$15.00 SOUTHEAST OUTDOOR CUT FLOWER MANUAL

SOUTHEAST

OUTDOOR

CUT

FLOWER

MANUAL

$15.00

NO

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COMMERCIAL FLOWER GROWERS' ASSO

CIA

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NAssociation of Specialty CutFlower Growers'

N • C • C • F • G • ANorth Carolina Farm Bureau

College of Agriculture & Life Sciences

2

Southeast Outdoor Cut Flower Manual

Additional information about cut flowers canbe obtained by joining the:

Association of Specialty CutFlower Growers'

440.774.2887

or check out thier website at:www.ascfg.org

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4


Outdoor Specialty Cut Flower Production

John M. DoleOklahoma State University

A large portion of fresh and dried cuts inNorth America are grown outdoors. Cuts aremarketed through a variety of channels, some ofwhich are summer-only and others are year-round. In the southern United States, properselection of plant materials can allow year-roundproduction, although harvests will be limitedduring the winter. The season starts with woodyplants and bulbs flowering in the early spring.Perennials and biennials begin flowering in Apriland May. Annuals make up the bulk of productionduring the summer, supplemented with perennialsand woody plants. By fall, the annuals arewinding down, a few fall perennials will beflowering, and woody plants with berries or otherdecorative fruits can be harvested. Woody plantswith decorative stems are harvested during thewinter.

Site selection: The best locations for cut flowerproduction are sunny and relatively flat withwell-drained soil. The site should be accessibleat all times, even after a heavy rainstorm asflowers will need to be harvested regardless ofthe weather. On the other hand, the site shouldhave water for irrigation and postharvestrequirements. While air movement is necessaryto prevent or reduce disease problems, the siteshould also be protected from excessive windswhich can damage the plants and flowers.

Production systems: Production can be in rowsspaced far enough apart for a tractor or rototillerto pass between the rows. The row system islimited to specific crops because of the difficultyof supporting the crops and of the high potentialfor dirt and other debris to splash on the foliageand flowers. Consequently, most field cut

production occurs in 2.5 to 4 foot wide beds withtwo or more rows of plants within each bed. Thebeds should not be too wide because of thedifficulty of reaching into the center of the bed toharvest flowers. The beds are often raised 2 to 8in. high to encourage drainage and allow quickdrying after a rain. Beds can be mulched beforeor after planting with plastic, landscape fabric, ororganic materials to reduce weeds and water loss.Support can be provided by means of a plasticmesh stretched between posts, usually metal t-posts, spaced in pairs every 20 to 30 feet down thebed.

The aisles should be wide enough to allowpeople to move between the beds withoutdamaging the plants which tend to grow and leaninto the aisles. If there is sufficient land, theaisles can be made wide enough to allow a smallvehicle to enter which would decrease the laborassociated with moving harvested flowers.

Soil preparation: The soil should be amendedwith fertilizers and organic matter prior toplanting. A soil test should be collected andsubmitted to a lab for analysis. A localCooperative Extension Service office may beable to provide information on collecting andsending in soil samples. Based on the soil testresults, the soil pH may need to be raised withlime or lowered with sulfur (Table 1). Nutrientsmay need to be added to raise the nutrient level upto the desired rate (Table 2). Soil tests should betaken at least annually as soil pH and fertility canvary greatly between years. Inadequate nutritionwill reduce cut flower yields and quality.However, excessive fertilization wastes fertilizer,may pollute the ground or surface water and candamage plants.

5


Supplemental fertilizers, either organic orinorganic, may be needed later in the productionseason, especially in the south where the seasoncan be six or more months long. Supplementalfertilizers can be applied as dry fertilizers or canbe dissolved in water and applied through theirrigation system (fertigation). Generally,fertigation is less labor intensive once the fertilizerinjector is incorporated into the irrigation system.

Unless your soil is the perfect sandy-loam, itwill probably needed to amended with organicmatter. The addition of organic matter can curemany problems - loosen and increase the aerationof heavy clay soils or increase the nutrient andwater retention of sandy soils. A variety ofdifferent sources of organic matter can be addedincluding compost, cover crops, manures, straw,hay, silage, and wood chips. Organic matter canbe applied in the fall after the fields are cleared,in the spring prior to planting, or as a mulchduring production to also reduce weeds, andwater loss.

Manures may need to be composted or agedprior to application or applied several weeksprior to planting. Straw, hay, and wood chipsmay also need to be composted prior to use asthey can temporarily deplete the soil of nitrogenas they decay. If applied directly, a little extranitrogen application may be needed. Also, besure that all organic matter is weed-free. If youaccidently introduce one or more weed species tothe farm, you may be fighting them for years.

Cover crops are a relatively easy method toadd large amounts of organic matter to soil.Cover crops can be planted in the fall after theannuals have been removed or in the spring afterthe winter annuals/biennials such as larkspurhave been harvested. Cover crops can and shouldbe planted on any areas that will remain unplantedfor a lengthy period of time. The alternative is toallow the area to grow up in weeds which willmake weed control difficult when the area is laterplanted. Aisles can also be planted to a low covercrop to reduce weeds. A number of legume cover

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6


crops (alfalfa, cow peas, crimson clover, hairyvetch, and Austrian winter peas) fix nitrogenwhich is added to the soil when the cover crop isincorporated into the soil.

Field establishment: The field plantings can beestablished by a variety of methods. Directseeding can be used with species which germinateand grow rapidly. Plants with large seeds, suchas sunflowers and zinnias, do well when directsown. Some species, such as larkspur and ammi,also do not transplant well and are best directsown.

Many growers use transplants to establishtheir plantings. Transplants can be purchasedready to plant from suppliers or can be grown ina greenhouse. Purchased transplants reduce thehassle of propagating your own plants which canbe especially important with some difficult topropagate species, such as lisianthus. However,purchasing transplants may limit the number ofspecies, cultivars and colors available and deliveryis not always when youwant it. Transplants can begrown or purchased in avariety of plug or cell sizes.Small plug sizes aregenerally less expensivebut may need to be irrigatedfrequently after planting inthe field. In addition, smallplugs will easily outgrowthe flat if not plantedpromptly and can bedifficult to irrigate properlyin the greenhouse. Largerplugs are usually moreexpensive but establish inthe field more easily andcan be held in thegreenhouse longer beforethey need to be planted.

Perennial cuts can beestablish by means ofdivisions or rooted

cuttings. Dormant divisions can be planted soonafter arrival from the supplier or held in a cooleror cool location until they can be planted.Nondormant divisions and rooted cuttings shouldbe planted as soon as possible.

A variety of species produce bulbs, corms,tubers, or tuberous roots which can be planted.Some species like dahlias and tuberose are notcold hardy and the bulbs must be dug up in the falland stored in a cool location over the winter untilreplanted in the spring. Other species like liatrisand narcissus can remain in the ground andhandled as other perennials.

Although not cost effective, perennials,shrubs, vines, and trees in pots can be used.Usually a few plants are purchased to test thespecies and if successful, large numbers of plugs,divisions, or rooted cuttings are purchased orgrown.

Plant spacing: Optimum plant spacing variesgreatly with the type of plant. Plants which become

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large are usually planted in two rows per bed,occasionally with plants staggered, while smaller,single harvest annuals such a plume celosia maybe spaced only 4 to 6 in. apart with up ten rowsacross the bed. Generally tight spacing increasesyield and profit per square foot of bed space butdecreases yield per plant and air circulation.Thus, if initial plant costs are high, a wide spacingmay allow you to maximize the number ofharvestable stems per plant. In addition, widespacing increases air circulation and may preventor reduce diseases. For some species like celosia,sunflowers, and zinnia a closer spacing canincrease stem length which may be particularlyimportant with species that tend to be too short.However, close spacing does not increase stemlength for all species.

Annuals are generally spaced anywhere from4 x 4 in. to 18 x 18 in. apart. Perennial spacingranges from 12 x 12 in. to 24 x 24 in. and woodyshrubs and trees are spaced 2 to 6 ft. apart.Remember most trees and shrubs are harvestedheavily enough to keep the final plant size small.

Irrigation: Cut flowers are generally a highvalue crop and irrigation will probably benecessary, regardless of the climate. Irrigationsystems are relatively inexpensive and pay forthemselves in reduced labor and increased yieldsand quality within a few months to a coupleyears. Generally the preferred irrigation systemis drip tape. After planting, irrigation drip tapecan be laid; one to three tapes per bed are useddepending on the soil type and the irrigationneeds of the crop. With row cultivation, one driptape can be use per row or double row (two rowsclosely spaced together). Hand irrigation with ahoze and nozzle is time consuming, which resultsin high labor costs, but may be necessary for thefirst irrigation after planting to ensure that youngplants with their small roots systems receiveenough water. Over head sprinkler irrigation iscost effective, but is generally limited to whenthe plants are young. Over head irrigation later inthe season may splash soil on the foliage and

flowers, may knock plants over, and may spreaddisease problems. Your local irrigation suppliermay be able to assist in designing an effective andinexpensive irrigation system.

