved one moving to a new city.

%. !he more life change events an adult encounters the more likely he or she isto seek out learning opportunities. Gust as stress increases as life1changeevents accumulate the motivation to cope with change through engagement in

a learning eperience increases.

0. !he learning eperiences adults seek out on their own are directly related 1 at

least in their perception 1 to the life1change events that triggered the seeking.4. *dults are generally willing to engage in learning eperiences before after or

even during the actual life change event. nce convinced that the change is a

certainty adults will engage in any learning that promises to help them copewith the transition.

5. *dults who are motivated to seek out a learning eperience do so primarily

because they have a use for the knowledge or skill being sought. 3earning is ameans to an end not an end in itself.

9. Increasing or maintaining one's sense of self1esteem and pleasure are strong

secondary motivators for engaging in learning eperiences.

Curriculum Design

#. *dult learners tend to be less interested in and enthralled by survey courses.

!hey tend to prefer single concept single1theory courses that focus heavily on

the application of the concept to relevant problems. !his tendency increaseswith age.

%. *dults need to be able to integrate new ideas with what they already know ifthey are going to keep 1 and use 1 the new information.

0. Information that conflicts sharply with what is already held to be true and

thus forces a re1evaluation of the old material is integrated more slowly.4. Information that has little conceptual overlap with what is already known is

ac7uired slowly.

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5. Fast1paced comple or unusual learning tasks interfere with the learning of

the concepts or data they are intended to teach or illustrate.

9. *dults tend to compensate for being slower in some psychomotor learningtasks by being more accurate and making fewer trial1and1error ventures.

. *dults tend to take errors personally and are more likely to let them affect

self1esteem. !herefore they tend to apply tried1and1true solutions and takefewer risks.

A. !he curriculum designer must know whether the concepts or ideas will be in

concert or in conflict with the learner. 8ome instruction must be designed toeffect a change in belief and value systems.

B. $rograms need to be designed to accept viewpoints from people in different

life stages and with different value sets.

#6. * concept needs to be anchored or eplained from more than one value setand appeal to more than one developmental life stage.

##. *dults prefer self1directed and self1designed learning pro-ects over group1

learning eperiences led by a professional they select more than one medium

for learning and they desire to control pace and start>stop time.#%. /onhuman media such as books programmed instruction and television have

become popular with adults in recent years.#0. egardless of media straightforward how1to is the preferred content

orientation. *dults cite a need for application and how1to information as the

primary motivation for beginning a learning pro-ect.

#4. 8elf1direction does not mean isolation. 8tudies of self1directed learningindicate that self1directed pro-ects involve an average of #6 other people as

resources guides encouragers and the like. +ut even for the self1professed

self1directed learner lectures and short seminars get positive ratings

especially when these events give the learner face1to1face one1to1one accessto an epert.

In the Classroom

#. !he learning environment must be physically and psychologically

comfortableE long lectures periods of interminable sitting and the absence ofpractice opportunities rate high on the irritation scale.

%. *dults have something real to lose in a classroom situation. 8elf1esteem and

ego are on the line when they are asked to risk trying a new behavior in front

of peers and cohorts. +ad eperiences in traditional education feelings aboutauthority and the preoccupation with events outside the classroom affect in1

class eperience.

0. *dults have epectations and it is critical to take time early on to clarify andarticulate all epectations before getting into content. !he instructor can

assume responsibility only for his or her own epectations not for those of

students.4. *dults bring a great deal of life eperience into the classroom an invaluable

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asset to be acknowledged tapped and used. *dults can learn well 1and much 1

from dialogue with respected peers.

5. Instructors who have a tendency to hold forth rather than facilitate can holdthat tendency in check11or compensate for it11by concentrating on the use of

open1ended 7uestions to draw out relevant student knowledge and eperience.

9. /ew knowledge has to be integrated with previous knowledgeE students mustactively participate in the learning eperience. !he learner is dependent on the

instructor for confirming feedback on skill practiceE the instructor is

dependent on the learner for feedback about curriculum and in1classperformance.

