151 personality2

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INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES II :

PERSONALITY


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Conceptualization of Personality -

Personality is everything that a person is,distinct from anyone else.

It has been defined in many different ways

but all definitions have the following

common features:

Consistency within the same person,

across situationsmakes personality

predictable for a person ;

Uniquenessno person is exactly thesame as any other person.


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PERVIN :

Personality represents those characteristics

of the person that account for consistent

patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving.

G.W. ALLPORT :

Personality is .the dynamic organization

within the individual of those psychophysicalsystems that determines his characteristic

behaviour and thought.


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Questions that have been raised:

1. Exactly what does personality consist of2. How can it be assessed ?

3. What are the differences between

various models/ theories of personality ?4. Can personality be changed ?


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1. Exactly what does personality consist of ?

Answered in the form of numerous theories ofpersonality.

These various approaches to Personalitycan be classified broadly into

Structural theoriesemphasize the

building blocks of personality- WHAT..? Process-oriented theoriesemphasize

what takes place within personalityfunctioning HOW?;

Motivational theoriesemphasize theWHY..? of personality : may include bothstructural and process components.


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2. How can it be assessed ?

Most personality theories propose some

form of assessmentqualitative, orquantitative.

Structural theories - questionnaires/

inventories based on psychometric methods.Process and Motivational theoriesmay use

questionnaires and other methods (e.g.

interviews).

The methods reflect the core ideas of

respective personality theories.


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3. What are the differences between

various models/ theories of personality ?

Differences/ similarities in approach

become clear when we examine the main

ideas proposed by each theory, and the

method(s) each theory adopts.

All approaches contain the consistency

and uniqueness features.

General principle -

All individuals are similar in some respects,

and different in some others.


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Structural theoriesTrait theories

Type theories

Process theories

Learning/ Social learning theoriesCognitive theories

Motivational theories

Humanistic theories

Psychoanalytic and neo-Freudian theories


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Structural theoriesTrait theories.

In the trait theories, personality is defined/

described in terms of unit or characteristics

called TRAITS.

A trait is a consistently shown quality of anindividual, expressed across a variety of

situations.Traits are described as adjectives

describing human qualities.

Traits are derived on the basis of FACTORANALYSIS - involves a long process ofcollecting data (from very large samples),and judgments from experts.


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CATTELLproposed a sound trait theory,

based on psychometric methods.

Several pools of adjectives describinghuman qualities were collected from alarge number of subjects.

This large pool was systematically reduced

to a smaller set of adjectives, using the

detailed statistical technique calledFACTOR ANALYSIS. At the end, a set of 16

personality factors emerged that would

sum up the structure of personality.


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Distinction between :

1. Surface andSource traits

Surface traits express behaviours only at an

external levelthey appear to be inter-

related, but may not actually be so.

continued.


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Source traits traits that actually co-vary, andform the source of the behaviours thatexpress them.

2. Ability traits, temperamental traits, anddynamic traits :

Ability traits -skills for effective functioning.

Temperamental traits- emotion-relatedtraits.

Dynamic traits motivation-related traits.


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Assessment :

The 16 Personality Factors (PF) Inventory-assesses 16 source traits .

Using scores on the 16 PF Inventory, a

profile can be made for each individualthat indicates the PATTERN of traits that

he/she has.


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EYSENCKs theory :

Proposed THREE basic trait

dimensions :

1. Introversion - Extraversion

2. Neuroticism (emotionally

stable/ unstable)

3. Psychoticism (those high on this factor

would be insensitive to others emotions,uncaring about others.


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Devised the Eysenck PersonalityQuestionnaire to measure the threedimensions.

This theory/model also contained a TYPEcomponent, combining two TRAITDIMENSIONS with four

TEMPERAMENT TYPES.


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The Five- Factor Model (McCRAE & COSTA)

These two psychologists

carried out fresh factor

analyses based on

existing personality

inventories, including

those devised by Cattell and Eysenck.

On the basis of their findings, McCrae andCosta concluded that there are FIVE

BASIC TRAIT FACTORS that caneffectively sum up an individualspersonality:


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Five Factors (the Big Five) :

O C E A N

OpennessConscientiousness

Extraversion

AgreeablenessNeuroticism

These factors are measured with the help ofthe NEO-Personality Inventory (Costa &McCrae, 1992).


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TYPE Theories:

The TYPE approach categorizes personality

into mutually exclusive types.That is, each category has features that are

not found in other categories. But members

within each category would be similaramongst themselves.

Two kinds of Types Constitutional/ Body types

Psychological types


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Constitutional typesA relationship is

proposed between physical characteristics,on one hand, and psychological

characteristics, on the other.

In general, constitutional typologies are notaccepted by contemporary psychologists,

but have historical importance.

1 T Hi /G l


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1. Temperament types Hippocrates/Galen :

The dominance of fluids called humours is

associated with a specific type oftemperament. FOUR humours and

correspondingly, four Temperament types

were proposed :

Humour Temperament Characteristics

a) Blood Sanguine Cheerful,optimistic,

b) Black bile Melancholic Sad, depressed

c) Yellow bile Choleric Quick-tempered,

irritable

d) Phlegm Phlegmatic Passive, content,


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EYSENCKs proposed relationship :


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EYSENCK s proposed relationship :

INTROVERT

STABLE UNSTABLE

EXTRAVERT

Phlegmatic Melancholic

Sanguine Choleric


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2. Body types(a) Kretschmer :Body structure or body buildis associated with psychologicalcharacteristics, and these in turnare associated with proneness tospecific forms of mental disorder.