Weed control: Weed control is often the mosttime consuming and labor intensive componentof field production. Large numbers of weeds inthe production area will reduce flower qualityand quantity, and increase the labor time and costof harvesting. Weeds also make insect anddisease control more difficult, increase irrigationrequirements, and of course, provide the seedsfor the next batch of weeds later in the season. Avariety of methods are available for controllingweeds and the typical farm will use many ofthem.

Timing. Regardless of the weed control method,timing of the field preparation is important relativeto when the foliage canopy of the crop closes. Inother words, when the bed or row is covered withfoliage the light reaching the soil is reduced andweed seed germination and growth slows. Ifusing manual weeding or cultivation, it isimportant that the last cultivation occurs as closeto planting as possible. If the field is prepared tooearlier in advance of planting, the weeds willbegin germinating and growing. Thus, you willneed to begin cultivation soon after planting.However, if you plant immediately after preparingthe soil then the plants will begin to grow anddevelop a canopy, reducing the number of timescultivation is required. Often there is not enoughtime to prepare a field and plant it soon afterwards.One way around this problem is to prepare a largearea when convenient and lightly cultivate theareas to be planted immediately before planting.Do not cultivate too deeply as that might bring upnew weeds seeds which will germinate.

Hand weeding. Manual weeding by hand or byhoe is the age-old method of weed control. It iseffective, but time consuming and expensive interms of labor costs. A small amount of manual

8


weeding will be required in any operation such asat the end of rows or around the base of plantsgrowing in plastic or landscape fabric. However,other methods of weed control should be usedwherever possible. A variety of hoes are availablewhich can effectively cut and remove weedswithout disturbing the roots of the cut flowers.

Mechanical cultivation. Mechanical cultivationcan range from a walk-behind rototiller to atractor-mounted cultivator. Mechanicalcultivation can be used to cultivate the aislesbetween beds or rows of crops. The aisles mustbe wide enough to allow the equipment to passwithout damaging plants and prevent thecultivator from being close enough to the croproots to damage them. In addition, mechanicalcultivation must be done before the crop is tootall to allow the tractor to pass by.

Flame weeding. In flame weeding a hand-held ortractor-mounted propane burner emits a flamewhich is passed over the weeds. The weeds diefrom being seared with the high temperatures notby being burned. Young weeds and broad-leaved weeds are easiest to kill with flameweeding. Flame weeding can be especiallyuseful with direct seeding as the young weedsgenerally emerge first and the area can be flame-weeded prior to emergence of the cut flowerseedlings. Effective flame weeding requires an

experienced operator, but can be efficient andcost effective.

Herbicides. Herbicides are available in twotypes: 1) preemergent herbicides kill weedseedlings as they push up through the soil, or 2)Postemergent herbicides are sprayed on the weedsand kill either the portion of the weed in directcontact with the herbicide or are taken up by theweed (systemic), move through the plant, and killthe entire weed. Systemic postemergentherbicides are especially useful for controllingperennial weeds and those with undergroundrhizomes or storage organs. As with all chemicals,herbicides should be applied carefully as not topoison the person applying the chemical oraccidently injure the cut flowers. (See the WeedControl section for more details.)

Fall and winter preparation: In the fall removedead annuals and fallen plant material. Prune outdiseased portions of perennials and woody plants.Do not cut back perennials until the middle ofwinter when the tops are completely dead. In thefall mulch tender perennials if necessary to protectagainst the cold. Mulch can also help retain soilmoisture and provide organic matter. If fall andwinter are dry, be sure to irrigate occasionally.On the other hand, many perennials rot easilyduring the winter if they are too wet.

9


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18


Postharvest Handling 101

Roxanne McCoy Lilies of the Field, West Falls, NY

(Reprinted with permission from the ASCFG Quarterly Newsletter 11(3):17, 20-22.)

Have your customers exclaimed “When I lastbought flowers from you, they were beautiful,and they lasted forever!”? If not, perhaps it istime to examine your postharvest handlingtechniques. The whole purpose of correctpostharvest handling is to increase vase life. Thisarticle is meant to cover the basics of postharvesthandling, and may be particularly useful to newgrowers.

Harvest Time. The first thing to realize is thatpicking at the recommended stage of harvest willextend the vaselife of your flowers. Picking at theoptimal time of day can also extend vaselife. Thebest time to harvest is in the early morning whentemperatures are low and the plant’s water statusis high. The second best time for picking is in theevening when temperatures are low again.Obviously, as an operation grows, it eventuallybecomes impossible to harvest everything in themorning or evening but it should be consideredthe optimum. To reduce handling, grade andbunch your flowers in the field and do not at anytime place flowers on the ground since this can bea source of damage and fungal infection.

Storage Conditions. The optimal temperaturefor storage of specialty Cut flowers is 34oF to38oF with a relative humidity of 75% to 95% tominimize water loss. It is important to realize thatindividual species often have a more specificpreference for storage conditions. If you will bestoring only one species, it would be prudent tocheck on that. However, if you will have a wholecooler full of a wide variety of species, use theparameters stated above.

Sanitation. If you do nothing else to improveyour postharvest handling, do these two steps: 1)wash your buckets with soap, water and a brush,and 2) rinse your buckets with bleach. Forcleaning, use one part bleach to nine parts water,using a 5.25% bleach (common householdbleach). Remember that UNSANITARYPRACTICES CAN TOTALLY ELIMINATETHE BENEFITS OF PURE WATER AND/OREXCELLENT PRESERVATIVES. Vaselife willbe reduced in direct proportion to the amount ofcontamination in your buckets and water.

Water Quality and Preservatives. There arefour necessities for hydrating and preservingsolutions: water, biocide, acidifier, and food. Thelast three should be available in any commercialpreservative. The purer your water source, thebetter off your flowers will be; de-ionized waterprobably being the best. In general, if you don’tmind drinking your water, your flowers won’tmind either. But if you know that you have poorwater, consider installing a demineralizer. One of the unseen enemies of postharvesthandling is bacteria. Bacteria clog the flowerstems, thereby shortening the vase life. So it is agood idea to include a bactericide in your vasesolution. Here again, household bleach at 20-60ppm (parts per million), or roughly one tablespoonper four gallons, is the most feasible (i.e. cheapand readily available). Also, any time that waterbecomes the least bit cloudy, discard it and getfresh water since cloudiness is an indication ofbacteria and/or algae growth in the water. Thiscloudiness is quite common when using solutioncontaining sugar or commercial flower food.

19


Keep in mind that biocides retard the rapid growthof bacteria but don’t kill them. Also rememberthat a biocide such as bleach will rapidly disappearfrom solution and must be replenished regularly.However, I have not been able to discover howregularly.

Acidity is another consideration forpostharvest handling. Flowers prefer an acidityof pH 3.2 to pH 3.5. Acidity increases vaselife byallowing the hydrating solution to move upthrough stems faster. Most commercialpreservatives contain an acidifier, or you can usecitric acid (Tech Grade citric acid powder). Theamount of citric acid to use is determined by yourparticular water (you gradually add more untilyou bring the pH down to 3.5). Typical hardwaters take about 300 to 500 ppm citric acid.

Flower food (actually sugar) is anothercomponent in the quest for longer vaselife. It mayalso increase flower size and allows flowersfurther up a spike to open. Sugar is particularlynecessary with flowers that are in tight bud and itwill take a high concentration to actually openbuds (up to 20%). The best sugar concentration touse is very species-specific. Most preservativescontain 1.5 to 2.0% sugar. This is the upper limitof what roses require but may be less than idealfor many other flowers (such as lisianthus).

Air Quality. The other major factor to considerin postharvest handling is ethylene. Ethylene is

a gas produced by ripening fruits and vegetables,vehicle exhausts, and cigarette smoke. Thepresence of ethylene produces rapid senescenceor abscission of flowers with exposure to evenminute amounts of the gas. Silver thiosulfate(STS) minimizes ethylene damage, and is highlyeffective for flowers that are sensitive to ethylene(sweet peas, carnations delphinium, snapdragon,etc.). Silver thiosulfate is generally pulsed intoflowers for 1-12 hours (length of time is dependenton the species). A drawback of STS is that it is aheavy metal and must be disposed of according toregulations, using a special recovery system thatshould be available from wholesalers who supplySTS.

Summary. I have included a postharvest charthere with some vital information, for individualspecies, Table 1. I have this chart hanging abovethe sink where I fill (and wash!) my buckets. Icheck it before I start harvesting any new speciesso I know whether it needs preservative (someactually do better without), what temperature thewater should be and other quirks that some specieshave. This chart has been compiled over the pastfew years using primarily ASCFG informationand Allan Armitage’s book Specialty CutFlowers. So almost none of this information isoriginal with me, but I did think it might be usefulto other growers to have it compiled into onehandy reference.