. !he key to the instructor role is control. !he instructor must balance the

presentation of new material debate and discussion sharing of relevant

student eperiences and the clock. Ironically it seems that instructors are bestable to establish control when they risk giving it up. &hen they shelve egos

and stifle the tendency to be threatened by challenge to plans and methods

they gain the kind of facilitative control needed to effect adult learning.

A. !he instructor has to protect minority opinion keep disagreements civil andunheated make connections between various opinions and ideas and keep

reminding the group of the variety of potential solutions to the problem. !heinstructor is less advocate than orchestrator.

B. Integration of new knowledge and skill re7uires transition time and focused

effort on application.#6. 3earning and teaching theories function better as resources than as a osetta

stone. * skill1training task can draw much from the behavioral approach for

eample while personal growth1centered sub-ects seem to draw gainfully

from humanistic concepts. *n eclectic rather than a single theory1basedapproach to developing strategies and procedures is recommended for

matching instruction to learning tasks.

!he net five years will eclipse the last fifty in terms of hard data production on adult

learning. For the present we must recognize that adults want their learning to beproblem1oriented personalized and accepting of their need for self1direction and

personal responsibility.

%A

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$S#O!&S HIERRCHY OF NEEDSfrom $sychology 1 !he 8earch for Knderstanding

by Ganet *. 8imons =onald +. Irwin and +everly *. =rinnien

&est $ublishing Dompany /ew Cork #BA

*braham ;aslowdeveloped a theory of personality that has influenced a number ofdifferent fields including education. !his wide influence is due in part to the high

level of practicality of ;aslow's theory. !his theory accurately describes many

realities of personal eperiences. ;any people find they can understand what ;aslowsays. !hey can recognize some features of their eperience or behavior which is true

and identifiable but which they have never put into words.

;aslow is a humanistic psychologist. "umanists do not believe that human beings

are pushed and pulled by mechanical forces either of stimuli and reinforcements(behaviorism) or of unconscious instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis). "umanists

focus upon potentials. !hey believe that humans strive for an upper level ofcapabilities. "umans seek the frontiers of creativity the highest reaches of

consciousness and wisdom. !his has been labeled fully functioning personhealthy personality or as ;aslow calls this level self1actualizing person.

;aslow has set up a hierarchic theory of needs. *ll of his basic needs are instinctoid

e7uivalent of instincts in animals. "umans start with a very weak disposition that isthen fashioned fully as the person grows. If the environment is right people will

grow straight and beautiful actualizing the potentials they have inherited. If the

environment is not right (and mostly it is not) they will not grow tall and straight

and beautiful.

;aslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs. +eyond these needs

higher levels of needs eist. !hese include needs for understanding esthetic

appreciation and purely spiritual needs. In the levels of the five basic needs theperson does not feel the second need until the demands of the first have been

satisfied nor the third until the second has been satisfied and so on. ;aslow's basic

needs are as follows:

Ph#siological 5eeds!hese are biological needs. !hey consist of needs for oygen food water and

a relatively constant body temperature. !hey are the strongest needs because

if a person were deprived of all needs the physiological ones would comefirst in the person's search for satisfaction.

Safet# 5eeds

&hen all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling

thoughts and behaviors the needs for security can become active. *dults havelittle awareness of their security needs ecept in times of emergency or

periods of disorganization in the social structure (such as widespread rioting).

Dhildren often display the signs of insecurity and the need to be safe.

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5eeds of (ove* 'ffection and "elongingness

&hen the needs for safety and for physiological well1being are satisfied thenet class of needs for love affection and belongingness can emerge. ;aslow

states that people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation. !his

involves both giving and receiving love affection and the sense of belonging.

5eeds for Esteem&hen the first three classes of needs are satisfied the needs for esteem can

become dominant. !hese involve needs for both self1esteem and for the

esteem a person gets from others. "umans have a need for a stable firmlybased high level of self1respect and respect from others. &hen these needs

are satisfied the person feels self1confident and valuable as a person in the

world. &hen these needs are frustrated the person feels inferior weakhelpless and worthless.