Asthenicthin, tall - people with thought

disorders (e.g.schizophrenia)

Athleticmuscular, well-builtfond ofoutdoor activities (no specific disordermentioned).

Continued.

P k i h t f t d l ith


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Pyknicshort, fat, roundpeople withemotional disorders (e.g. manic-depressivepsychosis).

Dysplasticdisproportionate body buildpeople with other kinds of psychologicaldisorders.

(b) Sheldon -Somatotypes : More systematic

procedure of classification,

but overall, similar to

Kretschmers classification.

Somatotype Temperament


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Somatotype Temperament

Endomorphic (similar to Pyknic) Viscerotonia

fond of eating,

physical comfort.Ectomorphic (similar to Asthenic) Cerebrotonic

prone to thinking

too much, worrying;

Fond of intellectual

activity

Mesomorphic (similar to Athletic) Somatotoniafond of outdoor / physical

activities rather than

intellectual activities.

Psychological types


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Psychological typesClassification of personality is

based on PSYCHOLOGICAL

characteristics.

Carl JUNGs psychological types :---------------------------------------------------------------

Thinking Feeling Sensing Intuiting

IntrovertExtrovert------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Modern typologyassessed by the MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI).

Type A/ Type B classification (Friedman and


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Type A/ Type B classification (Friedman andRosenman)

This typology is based on information

regardingproneness to cardiovasculardiseases, and its relationship with certainpsychological characteristics.

Type Athe hard-driving ambitious type,always particular to finish every task in time.

Type Bthe cool type, who takes things

easy.

Type A persons have been found to bemore prone to heart disease than Type Bpersons.

Process Theories


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Process Theories1) Learning theoriesBasic idea:Personality characteristics are the result oflearning.

The individual encounters, or is exposed tocertain stimuli (situations, environments,

people, and so on), and responds to thesestimuli.

Over time, specific responses get

rewarded or punished. The rewardedresponses are retained and get stronger.

The punished responses get weaker anddisappear.


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2) Social-cognitive theories

BANDURA: Personality characteristics may belearned

A) by observing others behaviour, noticingthat some behaviours are rewarded, andothers are punished;

B) by developing the sense of efficacy (self-efficacy).


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ROTTER : A specific personality characteristic

-INTERNAL/ EXTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROLis learned through EXPECTANCIES based on

past history of reinforcement.

Internal locusthe generalized belief thatones outcomes are determined mainly byfactors within ones own control.

External locus - the generalized belief thatones outcomes are determined mainly byfactors outside ones own control.


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Social-cognitive theories of personality

emphasize the role of COGNITIVEprocesses that are expressed in the form

of perceptionsfor example,

perception of ones own competence/efficacy, or

perception of the sense of control overevents in ones life.


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Other cognitive theories highlight howparticular concepts related to personalityare learned, through mechanisms othersthan stimulus response links, and

rewards/ punishment.



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MASLOW : Human nature is driven by

motives (needs) that function

in a hierarchyin an order of

priority.

Highest level : The need of

SELF-ACTUALIZATION.

Self-actualization is a process,

rather than a goal or terminal point.

Characteristics of self-actualizing persons

were describedincluding the concept of

PEAK EXPERIENCE.

2) ROGERS Humanistic theory that focused


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2) ROGERSHumanistic theory that focused

on the SELF.

Each individual has thehuman capacity to become

a FULLY FUNCTIONING

PERSON.Personality functioning is motivated by the

SELF-IMAGE.

The individual strives towards CONGRUENCEbetween the REAL SELF and IDEAL SELF.

In counselling, Rogers emphasized NON-

DIRECTIVE counselling.

Psychoanalytic theory (also referred to


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Psychoanalytic theory (also referred toPSYCHODYNAMIC theory) :

FREUD father of Psychoanalytic theory

A broad and detailed theory of personality -extended into a school of thought.

Basic ideas :

1. The unconscious- cannotbe accessed at the

conscious leveliceberg

concept.2.THREE levels of functioning

- ID, EGO, and SUPER-EGO.

3 Guiding principles of each level of the


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3. Guiding principles of each level of theunconscious:

IDthe pleasure principle;

EGOthe reality principle;SUPER-EGOthe morality principle.

4. Basic driving forceLIBIDOa sexualbiological force, expressed in differentforms at different developmental stages :

stages of psychosexual development.

5. LIBIDINAL urges may be creative (EROS),

or destructive (THANATOS).


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9. The main defence mechanisms :

REPRESSIONRATIONALIZATION

PROJECTION

DisplacementSublimation

Reaction formation

Fantasy

Fixation

Regression


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10. Stages of Psychosexual development :

Each stage has some characteristicsORAL stage - infancy

ANAL stage 2 3 years

PHALLIC stage

3

6 yearsLATENCY stage 6 years to adolescence

GENITAL stage - Adolescence onwards


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11. Psychoanalytic methods :

Dream analysis : dreams are the royal road to

the unconscious.

The psychoanalytic interview (the couch).

Hypnosis

Free association

Analysis of slips of the tongue/ pen.

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