20


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22


Basics of Flower DryingTodd J. Cavins

North Carolina State University

Dried cut flower production can provideunique and rewarding opportunities to marketand promote your flowers. “Dried” productioncan be entered into with a few additions to yourcurrent fresh flower production methods. Thesesimple additions can provide a new outlet forflower sales and a new customer base.

When deciding whether or not to producedried flowers, several things must first beconsidered. Oneconsideration is consumerdemand. Is there a marketfor dried cuts, havecustomers been requestingdried cuts, or have younoticed that dried cuts arenot readily available atvarious retail locations? Ifthe later is the situation,this may be a goodopportunity to provideconsumers with theincreases variety offered bydried cuts.

Another consideration should be the goal ofdried cut production. Dried cut flower productionmay provide an extended season for flower sales.If dried cuts are of interest to you, this marketniche can be entered into with little capitalinvestment. However, remember that dried cutflower production is labor intensive and timeconsuming. Therefore, financial analysis ofproduction cost and sales is important.

Almost ‘any’ flower can be dried. However,some methods of drying such as freeze-drying or

pressing can be very expensive or unsuitable formass dried flower production. Generally, flowerswith small thick petals are easiest to dry. Examplesare yarrow, celosia, amaranth, and statice. Severalspecies that are recommended as starters forflower drying are listed in Table 1.

Besides flowers, many other plant productscan easily be added to a dried cut selection.Ornamental grasses, grains, acorns, nuts, gourds,

and twigs can be easilyharvested with very littleproduction effort andprepared for marketingas dried products. Manytimes, these driedproducts need no specialdrying procedures. Pinecones and nuts such aspecans, can simply bepicked up after they havefallen from the trees.Ornamental grasses areusually fast growers thatrequire little to no

production maintenance and dry easily withoutelaborate drying facilities.

Various methods for drying exist and choosingthe method that best meets your needs dependson the quantity of flowers being dried, the species(or type) of flowers being dried, budget, andavailable space. The most expensive and elaboratedrying method is freeze-drying. This method usused by dried flower specialist for delicate specieswhich have large thin petals.

For most growers who are just starting dried

23


flower production, forced air drying is thebest option for a low cost, high volume dryingmethod. Any structure that does not allowlight penetration, allows adequate aircirculation and temperature control, and haslow humidity can be adapted for dryingflowers. Attics, garages, storage sheds, andbarns all have potential as flower dryingfacilities.

Air circulation, temperature, and humidityare crucial factors in determining how quicklyand consistently flowers will dry. The dryingroom humidity must be low enough to allowthe moisture in the flower to evaporate. Warmtemperatures can speed this process and aircirculation ensures that the drying process isuniform. Darkness, although not as importantto the actual drying, is important to keepflowers from fading and loosing color.However, fading may be desirable in grainsand grasses to enhance the golden color.

In order to produce a quality dried cut, youmust first have a quality fresh flower. Properpest and disease management as well asnutrition is just as important for dried cuts as it isfor fresh cuts in maintaining high plant quality. Ifyou use unsold fresh flowers for drying, ensurethat the flowers are still in good condition prior tostarting the drying process. Although dried cutsmay be an outlet for unsold fresh flowers, thefinished dried product will directly reflect theinitial quality of the fresh flower.

Harvesting at the proper time ensures properflower drying. If a flower is harvested too early,then the petals may not have full color or theflower may fall apart when it is dried. If a floweris harvest too late, then the flower color may fadeor fall apart. A good rule of thumb is to harvestthe flowers at the same time you would for a freshcut (maybe even a little earlier). Many books areavailable with recommendations for harvestingtimes (Armitage,1993; Dole and Wilkins, 1999).

Once a flower is harvested, it should beplaced immediately into water until the dryingprocess has begun. The drying process shouldbegin as soon as possible (within 24 hrs.) Toprepare the flower for drying, clean dust, debris,and insects from the flower and remove thefoliage. It is important to do this before dryingbecause the flower will be too brittle to cleanafter it has dried. If using dyes, these should alsobe applied before drying. Many dyes are mixedinto a water solution that is taken up by the plant,the quicker plants are put into the dye solution thebetter chance for rapid, uniform uptake.

Once the flowers have been prepared, thestems should be bunched. Bunch size is veryimportant depending on species being dried anddrying environment. Fewer flowers per bunchpromotes rapid drying, but involves more labor

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24


and drying space. If too few flowers per bunchare used, it wastes time and space. Too manyflowers per bunch may not allow flowers to dryuniformly. A helpful hint is to dry the buncheswith the number of flowers per bunch in whichthey will be sold.

After bunching, stems should be hung upsidedown. This helps to keep stems straight. Bunchesshould be spaced so that sufficient air circulationwill expedite drying. There are a few flowerswith thick sturdy stems that can be dried upright,but this can take up extra space and damageflowers if they are not supported well.

Drying time is dependent on species, bunchsize, and drying environment. Most species willtake 2 to 3 weeks, but some may take 4 to 8 weeks.To determine how long flowers need to dry, theycan be tested for “crispness”. Gently squeeze thebase of the flower (where flower meets the stem)to determine if the flower is dry. Once flowershave dried, a commercial spray fixative or clearacrylic spray can be applied if desired.

Storage and transporting the dried cuts isvery important. A lot of time and money has beeninvested up to this point, but may become wastedif flowers are destroyed while in storage or transit.The type of storage system used should beinfluenced by the market channel. It will savetime and money if stems can be stored, transported,and possibly sold in the same container. Forexample, if the dried stems will be transported byyou directly to the retail location then paper sacksmay be sufficient packaging to protect the stemswhile in transit. However, if the dried stems willbe shipped with a parcel service it may benecessary to box the stems with extra support toprotect them from shipping hazards. The storage/

transport containers should also protect the driedstems from dust, moisture, and pests.

Pricing dried flowers is very important. Driedcuts require more labor, more time, and moreeffort than fresh cuts. In addition to seed andother production cost, drying expenses,preservatives, and cost of shipping containersmust be considered. Therefore, cost per stemshould be higher in order to profit from sales.

Dried cut flower production can be a timelyprocess, however with careful planning this canbe a rewarding aspect of the cut flower business.Specific production methods will vary fromgrower to grower. The only sure way to ensuresuccess is to experiment with your uniqueconditions.

References and SourcesArmitage, A. 1993. Specialty Cut Flowers. Varsity/Timber

Press, Portland OR.Byczynski, L. 1997. The Flower Farmer An Organic

Grower’s Guide to Raising and Selling Cut Flowers.Chelsea Green Publishing Company, White RiverJunction, VT.

Dole, J.M. and H.F. Wilkins. 1999. Floriculture Principlesand Species. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Koch, R. Preserving flowers and foliage with glycols andDyes: a manual for the commercial producer.303.644.3763

Stevens, A.B. 1997. Field Grown Cut Flowers A PracticalGuide and Sourcebook. Avatar’s World, Edgerton, WI.

Websiteswww.ksu.eduwww.msu.eduwww.ascfg.org

Image from: Harvest Systems Ext. Bull., Kansans StateUniv.

25


Cut Flower Insect and Mite Pests

James BakerExtension Entomologist

North Carolina State University

Unusual plant problems, including problemscaused by insects and mites, can be submitted tothe North Carolina State University Plant Diseaseand Insect Clinic. This service is free to thoseresidents of North Carolina who submit theirsamples through their local county ExtensionCenters. Otherwise, there is a charge of $5.00 foreach sample ($25.00 per out-of-state sample).Directions on accessing the Clinic and preparingsamples for submission are found on the PlantDisease and Insect Clinic web site at http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/clinic/. Additionalinformation on cut flower insect and mite pestscan be found in Insect and Related Pests ofFlowers and Foliage Plants, a North CarolinaCooperative Extension Service publication foundon the web site, http://ipmwww.ncsu.edu/INSECT_ID/AG136/ncstate.html. The 2000North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manuallists pesticides such as insecticides, miticides,plant growth regulators, and herbicides labeledfor floricultural use. It is also found on the worldwide web at http://ipmwww.ncsu.edu/agchem/agchem.html Copies of these publications can bepurchased for $10.00 and $18.00, respectively,from Communication Services, Box 7603, NCSU,Raleigh, NC 27695-7603.