5eeds for Self9'ctuali,ation

&hen all of the foregoing needs are satisfied then and only then are the needs

for self1actualization activated. ;aslow describes self1actualization as a

person's need to be and do that which the person was born to do. *musician must make music an artist must paint and a poet must write. !hese

needs make themselves felt in signs of restlessness. !he person feels on edgetense lacking something in short restless. If a person is hungry unsafe not

loved or accepted or lacking self1esteem it is very easy to know what the

person is restless about. It is not always clear what a person wants when thereis a need for self1actualization.

!he hierarchic theory is often represented as a pyramid with the larger lower levels

representing the lower needs and the upper point representing the need for self1

actualization. ;aslow believes that the only reason that people would not move well

in direction of self1actualization is because of hindrances placed in their way bysociety. "e states that education is one of these hindrances. "e recommends ways

education can switch from its usual person1stunting tactics to person1growingapproaches. ;aslow states that educators should respond to the potential an

individual has for growing into a self1actualizing person of his>her own kind. !en

points that educators should address are listed:

#. &e should teach people to be authentic%to be aware of their inner selves andto hear their inner1feeling voices.

%. &e should teach people to transcend their cultural conditioning and become

world citizens.

0. &e should help people discover their vocation in life%their calling fate ordestiny. !his is especially focused on finding the right career and the right

mate.

4. &e should teach people that life is precious%that there is -oy to be eperiencedin life and if people are open to seeing the good and -oyous in all kinds of

situations it makes life worth living.

5. &e must accept the personas he or she is and help the person learn their innernature. From real knowledge of aptitudes and limitations we can know what

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to build upon what potentials are really there.

9. &e must see that the person's basic needs are satisfied,!his includes safetybelongingness and esteem needs.

. &e should refreshen consciousness%teaching the person to appreciate beauty

and the other good things in nature and in living.

A. &e should teach people that controls are good%and complete abandon is bad.It takes control to improve the 7uality of life in all areas.

B. &e should teach people to transcend the trifling problems andgrapple #ith

the serious proble)s in life,!hese include the problems of in-ustice of painsuffering and death.

#6. &e must teach people to begood choosers,!hey must be given practice in

making good choices.

,UI--ES. TESTS. ND E/$S

+y +arbara ,ross =avis Kniversity of Dalifornia +erkeley.

From Tools for Teaching,copyright by Gossey1+ass. For purchase or reprint information

contactGossey1+ass. eprinted here with permission 8eptember # #BBB.

;any teachers dislike preparing and grading eams and most students dread taking

them. Cet tests are powerful educational tools that serve at least four functions. Firsttests help you evaluate students and assess whether they are learning what you are

epecting them to learn. 8econd well1designed tests serve to motivate and help

students structure their academic efforts. Drooks (#BAA) ;cNeachie (#BA9) and

&ergin (#BAA) report that students study in ways that reflect how they think they willbe tested. If they epect an eam focused on facts they will memorize detailsE if they

epect a test that will re7uire problem solving or integrating knowledge they willwork toward understanding and applying information. !hird tests can help youunderstand how successfully you are presenting the material. Finally tests can

reinforce learning by providing students with indicators of what topics or skills they

have not yet mastered and should concentrate on. =espite these benefits testing isalso emotionally charged and aniety producing. !he following suggestions can

enhance your ability to design tests that are effective in motivating measuring and

reinforcing learning.

* note on terminology: instructors often use the terms tests% exa)s% and even -ui..esinterchangeably. !est eperts Gacobs and Dhase (#BB%) however make distinctions

among them based on the scope of content covered and their weight or importance incalculating the final grade for the course. *n eamination is the most comprehensiveform of testing typically given at the end of the term (as a final) and one or two times

during the semester (as midterms). * test is more limited in scope focusing on

particular aspects of the course material. * course might have three or four tests. *

7uiz is even more limited and usually is administered in fifteen minutes or less.!hough these distinctions are useful the terms test and exa) #illbe used

interchangeably throughout the rest of this section because the principles in planning

0#

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constructing and administering them are similar.

+eneral Strategies

Spend adeuate amounts of time developing #our tests;*s you prepare a testthink carefully about the learning outcomes you wish to measure the type of itemsbest suited to those outcomes the range of difficulty of items the length and time

limits for the test the format and layout of the eam and your scoring procedures.