Aphids

Aphid populations increase dramatically becausethey reproduce parthenogenetically, and becausein warm weather they migrate even intogreenhouses. In the fall and early spring, aphidsmay thrive outdoors because predators andparasites are less active. In warm weather, parasitic

wasps, lady beetles, syrphid fly maggots,lacewings and other predaceous insects feed onaphids so that aphid populations often decreaserapidly. These predators sometimesenter greenhouses. Outside, aphidpopulations are sometimesdevastated by Cephalosporiumlecanii, a fungus that infects aphidsas a sort of super-athlete’s footdisease. It is often too dry in greenhouses for thatfungus to work well, although Beauveria bassianais labeled for aphid control on greenhouseornamentals (as Botanigard ES and Naturalis-O). Because ornamental plants are somewhatsensitive to pesticides, they should be wateredthoroughly before they are sprayed and treatedearly in the morning or late in the evening so thatthe pesticide residue is dry before the plants areexposed to direct sunlight. I recommend one ofthe insecticidal soaps or horticultural oils forcontrol of aphids on outdoor crops to minimizedamage to predator populations. Marathon isalso effective for aphid suppression on cut flowers.

Melon aphids are smaller than most other aphids.The winged adults are about 1.25 mm long, softbodied and yellow to dark green with a blackhead and thorax. The wings are held rooflike overthe abdomen at rest. Wingless adults tend to be1.0 to 1.5 mm long, uniform in color, and yellowto dark green. The melon aphid feeds upon manyhost plants. It spends the winter on weed hostsand on cold-tolerant plants probably both asnymphs and adult females in the south. Duringwarm periods of winter, they start feeding untilcold weather inactivates them again. In the spring

26


the adults move to new hosts and start feedingand rapidly reproducing. In greenhouses theaphids feed and reproduce throughout the winter.Melon aphids commonly start out on one plantand spread out from that point. In spring, wingedforms usually infest new plants produce livenymphs. In about a week the new nymphs matureinto wingless females that begin to bear young oftheir own. As the plant becomes crowded, moreand more of the offspring develop into wingedfemales that in turn migrate to other plants tobegin new infestations. Syrphid fly maggots andladybird beetles and their larvae feed upon melonaphids. Aphidius wasps parasitize the aphids, andants feed on the honeydew excreted by feedingaphids. Because the winged forms are 2 to 3.7times more resistant to organophosphatepesticides than are wingless forms, infested plantsin the greenhouse should be sprayed thoroughlywhen aphids are first noticed. Wingless formsusually predominate in low aphid populations.On outdoor ornamentals, natural enemies maycontrol minor infestations.

Chrysanthemum aphids are from East Asia,and chrysanthemum is the only known host forthis aphid in North America. Winged adults areup to 3/16-inch long; soft bodied; and dark,shining mahogany brown. Due to their dark color,they were once called “blackflies.” Winglessadults are only 1/16 inch long. Small, black,sturdy cornicles are found on the end of the body.Nymphs resemble smaller versions of the adultwingless aphids. Nymphs have a dull, brick redbodies with relatively long legs and antennae,and short, dark cornicles. The outer two-thirds ofthe legs and antennae are dark. Thechrysanthemum aphid feeds by piercing the plantto suck out sap. They feed on the new growthcausing distorted growth and honeydew. Castskins stick in the honeydew and sooty molds maygrow on the honeydew turning the leaves andstems black. Chrysanthemum aphids can transmitchrysanthemum vein mottle virus andchrysanthemum virus B. Chrysanthemum aphids

overwinter as pests in greenhouses. Wingedfemales produce four to eight young aphids perday. Within about a week the new nymphs matureinto wingless females that begin to bear young.One aphid on a plant in a short time may build thepopulation up to hundreds of individuals. As theplant becomes crowded, more and more of theoffspring develop into winged females thatmigrate to other plants. Infested plants in thegreenhouse should be sprayed thoroughly whenaphids are first noticed. On outdoor plantings,natural enemies usually control minorinfestations. Fortunately, the chrysanthemumaphid is not particularly resistant to pesticides.Additional information on chrysanthemum aphidscan be found in Insect and Related Pests ofFlowers and Foliage Plants, a North CarolinaCooperative Extension Service publication foundon the web site, http://ipmwww.ncsu.edu/INSECT_ID/AG136/ncstate.html

Beetles

Blister beetles are fascinating insects on severalaccounts. The beetles contain an urticatingchemical (cantharidin) in their blood that causesgreat watery blisters when crushed against theskin. If alfalfa is mown with blister beetles in it,the resulting hay may be toxic to horses evenmonths afterward if they eat the dried blisterbeetles. A species of blister beetlethat occurs in Europe is dried andfinely ground for pharmaceutical useas a diuretic and a blistering agent.That species is called the Spanish fly.Several species of blister beetles aregarden pests in North Carolina wherethey feed on solanaceous vegetables and on certainornamentals. Sevin gives adequate control. Evenmore fascinating are the immature blister beetlesthat develop first as tiny, swift larvae that searchout grasshopper egg cases and dig down to them.Then the blister beetle larvae develop into moretypical grubs that consume the grasshopper eggsfor food. The larvae then pupate and some time

27


later a new generation of blister beetles emerges.It is fascinating that larvae can be beneficial andadults so obnoxious. Dry summers are favorablefor grasshopper development that can cause blisterbeetles to become more abundant later. In youroffice should be a copy of Ornamentals and TurfInsect Note No. 24 on beetles and their control.

Japanese beetles were first discovered in theUnited States in 1916 in New Jersey. They reachedNorth Carolina in 1932. Large-scale use ofJapanese beetle traps can suppress Japanese beetlepopulations up to 30% if a large enough area istrapped (perhaps a whole neighborhood). Dr.Dan Potter at the University of Kentucky, hasshown that in a specific yard, it is worse to havea trap than not. The problem is the traps are somuch better at attracting the beetles than actuallycatching them that you wind up with more beetlesnear the trap than in the trap. This is especiallytrue if the bags are not emptied regularly. Oncethe beetles begin to rot in the bag, the ammoniarepels the beetles from the immediate vicinity ofthe trap. However, the bait keeps on “calling” thebeetles for a much greater distance than theammonia repels them. The net result is far greaterplant damage than would have been the case inthe absence of the trap. The traps should beplaced away from plants that are to be protected.Sevin and other pesticides are labeled for Japanesebeetles and will do a good job of controlling themas long as the residue remains on the plant. Aproblem with Sevin is that honey bees gather theresidue like pollen and carry it back to the hive tofeed their larvae. I recommend that folks NOT tryto control Japanese beetles on flowers.

Bugs

Garden fleahoppers are small plant bugs thatfeed on various garden plants. Fleahoppers causepale spots on the upper leaf surface, and theyleave spots of excrement on the lower surface.Fleahoppers cause pale specks. Heavily infestedleaves drop from plants prematurely. Garden

fleahoppers overwinter as eggs laid from Augustthrough September. Nymphs emerge in earlyspring and feed on undersides of leaves. Nymphsfeed and develop from 11 to 35 daysbefore maturing into adults. Adultfleahoppers live 1 to 3 months. Eachfemale lays about 100 eggs that areinserted into the stems or leaves.There are at least 5 generations peryear in North Carolina. Typically, gardenfleahopper infestations are sporadic so that oneapplication of a pesticide may bring months oryears of relief. Mavrik, Malathion, Sevin, orOrthene should give adequate control offleahoppers.

Leaffooted bugs are so-called because part ofthe hind leg is flat and more or less resembles aleaf. These bugs are 1/2 to 3/4 inch long, and theyoften have a noticeable white line across theback. Leaffooted bugs are plant feeders and aresometimes common pests in the vegetable garden,but they also kill back the tips of roses and ruinthe seeds of sunflowers. Leaffooted bugs alsofeed on and ruin pecan nuts andthey damage peaches and plums.Leaffooted bugs even feed inpinecones where they weaken ordestroy developing seeds. Theeggs are laid end to end in asmall, golden-brown line ofabout 20 on twigs or along a leaf vein. Thenymphs resemble adults except that nymphs aresmaller, and they do not have wings. Also, thehind legs of nymphs are slender. Severalgenerations occur each year in North Carolina.Leaffooted bugs are susceptible to pesticidessuch as Sevin, Orthene, Malathion, Talstar,Tempo 2, Mavrik, Dylox, pyrethrin, andresmethrin.

Caterpillars

Cutworms are dull-colored, fat, smoothcaterpillars that become almost 2 inches long

28


when fully grown. If disturbed, the larvae usuallycurl into a C-shaped ball. Cutworms moths arestocky with the forewings are dark and mottled orstreaked; the hind wings are lightly colored andnot marked. Besides field and vegetable crops,some of the plants attacked by cutworms areaster, carnation, chrysanthemum, dahlia,gladiolus, marigold, nasturtium, pansy, rose,violet, and zinnia. Many cutworms prefer wiltedplant material and cut the plants a night ahead.Stems are chewed off near the soil. Somecutworms climb the host and feed on unopenedbuds. Cutworms feed on the stems and leaves ofyoung plants and often cut them off near the soilline, hence their common name. Although thereare many important species of cutworms, theblack, granulate and variegated cutworms areparticularly destructive to flowers. Each cutwormdiffers slightly from the others in details of habitsand appearance, but their life histories aregenerally similar. Adults and larvae are nocturnaland hide during the day, but become active oncloudy days. The overwintering forms ofcutworms occur in the soil either as pupae ormature larvae. In the spring, the hibernatinglarvae pupate. Adults begin to appear in themiddle of March. Females deposit eggs singly orin clusters, and each female can lay as many as500 eggs. Under optimum conditions, the eggshatch in 3 to 5 days, and the larvae develop in 3to 4 weeks passing through 6 instars. Pupaemature in 2 weeks during the summer and asmany as 9 weeks in the fall. Some of the cutwormscan produce as many as four generations eachyear in the southeastern United States. Mothswhich fly into greenhouses and deposit eggs.Often eggs, larvae, and pupae gain entry incontaminated soil or on infested plants broughtinto the greenhouse. Cutworms can be foundthroughout the year in the greenhouse once apopulation is established there.

Cabbage loopers feed on geraniums, mums,kalanchoes, and almost every other ornamentalplant! It is called the cabbage looper because it is

a fairly predictable pest of cabbage and becausethe caterpillar is an inchworm that loops as itbrings the hind end up to move about. Cabbageloopers pupate in a gauzy, transparent cocoon onthe plant (not in the soil the way many othercaterpillars do). The adult is a dark, mottled mothwith a conspicuous, silvery figure 8 on eachforewing. I do not think that the cabbage looperis particularly resistant to pesticides so Sevin,Orthene or some other contact insecticide shouldgive adequate control on ornamentals.

Corn earworms vary from pale green to darkbrown, with alternating light and dark longitudinalstripes, generally brown or orange, running thelength of the body. The head is dark yellow orreddish orange. Newly hatched larvae are about1.6 mm long and yellowish white with dark headcapsules. Full-grown larvae are almost 2 incheslong. Corn earworm moths vary in color andmarkings, but the forewings are usually lightyellow or yellowish brown, with dark irregularlines and a dark area near the tip. The hind wings,usually partially covered by the forewings, arewhite with irregular dark markings near the border.The eyes of the moths are green. Corn earwormsfeed on a wide variety of plant species. Ageratum,carnations, chrysanthemums, and roses areseverely injured by the corn earworm inunscreened greenhouses. Additional hosts includeamaranth, canna, cleome, dahlia, geranium,gladiolus, hibiscus, lathyrus, lupine, mint,morning glory, nasturtium, phlox, poppy, andsunflower. Corn earworms feed on all exposedplant parts particularly the buds and flowers.Infestations on flowering plants are more likelyin the fall after many of the field crops and weedsare unattractive, unsuitable, or unavailable formoths. Moths begin to emerge from overwinteringsites in early May and are most active at night.Females may lay 450 to 2,000 eggs singly on hostplants. Eggs are laid on open foliage, but areusually densest on younger leaves. Eggs hatch in2 to 5 days. The larval stage lasts about 2 to 3weeks and has five or six instars. Smaller larvae

29


tend to occur in new, still-rolled foliage, whereaslarger larvae tend to feed on open leaves. Allstages tend to feed on flowers, tender new leavesand fruit. Late-stage larvae tunnel 2 to 6 inchesinto the soil and pupate. The pupal stage lastsabout 2 to 3 weeks. Moths then emerge from thesoil. Duration from egg to adult emergence is 6 to8 weeks under field conditions. Corn earwormshave several generations each year. Adequatescreening of window and open areas, as well asproper sealing of door edges can reduce damageby corn earworms in a greenhouse. Use of naturalenemies (e.g., Trichogramma wasps andpredatory insects) may help to reduce infestationby corn earworm. Chemical insecticides provideadequate control of corn earworm.

Diamondback Moth - The diamondback mothcaterpillars feed almost exclusively on cole cropssuch as broccoli, ornamentalcabbage, and ornamental kalein the garden and incommercial greenhouses.The caterpillars are also pests of alyssum,candytuft, watercress, and stocks. In addition,diamondback moth caterpillars feed on someweeds such as mouse-ear cress, Whitlowgrass, shepherd’s purse, and spring cressthat may be growing under the benches orjust outside the greenhouses. If the mothsare a problem but caterpillars have notbeen noticed on the greenhouse crops, itmay be that a vigorous weed controlprogram should be instituted. Thediamondback moth has acquired resistance tomany kinds of pesticides including some of theBacillus thuringiensis (Dipel or Thuricide)pesticides that are labeled for cabbage. Additionalinformation on the diamondback moth can befound in Insect and Related Pests of Vegetables,a North Carolina Cooperative Extension Servicepublication found on the web site,ht tp : / / ipmwww.ncsu.edu/AG295/html /index.htm.

European Corn Borer - Although best knownas a pest of corn, this worm has been found boringinto more than 200 different plants includingchrysanthemums, asters, cosmos, dahlia, gladioli,hollyhocks, roses,zinnia and somevegetables aswell. The adult isa yellowish brownsnout moth. Females lay up to 400 eggs in flatmasses on the underside of host plant leaves.Moths first appear in late spring. There may be 3generations per year. The eggs resemble tiny fishscales in shape and arrangement. The wormshatch and feed on the surface of leaves for a fewdays, but as the borers mature, they bore into thehost plant stalk tofeed. Europeancorn borercaterpillars arecannibalistic. Thisexplains why onlyone or two borersare found in a potof mums even though the moth laid dozens ofeggs. The best pesticides recommendation wecan give is a spray with a pyrethroid such asTalstar, Mavrik, or Tempo 2 every month or so.After the borers are in the stalk, it is essentiallytoo late, although a desperation spray of Dursban(DuraGuard) could be tried. This pest overwintersinside the stalks, so destroying the stalks of corn,dahlia, mums and weeds in the area will help tosuppress next season’s population. Additionalinformation on the European corn borer can befound in Insect and Related Pests of Flowers andFoliage Plants, a North Carolina CooperativeExtension Service publication found on the website, http://ipmwww.ncsu.edu/INSECT_ID/AG136/ncstate.html.

Imported Cabbageworm - The importedcabbageworm has spread throughout the U.S.after its introduction into Canada from Europe.The imported cabbageworm is the immature stage

30


of a white butterfly that has a black area near thetip of each forewing and a small black spot on thefront edge of each hind wing. Female butterflies

have two black spots oneach forewing; males haveonly one. The female has awingspan of about 2inches; the male is slightlysmaller. Females attach

endwise to the leaf surface pale yellow, bullet-shaped eggs, about 1 mm long. From the eggshatch velvety green caterpillars that have a faintyellow stripe down the back and a row of faintyellow spots on each side. The caterpillars growto just over an inch long. They then molt into asharply-angled pupa stage called the chrysalis,that is gray, green, or brown and about 7/8 inchlong and is attached to the lower leaf surface bya silken loop. Imported cabbageworms arecommonly found on the undersides of leaves.Young caterpillars feed superficially, leaving theupper surface intact. Larger worms even boreinto the center of the heads of edible cultivarsleaving masses of wet, greenish-brownexcrement. Astro, Decathlon, Knox-Out(diazinon), Mavrik, Talstar, and other pesticideslabeled for greenhouse use should give adequatecontrol. There is additional information on thebiology of imported cabbageworms in AG-295,Insect and Related Pests of Vegetable found onthe web at http://ipmwww.ncsu.edu/AG295/html/

Flies

Fungus gnats are native insects the immatures ofwhich sometimes cause problems on ornamentalplants. The immatures of fungus gnats are tiny,slender maggots that feed on fungi in the soil andsometimes on the roots of plants as well. Onehappy thought about fungus gnats is that they arenot particularlyresistant topesticides. Atleast some of the neem seed extract pesticides arelabeled for fungus gnats (Azatin, Triact) as well

as pyrethroids (Astro, Attain, Decathlon, Talstar),DuraGuard, Knox-Out, and pyrethrin aerosols.Some insect growth regulators are labeled, too:Adept, Enstar, Precision,Preclude. In your office shouldbe an insect note on the biologyand control of fungus gnats(Ornamentals and Turf InsectInformation Note 29). This noteis also found on the web at the following site:http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/Ornamentals_and_Turf/flower_contents/orn_t29/not29.html

Leafminer flies have a number of parasites, andtheir populations often collapse if no pesticidesare applied. However, clients may wish to treatfor the leafminers rather than wait to let Naturetake her course. There are four excellentinsecticides on the market for commercial growersto use for leafminer control on chrysanthemums:Avid, Citation, Conserve, and Marathon. Avid isa great miticide for herbaceous plants but not sogood for woody plants. Avid also controls thripsalthough Avid is not labeled for thrips. Avid is anemulsifiable concentrate but is very safe forornamentals. It will take two or three applicationsof either insecticide to completely control thepopulation. Citation is specific for leafminer fliesand no other insects. It is available as a wettablepowder. Avid is labeled for leafminers and spidermites. Conserve is labeled for some beetles,many caterpillars, thrips and other pests. Marathonis applied to the surface of the growing mediumand translocated up systemically to controlleafminers, aphids, whiteflies and other suckingpests (except mites). Also, Orthene will controlmost species of leafminers that infestchrysanthemums. Orthene is readily available inmany garden shops and plant centers.