Match #our tests to the content #ou are teaching;Ideally the tests you give will

measure students' achievement of your educational goals for the course. !est itemsshould be based on the content and skills that are most important for your students to

learn. !o keep track of how well your tests reflect your ob-ectives you can construct

a grid listing your course ob-ectives along the side of the page and content areasalong the top. For each test item check off the ob-ective and content it covers.

(8ources: ricksen #B9BE Gacobs and Dhase #BB%E 8vinicki and &oodward #BA%)

Tr# to make #our tests valid* relia!le* and !alanced;* test is valid if its results are

appropriateand useful for making decisions about an aspect of students' achievement(,ronlund and 3inn #BB6). !echnically validity refers to the appropriateness of the

interpretation of the results and not to the test itself though collo7uially we speak

about a test being valid. Malidity is a matter of degree and considered in relation tospecific use or interpretation (,ronlund and 3inn #BB6). For eample the results of a

writing test may have a high degree of validity for indicating the level of a student's

composition skills a moderate degree of validity for predicting success in later

composition courses and essentially no validity for predicting success in

mathematics or physics. Malidity can be difficult to determine. * practical approach isto focus on content validity% the etent to which the content of the test represents an

ade7uate sampling of the knowledge and skills taught in the course. If you design thetest to cover information in lectures and readings in proportion to their importance in

the course then the interpretations of test scores are likely to have greater validity *n

eam that consists of only a few difficult items however will not yield validinterpretations of what students know.

* test is reliable if it accurately and consistently evaluates a student's performance.

!he purest measure of reliability would entail having a group of students take the

same test twice and get the same scores (assuming that we could erase their memories

of test items from the first administration). !his is impractical of course but there aretechnical procedures for determining reliability. In general ambiguous 7uestions

unclear directions and vague scoring criteria threaten reliability. Mery short tests arealso unlikely to be highly reliable. It is also important for a test to be balanced: to

cover most of the main ideas and important concepts in proportion to the emphasis

they received in class.

If you are interested in learning more about psychometric concepts and the technical

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properties of tests here are some books you might review:

bel . 3. and Frisbie =.!, Essentials of Educational +easure)ent, (5th ed.)

nglewood Dliffs /.G.: $rentice1"all #BB6.

,ronlund /. . and 3inn .+easure)ent and Evaluation in &eaching, (9th ed.)/ew Cork: ;acmillan #BB6.

;ehrens W, !,% and 3ehmann(. G.+easure)ent and Evaluation in Education and

Psychology, (4th ed.) /ew Cork: "olt inehart R &inston #BB#.

6se a variet# of testing methods;esearch shows that students vary in their

preferences for different formats so using a variety of methods will help students dotheir best (Gacobs and Dhase #BB%). ;ultiple1choice or shortanswer 7uestions are

appropriate for assessing students' mastery of details and specific knowledge while

essay 7uestions assess comprehension the ability to integrate and synthesize and theability to apply information to new situations.! single test can have several formats.

!ry to avoid introducing a new format on the final eam: if you have given all

multiple1choice 7uizzes or midterms don't ask students to write an all1essay final.(8ources: Gacobs and Dhase #BB%E 3owman #BA4E ;cNeachie #BA9E 8vinicki

#BA)

Write uestions that test skills other than recall;esearch shows that most tests

administered by faculty rely too heavily on students' recall of information (;ilton$ollio and ison #BA9). +loom (#B59) argues that it is important for tests to measure

higher1learning as well. Fuhrmann and ,rasha (#BA0 p. #6) have adapted +loom's

taonomy for test development. "ere is a condensation of their list:

!o measure kno#ledge (common terms facts principles procedures) ask these kindsof 7uestions: =efine =escribe Identify 3abel 3ist ;atch /ame utline

eproduce 8elect 8tate. ample: 3ist the steps involved in titration.

!o measure co)prehension (understanding of facts and principles interpretation of

material) ask these kinds of 7uestions: Donvert =efend =istinguish stimateplain tend ,eneralize ,ive eamples Infer $redict 8ummarize. ample:

8ummarize the basic tenets of deconstructionism.

!o measure application (solving problems applying concepts and principles to newsituations) ask these kinds of 7uestions: =emonstrate ;odify perate $repare$roduce elate 8how 8olve Kse. ample: Dalculate the deflection of a beam

under uniform loading.

!o measure analysis (recognition of unstated assumptions or logical fallacies ability

to distinguish between facts and inferences) ask these kinds of 7uestions: =iagram=ifferentiate =istinguish Illustrate Infer $oint out elate 8elect 8eparate

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8ubdivide. ample: In the president's 8tate of the Knion *ddress which statements

are based on facts and which are based on assumptions?

!o measuresynthesis (integrate learning from different areas or solve problems by

creative thinking) ask these kinds of 7uestions: Dategorize Dombine Dompile=evise =esign plain ,enerate rganize $lan earrange econstruct evise

!ell. ample: "ow would you restructure the school day to reflect children's

developmental needs?

!o measure evaluation (-udging and assessing) ask these kinds of 7uestions:*ppraise Dompare Donclude Dontrast Driticize =escribe =iscriminate plain

Gustify Interpret 8upport. ample: &hy is +ach's ;ass in + ;inor acknowledged

as a classic?

;any faculty members have found it difficult to apply this si1level taonomy and

some educators have simplified and collapsed the taonomy into three general levels(Drooks #BAA): !he first category knowledge (recall or recognition of specific

information). !he second category combines comprehension and application. !hethird category is described as problem solving transferring eisting knowledge and

skills to new situations.

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of the relationships between words and definitions events and dates categories and

eamples and so on. 8ee ;ultiple1Dhoice and ;atching !ests for suggestions

about developing this type of test.

Essa# tests;ssay tests enable you to -udge students' abilities to organize integrateinterpret material and epress themselves in their own words. esearch indicates that

students study more efficiently for essay1type eaminations than for selection

(multiple1choice) tests: students preparing for essay tests focus on broad issuesgeneral concepts and interrelationships rather than on specific details and this

studying results in somewhat better student performance regardless of the type of

eam they are given (;cNeachie #BA9). ssay tests also give you an opportunity tocomment on students' progress the 7uality of their thinking the depth of their

understanding and the difficulties they may be having. "owever because essay tests

pose only a few 7uestions their content validity may be low. In addition the

reliability of essay tests is compromised by sub-ectivity or inconsistencies in grading.

For specific advice see 8hort1*nswer and ssay !ests. (8ources: ricksen #B9B;cNeachie #BA9)

* variation of an essay test asks students to correct mock answers. ne faculty

member prepares a test that re7uires students to correct epand or refute mockessays. !wo weeks before the eam date he distributes ten to twelve essay 7uestions

which he discusses with students in class. For the actual eam he selects four of the

7uestions and prepares well1written but intellectually flawed answers for the studentsto edit correct epand and refute. !he mock essays contain common

misunderstandings correct but incomplete responses or absurd notionsE in some

cases the answer has only one or two flaws. "e reports that students seem to en-oy

this type of test more than traditional eaminations.

Short9answer tests;=epending on your ob-ectives short1answer 7uestions can call

for one or two sentences or a long paragraph. 8hort1answer tests are easier to write

though they take longer to score than multiple1choice tests.

!hey also give you some opportunity to see how well students can epress theirthoughts though they are not as useful as longer essay responses for this purpose. 8ee

8hort1*nswer and ssay !ests for detailed guidelines.

Pro!lem sets;In courses in mathematics and the sciences your tests can include

problem sets. *s a rule of thumb allow students ten minutes to solve a problem youcan do in two minutes. 8ee "omework: $roblem 8ets for advice on creating and

grading problem sets.

4ral e)ams;!hough common at the graduate level oral eams are rarely used forundergraduates ecept in foreign language classes. In other classes they are usually

time1consuming too aniety provoking for students and difficult to score unless the

instructor tape1records the answers. "owever a math professor has eperimented

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with individual thirty1minute oral tests in a small seminar class. 8tudents receive the

7uestions in advance and are allowed to drop one of their choosing. =uring the oral

eam the professor probes students' level of understanding of the theory andprinciples behind the theorems. "e reports that about eight students per day can be

tested.