Leafhoppers

Leafhoppers are abundant insects and NorthCarolina has many species of leafhoppers, and

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leafhoppers are sometimes quite abundant. Asidefrom their direct damage to ornamental plants,leafhoppers are also important because of diseasesthey transmit to shade trees, fruit trees, vines andeven grasses! Aster yellows is sometimes seen instunted, yellowed marigolds, China aster andother composites as well as numerous kinds ofbedding plants. According to Dr. Tom Creswellin the NCSU Plant Disease and Insect Clinic, Thedisease is caused by a phytoplasma (similar to amycoplasma) and is spread from plant to plant byleaf-hopper insects. There is no practical controlfor infected plants and they should be destroyed.

Unfortunately, except for a few reallydistinctive kinds of leafhoppers, the rest can bequite difficult toidentify tospecies. On mostof the samples wer e c e i v e ,leafhoppers are represented only by their injury(the tiny chlorotic spots) because Leafhoppersare skittish and agile. They often jump from plantsamples as the samples are cut. Naturalis-O, anaturally occurring parasitic fungus, is labeledfor leafhopper control. The active ingredient isBeauveria bassiana, a fungus that only infectsinsects. Neem oil extract, Triact, is also labeledas are soap and pyrethrins. Orthene is anotherchoice for leafhopper control as it is somewhatsystemic, it is effective as a contact insecticide,and it is relatively safe for people to use. However,because leafhoppers migrate readily from placeto place, it is almost impossible to get long-termcontrol without lots of spraying!

Mites

Broad mites and cyclamen mites infestnumerous herbaceous and woody plants ingreenhouses and outside (African violets.ageratum, azaleas, begonias, gerberas, gloxinias,lantana, marigolds, snapdragons, verbena, zinnia,etc.). Infested plants usually cease blooming andbecome stunted and eventually gnarled and totally

unsaleable. Broad mites are so small that they arevirtually invisible on the host plants even with agood hand lens. Also, the mites tend to crowdinto the crevices and buds and feed on the growingtips. Their toxic saliva causes the twisted,hardened and distorted growth in the terminal ofthe plant. The effects of their feeding may persistlong after the mites have been eradicated. Wecurrently recommend Avid, Kelthane, Sanmite,Talstar, Thiodan, or Topcide for control ofcyclamen mites and broad mites. Of thesepesticides, only Avid is translaminar to any realdegree. Ornamentals and Turf Insect Note No. 28explains a little more about the biology andcontrol of broad mites. Found on the World WideWeb at http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/Ornamentals_and_Turf/flower_contents/orn_t28/not28.html. Insect and Related Pests ofFlowers and Foliage Plants, a North CarolinaCooperative Extension publication, is found atthe following web site: http://ipmwww.ncsu.edu/INSECT_ID/AG136/mite3.html

False spider mites are tiny, flat orange to redmites with black spots. Pentamerismus mites areelongate and orange. Brevipalpus mites arestrongly textured on top. Tenuipalpus mites arebroad in the middle and narrow behind. Falsespider mites may explain partly why these plantswere declining. With their microscopic, needlelikemouthparts, false spider mites puncture the hostplant and suck out the juices. This causes a palespot that may later turn brown. Infested shrubsslowly turn reddish-brown. This damageresembles that of spider mites but the onset ofsymptoms is much slower. False spider mite eggsare red and cylindrical. Dursban, Joust and someother pesticides are labeled for “mites.” Theseshould all give adequate control. Ornamentalsand Turf Insect Information Note 47 explainssome of the biology and control of false spidermites. This note is found at the following website: http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/Ornamentals_and_Turf/flower_contents/orn_t47/not47.html

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Spider mites are tiny arthropods that insert theirtiny, scissor-like mouthparts into leaves and petalsand cause tiny yellowish spots to form as theysuck out the contents of the plant cells. Predaceousmites and small lady beetles feed on spider mitesand parasitic fungi infect these mites, especiallyin humid weather. Hot, dry weather apparentlyinhibits the parasitic fungi and speeds up the lifecycle of the spider mites. When spider mitesstarve, they jump into the air any time a breezecomes along (aerial dispersal). They can land onthe clothing of folks going into greenhouses andcan be brushed accidentally onto ornamentalplants.

Plants that have wilted slightly are muchmore susceptible to pesticide injury than turgidplants. Also, plants are much more likely to beburned if pesticides are applied during midday.Watering plants can help control spider mitesbecause higher relative humidity encouragesparasitic fungi. Because spider mites are tiny andrelatively fragile, they can be dislodged fromornamental plants by hosing the plants downwith an ordinary garden hose. Many of the miteswill be dislodged and will drown. There is aproblem with this: if theplant is tender, the streamof water may bruise or breakit. Horticultural oils andsoaps are moderately toxicto spider mites. Oils andsoaps are acceptable evento organic growers and they are relatively safe forhumans. Soaps and oils have virtually no residualactivity so both pesticides must be applied two orthree times for complete control (about 5 days inbetween sprays). The old standby, Kelthane, stillworks if it is available. Avid is now labeled forspider mites in greenhouses and it is safe forornamentals of all kinds.

Slugs

Slugs are often attracted to odoriferous blossomsand to succulent leaves. They appear to be as

sensitive in their sense of smell as humans are. Ofthe baits that are used for slug control,metaldehyde is the most commonly used.“Deadline” is the longest lasting and most resistantto weathering of the metaldehyde formulationsaccording tor e s e a r c hdone by Dr.Mike Parrellaat theUniversity of California. Ornamentals and TurfInsect Information Note No. 22 give someadditional information on slugs and theirmanagement. This note is also found at thefollowing web site: http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/Ornamentals_and_Turf/flower_contents/orn_t22/not22.html

Thrips

Western flower thrips have acquired resistanceto a variety of pesticides and have become adouble threat to ornamental plants because theyalso transmit impatiens necrotic spot virus andtomato spotted wilt virus. The western flowerthrips can overwinter successfully in NorthCarolina as well as areas further south. One threatto greenhouse plants is that western flower thripsin South Carolina and Georgia may pick uptomato spotted wilt virus there and then blow intoNorth Carolina and be sucked into greenhouseswhere they can then spread the virus amongsusceptible crops. Another threat is that westernflower thrips may blow into greenhouses and getestablished (because of its greatpesticide resistance). Later a plant withimpatiens necrotic spot virus may bebrought in, and the virus acquired byimmature western flower thrips. Thenspread through the rest of the range bythe new, infected adults.

Conserve is the most effectivepesticide for western flower thripsmanagement that is currently labeled. DowElancois concerned about resistance, and they recommend

33


applying Conserve only once per 13-week crop. Ifmore applications are necessary to suppress westernflower thrips, then Avid can be used as well. Avid alsocontrols spider mites, broad mites and leafminers.Duraguard (a microencapsulated formulation ofDursban from Whitmire that is less phytotoxic thanthe older Dursban formulations). Chlorpyrifos issomewhat effective for western flower thripsmanagement. In addition, Mesurol WP from GowanCompany is labeled for aphids, mites, slugs and snailsin the greenhouse and entomologists report that itworks well.

Growers should consider rotating amongchemical groups of pesticides, and monitoring withsticky cards. Screening could be another helpful tool.Ornamentals and Turf Insect Information Note 72gives some additional information on the westernflower thrips. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/Ornamentals_and_Turf/flower_contents/ort072e/ort072e.htm There is also an Ornamentalsand Turf Insect Information note on screening. http:// w w w . c e s . n c s u . e d u / d e p t s / e n t / n o t e s /Ornamentals_and_Turf/ production_contents/104.html