Performance tests;$erformance tests ask students to demonstrate proficiency in

conducting an eperiment eecuting a series of steps in a reasonable amount of timefollowing instructions creating drawings manipulating materials or e7uipment or

reacting to real or simulated situations. $erformance tests can be administered

individually or in groups. !hey are seldom used in colleges and universities becausethey are logistically difficult to set up hard to score and the content of most courses

does not necessarily lend itself to this type of testing. "owever performance tests can

be useful in classes that re7uire students to demonstrate their skills (for eample

health fields the sciences education). If you use performance tests *nderson (#BA

p. 40) recommends that you do the following (I have slightly modified her list):

8pecify the criteria to be used for rating or scoring (for eample the level of

accuracy in performing the steps in se7uence or completing the task within a

specified time limit).

8tate the problem so that students know eactly what they are supposed to do

(if possible conditions of a performance test should mirror a real1life

situation).

,ive students a chance to perform the task more than once or to perform

several task samples.

>Create9a9game> e)ams;For one midterm ask students to create either a boardgame word game or trivia game that covers the range of information relevant to

your course. 8tudents must include the rules game board game pieces and whateverelse is needed to play. For eample students in a history of psychology class created

Freud's Inner Dircle in which students move tokens such as small cigars and toilet

seats around a board each time they answer a 7uestion correctly and $sychogoriesa card game in which players select and discard cards until they have a full hand of

theoretically compatible psychological theories beliefs or assumptions. (8ource:

+errenberg and $rosser #BB#)

'lternative Testing Modes

Take9home tests;!ake1home tests allow students to work at their own pace with

access to books and materials. !ake1home tests also permit longer and more involved

7uestions without sacrificing valuable class time for eams. $roblem sets short

answers and essays are the most appropriate kinds of take1home eams. +e warythough of designing a take1home eam that is too difficult or an eam that does not

include limits on the number of words or time spent (Gedrey #BA4). *lso be sure to

give students eplicit instructions on what they can and cannot do: for eample are

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they allowed to talk to other students about their answers? * variation of a take1home

test is to give the topics in advance but ask the students to write their answers in

class. 8ome faculty hand out ten or twelve 7uestions the week before an eam andannounce that three of those 7uestions will appear on the eam.

4pen9!ook tests;pen1book tests simulate the situations professionals face everyday when they use resources to solve problems prepare reports or write memos.

pen1book tests tend to be inappropriate in introductory courses in which facts mustbe learned or skills thoroughly mastered if the student is to progress to more

complicated concepts and techni7ues in advanced courses. n an open1book test

students who are lacking basic knowledge may waste too much of their timeconsulting their references rather than writing. pen1book tests appear to reduce

stress (+oniface #BA5E 3iska and 8imonson #BB#) but research shows that students

do not necessarily perform significantly better on open1book tests (Dlift and Imrie#BA#E Drooks #BAA). Further open1book tests seem to reduce students' motivation to

study. * compromise between open1 and closed1book testing is to let students bring

an inde card or one page of notes to the eam or to distribute appropriate referencematerial such as e7uations or formulas as part of the test.

+roup e)ams;8ome faculty have successfully eperimented with group eams

either in class or as take1home pro-ects. Faculty report that groups outperform

individuals and that students respond positively to group eams (,eiger #BB#E"endrickson #BB6E Neyworth #BABE !oppins #BAB). For eample for a fifty1minute

in1class eam use a multiple1choice test of about twenty to twenty1five items. For the

first test the groups can be randomly divided. ,roups of three to five students seem

to work best. For subse7uent tests you may want to assign students to groups in waysthat minimize differences between group scores and balance talkative and 7uiet

students. r you might want to group students who are performing at or near thesame level (based on students' performance on individual tests). 8ome faculty havestudents complete the test individually before meeting as a group. thers -ust let the

groups discuss the test item by item. In the first case if the group score is higher than

the individual score of any member bonus points are added to each individual'sscore. In the second case each student receives the score of the group. Faculty who

use group eams offer the following tips:

*sk students to discuss each 7uestion fully and weigh the merits of each

answer rather than simply vote on an answer.