Whiteflies

Silverleaf Whitefly - The silverleaf whitefly isslightly smaller (about 1/32 inch) and slightly yellowerthan most other whitefly pests of flowers. The wingsare held roof-like at about a 45° angle, whereas otherwhiteflies usually hold the wings nearly flat over thebody. Hence, the silverleaf whitefly appears moreslender than other common whiteflies. Eggs areinserted on end in the undersides of new leaves. Themature nymphs are about half as long as adults are.Nymphs appear glassy to opaque yellowish and mayor may not have spines. The pupa (fourth nymphstage) is plump, somewhat darker yellow and opaque.Host plants include alfalfa, beans, citrus, cole crops,ficus, Gerbera daisy, lantana, lettuce, melons, cotton,grape, sweet potato, and poinsettia. The silverleafwhitefly is a vector for several important virus diseasesof vegetables in Florida and the southwestern UnitedStates. Heavy infestations cause leaves of cucurbitsand stems of poinsettias to blanch (“silver”) and wilt.The excretion of honeydew and the subsequentdevelopment of sooty mold fungi also reduce the

appearance, photosynthesis, and other physiologicalfunctions of the plant. Development from eggdeposition to adult emergence varies from 16 to 38days. Females lay 80 to 100 eggs. There have beenreports (in Israel) that repeated applications ofinsecticides have produced a highly fecund (300eggs/females) strain of silverleaf whitefly. Femaleslive about two weeks. Control of silverleaf whitefliesis difficult because the eggs and older immatureforms are resistant to many aerosol and insecticidesprays (in addition, the adults are extremely resistantto dry pesticide residue). For good control with sprays,the pesticide mixture must be directed to the lowerleaf surface where all stages of the whiteflies naturallyoccur. Neem seed extract is not as acutely toxic assome of the synthetic pesticides, but has the advantageof being toxic to young nymphs, inhibiting growthand development of older nymphs,and reducing oviposition by adults.To cleanup a heavy infestation ofwhiteflies, I recommend using soap,oil, or Tame+Orthene 75S severaltimes at relatively close intervals.Since Marathon has been labeledfor whiteflies (aphids, mealybugs,and leaf-feeding thrips), growersalso have a systemic pesticide forgreenhouse ornamentals. If the population has manymature fourth instars (the pupae), new adults willcontinue to appear for a week or two in spite of thespray applications. The silverleaf whitefly is resistantto resmethrin (PT 1200), Temik, sumithrin, oxamyl10G, malathion, MetasystoxR, and Mavrik. In ourdemonstrations, Talstar, Insecticidal Soap, Enstar,and Tame + Orthene have worked well for whiteflycontrol. Marathon 1% granular also gives good control.Ornamentals and Turf Insect Information Note 83gives a little more information on this pest. It is foundon the web atht tp : / /www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts /ent /notes/Ornamentals_and_Turf/flower_contents/orn_t83/not83.html.

34


Problem Solver for Cut Flowers

Brian E. Whipker North Carolina State University

There are a wide array of diseases and disordersthat afflict cut flowers and interfer with normalplant development. Problems can be classified intwo causal categories: 1. infectious disorderscaused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, or insects, or 2.non-infectious disorders which include:nutritional, chemical induced phytotoxicities, andenvironmental related (water, temperature, andlight) problems. An overview of each of thesewill be discussed below. Table 1 contains adiagnostic key to help you identify some of thecommon disorders of cut flowers.

Infectious DiseasesInfectious diseases commonly occur with the

production of cut flowers. Bacterial diseasescommonly enter the plant through the stomata,water pores, wounds, or lenticels. They areunable to penetrate directly through the cell walls(epidermal cells). Bacteria are some of thesmallest living organisms. They multiply bydividing in two (fission). This may happen everyhour, so that within a single day there could beover 17 million descendants of one bacterium ifthey all survived. Bacterial diseases are mostcommonly spread by splashing or moving water,insects, cultivation, or harvesting of flowers.Examples include: Erwinia rot, bacterial soft rotof iris, and bacterial leaf spots.

Fungal diseases are spread by fungi and mostare formed by branched threads called hyphae.The mass of branched threads make up thevegetative body of a fungus and is called amycelium. Fungal diseases can be spread bywind, splashing or moving water, insects,cultivation, or harvesting of flowers. Examples

include: powdery mildew, downy mildew, rusts,Pythium root rot, and Botrytis.

Most infectious diseases can be classified as:root rots, stem rots, leaf spots, viruses, andphytoplasma-like organisms (aster yellows).

Root Rots. This class of disease attacks and killsthe plant roots. When enough of the root systemis killed, then the top growth of the plant willinitially appear stunted, ultimately wilt, and resultin plant death. Digging or removing the plant toinspect the roots will aid in diagnosis. Removethe infected plant and the surrounding soil.Preventative fungicide drenches can be appliedto prevent the disease spread to other plants. Poorwater drainage promotes root rots. Make sure thedrainage around the plants is adequate. The mostcommon root rots of cut flowers are: Fusarium,Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and Phytophera.

Stem/Crown Rots. Symptoms vary from blights(dieback of young tissue, expecially the leavesand twigs) to cankers (localized shrinking anddying of the tissues, which later crack open andexpose the tissue underneath). Initial symptomscan be the wilting of a single stem or in the caseof a canker or crown rot the whole plant can wilt.In the case of young seedlings, wirestem (causedby Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Botrytis, or Alternaria)is a girdling of the stem at the soil line and causesthe collapse and death of the plant. Digging orremoving the plant to inspect the roots will aid indiagnosis. Remove the infected plant and thesurrounding soil. Prune out the infected shoot ifpossible. Remember to disinfect the pruners.

35


The most common stem rots of cut flowers are:Botrytis, Rhizoctonia, brown rose canker, andSclerotinia.

Galls. Galls are a swelling of plant parts whichcan be caused by insects which lay their eggs inleaf or stem tissue or by fungal or bacterialorganisms, which are only visible if the plant isdug up. Most bacterial galls cause a restriction ofwater movement within the plant and caneventually cause plant stunting and death.Removal of the infected plant is the only controlmeasure available.

Leaf Spots. Numerous leaf spot diseases infectcut flowers. Many of these are crop or cultivarspecific, while others may have a wide hostrange. Diseases include fungal leaf spots, bacterialleaf spots, rusts, downy mildew, and powderymildew.

Fungal leaf spots are often zonate, markedwith concentric zones of differing appearance.They most commonly occur during periods ofcool temperatures. The most common fungi thatcause leaf spots are Anthracnose, Botrytis,Alternaria, Septoria, but there are numerousothers. In the case of some fungal leaf spots likeAlternaria on zinnia, the dead tissue may fall out,leaving a small hole (shot-hole).

Bacterial leaf spots typically have a water-soaked (darker color) area around a zone of deadtissue. Many times the dead tissue may besurrounded by a halo of yellow tissue. Bacterialleaf spots are favored when the temperatures arewarm. Bacterial diseases are most commonlyspread by splashing or moving water, insects,cultivation, or harvesting of flowers.

Rusts are fungi which commonly have thereddish colored spores. Symptoms are firstnoticeable as pale spots on the upper leaf surface,followed by rust pustules. Rusts are usually hostspecific. Plants commonly infected with rustsinclude asters and snapdragons. Cultivar selectionwill help limit the problem.

Downy mildew starts out as a pale green or

yellow patches on the upper leaves. Inspection ofthe underside of the leaf reveals fuzzy fungalspores which can be white, tan, or gray. Plantscommonly infected with downy mildew includeasters, bachelor’s button, lupine, rose,Rudebeckia, and snapdragons. Remove infectedplants and because the spores can persist in thesoil for many years, replant with a different typeof plant. Avoid the disease by providing adequatespacing between plants and if possible limitingmoisture on the leaf surface.

Powdery mildew is a noticeable white fungalgrowth on the upper leaf surface. It can be aproblem on a number of cut flowers, includingaster, bee balm, phlox, rose, and sweet pea, but inmost cases each type is host specific. Powderymildew usually does not kill a plant, but cancause lower leaf loss. The development ofpowdery mildew is encouraged by periods ofhigh humidity when the leaf remains moist. Thisis in contrast to most other diseases which requirewater or rain to be spread. Avoid the disease byproviding adequate spacing between plants andif possible limiting moisture on the leaf surface.Fungicides can also be used.

Viruses. They are characterized by a mottledpattern of light and dark areas, ringspots, stuntingof the plants, leaf curl, and in some cases necrosisof the leaf tissue. Some viruses are hosts specificlike dahlia mosiac virus, while others likeimpatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV) have a widehost range, and a wide array of symptoms whichcan be specific to a host. Because of the widerange of symptoms, viruses can be mistakenlythought to be herbicide injury or a nutritionaldisorder. Viruses are usually spread throughpropagation (not disinfecting propagation knives)or by insect vectors (aphids, leafhoppers, orthrips). Once infected, removal of the plant is thebest control measure. Controlling insectpopulations will also aid in control.

Phytoplasma-like Organisms. Phytoplasma-like organisms cause the disease known as aster

36


yellows. Symptoms include the yellowing of thenewly developing plant leaves and flowers, andin some plants a proliferation of growth (witches’broom). The disease affects a number of annualand perennial cut flowers. The disease is spreadby the aster leafhopper. It is particularlytroublesome in perennial plantings because theinfected plants may overwinter and enable thedisease spread by a new leafhopper generation.Control of the aster leafhopper population andremoval of infected plants is recommended.