If you assign problems have each student work a problem and then compare

results. If you want students to take the eam individually first consider devoting two

class periods to testsE one for individual work and the other for group.

8how students the distribution of their scores as individuals and as groupsE in

most cases group scores will be higher than any single individual score.

* variation of this idea is to have students first work on an eam in groups outside of

class. 8tudents then complete the eam individually during class time and receive

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their own score. 8ome portion of the test items are derived from the group eam. !he

rest are new 7uestions. r let students know in advance you will be asking them to

-ustify a few of their responsesE this will keep students from blithely relying on theirwork group for all the answers. (8ources: ,eiger #BB#E "endrickson #BB6E

Neyworth #BABE ;urray #BB6E !oppins #BAB)

Paired testing;For paired eams pairs of students work on a single essay eam and

the two students turn in one paper. 8ome students may be reluctant to share a gradebut good students will most likely earn the same grade they would have working

alone. $airs can be self1selected or assigned. For eample pairing a student who is

doing well in the course with one not doing well allows for some peer teaching. *variation is to have students work in teams but submit individual answer sheets.

(8ource: ;urray #BB6)

Portfolios;* portfolio is not a specific test but rather a cumulative collection of a

student's work. 8tudents decide what eamples to include that characterize theirgrowth and accomplishment over the term. &hile most common in composition

classes portfolios are beginning to be used in other disciplines to provide a fuller

picture of students' achievements. * student's portfolio might include sample papers

(first drafts and revisions) -ournal entries essay eams and other workrepresentative of the student's progress. Cou can assign portfolios a letter grade or a

pass>not pass. If you do grade portfolios you will need to establish clear criteria.

(8ource: Gacobs and Dhase #BB%)

Construction of Effective E)ams

Prepare new e)ams each time #ou teach a course;!hough it is timeconsuming todevelop tests a past eam may not reflect changes in how you have presented the

material or which topics you have emphasized in the course. If you do write a neweam you can make copies of the old eam available to students.

Make up test items throughout the term;=on't wait until a week or so before the

eam. ne way to make sure the eam reflects the topics emphasized in the course is

to write test 7uestions at the end of each class session and place them on inde cardsor computer files for later sorting. 8oftware that allows you to create test banks of

items and generate eams from the pool is now available.

'sk students to su!mit test uestions;Faculty who use this techni7ue limit thenumber of items a student can submit and receive credit for. "ere is an eample(adapted from +uchanan and ogers #BB6 p. %):

Cou can submit up to two 7uestions per eam. ach 7uestion must be typed or legibly

printed on a separate 5 A card. !he correct answer and the source (that is page ofthe tet date of lecture and so on) must be provided for each 7uestion. Luestions can

be of the short1answer multiple1choice or essay type.

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8tudents receive a few points of additional credit for each 7uestion they submit that is

-udged appropriate. /ot all students will take advantage of this opportunity. Cou can

select or adapt student's test items for the eam. If you have a large lecture class tellyour students that you might not review all items but will draw randomly from the

pool until you have enough 7uestions for the eam. (8ources: +uchanan and ogers#BB6E Fuhrmann and ,rasha #BA0)

Cull items from colleagues& e)ams;*sk colleagues at other institutions for copies oftheir eams. +e careful though about using items from tests given by colleagues on

your own campus. 8ome of your students may have previously seen those tests.

Consider making #our tests cumulative;Dumulative tests re7uire students to

review material they have already studied thus reinforcing what they have learned.Dumulative tests also give students a chance to integrate and synthesize course

content. (8ources: Drooks #BAAE Gacobs and Dhase #BB%E 8vinicki #BA)

Prepare clear instructions;!est your instructions by asking a colleague (or one of

your graduate student instructors) to read them.

Include a few words of advice and encouragement on the e)am;For eample

give students advice on how much time to spend on each section or offer a hint at the

beginning of an essay 7uestion or wish students good luck. (8ource: ams:

*lternative Ideas and *pproaches #BAB)

Put some eas# items first;$lace several 7uestions all your students can answer near

the beginning of the eam. *nswering easier 7uestions helps students overcome their

nervousness and may help them feel confident that they can succeed on the eam.Cou can also use the first few 7uestions to identify students in serious academicdifficulty. (8ource: 8avitz #BA5)

Challenge #our !est students;8ome instructors like to include at least one very

difficult 7uestion 11 though not a trick 7uestion or a trivial one 11 to challenge theinterest of the best students. !hey place that 7uestion at or near the end of the eam.

Tr# out the timing;/o purpose is served by creating a test too long for even well1

prepared students to finish and review before turning it in. *s a rule of thumb allow

about one1half minute per item for true1false tests one minute per item for multiple1

choice tests two minutes per short1answer re7uiring a few sentences ten or fifteenminutes for a limited essay 7uestion and about thirty minutes for a broader essay

7uestion. *llow another five or ten minutes for students to review their work and

factor in time to distribute and collect the tests. *nother rule of thumb is to allowstudents about four times as long as it takes you (or a graduate student instructor) to

complete the test. (8ource: ;cNeachie #BA9)

+ive some thought to the la#out of the test;Kse margins and line spacing that

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make the test easy to read. If items are worth different numbers of points indicate the

point value net to each item. ,roup similar types of items such as all true1false

7uestions together. Neep in mind that the amount of space you leave for short1answer7uestions often signifies to the students the length of the answer epected of them. If

students are to write on the eam rather than in a blue book leave space at the top ofeach page for the student's name (and section if appropriate). If each page is

identified the eams can be separated so that each graduate student instructor cangrade the same 7uestions on every test paper for courses that have ,8Is.

,i2 #in2s)Go to Topics 3;

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Co6e o4 Ethis in 'o3er'oint

"e invite you to copy this presentation and share it with yourcolleagues. The slide show can be used to spur discussion in avariety o% settings. Consider including it inEvaluation>

=oing good evaluation is like doing good research. In both cases you are trying to

answer some important 7uestions about an important topic. !he key to doing both

activities well is (a) identifying the right 7uestions to ask and (b) figuring out how toanswer them.

&hat are the key 7uestions in the evaluation of teaching? +asically they are: "owwell am I teaching? &hich aspects of my teaching are good and which need to be

improved? !he first 7uestion attempts to provide a global assessment while the

second is analytical and diagnostic in character.

+efore moving to the task of figuring out how to answer these 7uestions we shouldlook at the reasons for taking time to evaluate.

Wh# Evaluate?

It takes a certain amount of time and effort to effectively evaluate our own teaching.

Is this a wise use of time? I would argue that it is for three reasons.

#. First consider the following diagram:

Figure #

The Effect of Evaluation on 4ur Teaching

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egardless of how good or how poor we are as teachers we all have thepotential to get better over time (see the arrow in Figure #). Cet some teachers

continually improve and approach their potential (see arrow) while others

eperience a modest improvement early in their career and then seem to level

off in 7uality or sometimes even decline (see arrow). &hy? I would argue thatthe primary difference between those who do and those who do not improve

is that only the former gather information about their teaching and make an

effort to improve some aspect of it 11 every time they teach.

%. * second reason to evaluate is to document the 7uality of one's teaching for

others. *ll career professionals have other people who need to know about the

7uality of their teaching. It may be the person's current department orinstitution head or it may be a potential employer. +ut once people teach

they have a track record and others need and want to know how well they

taught. !he only way a teacher can provide them with that information is to

gather it and that means evaluation. !eaching portfolios are becoming acommon way of communicating this information to others. *s it turns out

putting a portfolio together also helps the teacher understand his or her own

teaching better. (8ee Qubizarreta this volume.)0. !hird there is a very personal and human need to evaluate. !his is for our

own mental and psychological satisfaction. It is one thing to do a good -ob

and think that it went wellE it is 7uite another and a far more en-oyableeperience to have solid information and thereby know we did a good -ob.

!hat knowledge that certainty is possible only if we do a thorough -ob of

evaluation.

If evaluation is worth doing then how do we do it?

$ive Sources of Information

!here are five basic sources of information that teachers can use to evaluate their