Non-Infectious Diseases

Nutrient Deficiencies. The most common nutrientalproblems that occur are deficiencies. During fieldproduction deficiencies of nitrogen (lower leafyellowing), phosphorus (lower leaf purpling), andpotassium (lower leaf marginal necrosis) can be seen.Most times deficiencies are the result of the lack offertilizer. The exception can be phosphorus in whichcold, wet soil conditions can limit uptake even thoughan adequate amount is supplied.

During greenhouse production of transplantsnutrient problems are more prevalent. This is primarilyattributed to the use of a soilless substrate which hasa low cation exchange capacity (nutrient holdingability) and a limited amount of buffering capacity(ability to resist changes in pH). Monitoring the pHand electrical conductivity of the root substrate willhelp ensure your nutritional program is on track.

Chemical Induced Phytotoxicities. These can becaused by a number of factors, including: herbicidedrift, pesticide burn, and air pollution. Herbicideswill cause symptoms ranging from a marginalchlorosis, to necrotic spots, to death. The severity andsymptoms depend on the type of herbicide used andthe plant type.

Pesticide burn can occur on some plants, especiallyduring the summer when plants are sprayed duringthe heat of the day. Typically symptoms will be aspotting of the leaves or a marginal necrosis where thespray accumulated. Spraying during the cool part ofthe day will help avoid problems. Also when using anew chemical it may be useful to test it on a few plantsto see if it causes phytotoxicity to the leaves orflowers.

Plants are particularly sensitive to air pollutionbecause they filter such large quantities of air throughtheir leaves. Ethylene is a particular problem forindoor produced cut flowers because it can causeabortion of the flower bud. Ethylene pollution iscommonly caused by a furnace with a cracked heatexchanger or with the use of an unvented heater.

Environmental Disorders. Extremes in high orlow temperatures can cause plant problems. Someplants do not perform well during periods of hightemperatures and others are sensitive to coldtemperatures which can cause leaf scorch or plantdeath.

Water stress of either too much water (which canlead to root rots) or too little water (which can lead topoor plant growth, aborted flowers, and plant death)can limit the production of good quality plants andshould be avoided.

IdentificationFor additional information about disease and

disorder identification, submit a sample to a diagnosticclinic. Almost every land grant university has a plantdisease diagnostic clinic. Contact your localCooperative Extension Service office for more details.Details about how to submit a sample are include inthe section on Collecting Samples. An excellentpictorial guide is the book Diseases of Annuals andPerennials, listed at the end of the article.

ConclusionsThere are a number of diseases and disorders

which can compromise plant growth. Identifying theproblem through a clinic will help you determine astrategy to eliminate future problems. Limiting theseeffects will ensure a successful and profitable crop.

Additional Reading:Armitage, A.M. 1993. Specialty cut flowers. TimberPress, Portland, Oregeon.

Chase, A.R., M. Daughtrey, and G.W. Simone. 1995.Diseases of Annuals and Perennials: a Ball Guide. BallPubl., Batavia, IL Call 888-888-0013.

Hausbeck, M.K. and L.G. Olsen. 1994. Control of Diseaseson Commercial Outdoor Flowers. North Central RegionalExtension Pub. #491. As of 2/2000 it was available fromIowa St. Univ. for $10 plus shipping. Call 515.294.5247.

37


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40


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41


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42


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43


Marketing for the Fresh-Cut Flower Industry

Susan and Steve BenderHomestead Flower Farm

Warrenton, North Carolina

Types of Marketing:

Retail Sales - direct to consumers, with the productsold at: farmer’s markets, roadside stand, ordirectly off the farm.

Wholesale Sales - product sold to: wholesalefloral companies (who in turn sell to florists orother businesses) or to retail florists (who in turnsell to the public).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct toConsumer Sales:

Advantages1. The grower sets the price according to what the

market will bear.

2. The grower has the right to sell the product ornot to sell the product to any customer.

3. The consumer gets to see the product beforethey put their money down. Since they havethe right to take it or leave it, there are farfewer complaints than from wholesalers whoare usually buying sight unseen.

Disadvantages1. Many farmers markets are only open for a

minimal number of designated hours, whichthen won’t tie you down to an entire day ofmarketing.

2. It may take you all day to sell your flowers,depending upon the hours of operation ofyour market.

3. The worst case scenario is that you may simplyhave more flowers than the market traffic canbuy. The best selling day may also be the daythe weather is terrible, reducing the traffic tofar below expectations.

Pricing for Retail Sales:1. Observing other markets that sell flowers can

be an invaluable experience.

2. You’ll get and idea of: bunch size, bunchquality, bunch pricing, and displaying flowers.

3. Once you get an idea of what is selling retail,if your flowers are comparable, your askingprice should be equal to or higher than theother vendors. If your bunches are a lowerprice (with the exception of end-of-the-daysales), you are telling people your bunchesare worth less than those of others.

4. Bottom line: Your product has value!!! Chargea fair and reasonable price that the market canbear. Price undercutting only hurts yourreputation with your customers and fellowvendors.

Advantages and Disadvantages of WholesaleSales:

1. Advantage is that you can move a large amountof flowers at one time.

2. Disadvantage is that you get less money perbunch for your flowers.

44


For A Successful Relationship with theWholesale Buyer:

1. Do not compromise:a. on your moralsb. on the quality of your flowersc. on what you say you’ll do

2. Build a trust relationship with the people youdo business with; this takes communication.

a. Don’t try to pawn off flowers that are inferioror too old on anyone. (That’s what thecompost pile is for!) Even though you mayhave just picked that bunch early that morning,and are delivering it that same day to yourbuyer, if the fact is that they should have beenpicked five days ago, don’t kid yourself oranyone else and try to move it. THIS WILLEVENTUALLY HURT YOUR BUSINESS,AS WELL AS THE INDUSTRY.

b. Some wholesalers have a standard of payingNet 30, some even longer than that. If youdesire to be paid upon delivery, ask for thisbefore you make your delivery. You will betold what the company’s policy is. Beprepared to receive your payment in 4-6weeks, maybe even longer.

3. Don’t make promises you can’t keep. (This iscalled stress reduction.)

a. It will not sit well with your wholesaler orflorist once you’ve promised them a certainnumber of bunches on a certain day, and thenyou can’t deliver on your promise!

b. Wholesalers order flowers at least a weekahead of time. If you promise a delivery ofsomething for Monday morning, for example,they won’t order from California, SouthAmerica, or Holland the same flower forMonday because they know you’re bringingit.

c. It is no laughing matter if you show up witha partial order after you have promised more,then come to find out the wholesaler or floristalready presold the flowers you said youwould bring, and you don’t have them.

d. The florist that was counting on your flowersfor a wedding, and then you show up withoutall of the order, is left in a bind because it maybe too late for them to have their wholesalerspecial order what they need.

4. Don’t let the words, “I’m not interested,” stopyou!

There are numerous reasons why a wholesaler orflorist may not want to buy flowers from you ata particular moment:

a. You called when they were too busy to talk toyou. (Monday mornings are probably thevery worst time to call, as well as the weekbefore a holiday.)

b. They already bought a lot of the same flowersyou’re offering and they need to sell theirsout first. (Be aware that they most likely willnot tell you this.)

c. They don’t know you yet (Building arelationship takes time and perseverance!Don’t stop bringing your flowers by to let thebuyer take a look at them.)

d. Your pricing is not in line with what they arewilling to pay. (This takes time andexperience. Don’t give up!)

5. Lastly, do not let the wholesaler take advantageof you.

If you deal with a wholesaler who will not fulfillhis promises, or keep his word, do not count onhim to take your flowers. Better still, do notcontinue dealing with him. His business is not

45


worth the heightened level of stress it will causein your life.

Suggestions to Consider:

1. Carry your flowers in with you when you goby and talk with a wholesaler or florist whenyou’re attempting to establish a new market.

2. Leave a free bunch of flowers with yourprospective buyer. You would be amazedhow this may help you. This free bunch willgive your prospective buyer a good idea as tohow well your flowers hold up. Not only willyour prospective buyer look at your flowersall week and know they came from you, buthe will also get a chance to see what kind ofresponse your flowers generate from hiscustomers. This can help you tremendously!

3. I have found it is not best to sell to wholesalersand to their customers, the florists. Forexample, if you flood the florists in your areawith a particular flower, and then sell thewholesalers a lot of the same variety, thewholesalers will not be able to move yourflowers as well as they had expected. I wouldencourage selling to one or the other.

4. Keep freshness and quality your primaryconcern. We pick Saturday through Mondayfor wholesale sales on Monday and Tuesday,and pick Tuesday through Friday for retailsales on the weekend. We often hang flowersto dry for fall sales if we cannot move them allearly in the week.

5. Crop management can greatly improvemarketing opportunities. Planting cool seasonflowers in the fall and winter and usinggreenhouse protection can provide flowersfor sale in April or earlier. Continued plantingin Spring and successively planting throughthe summer can extend your fresh sales up tothe first frost, with sales of dried flowers even

to Christmas. Being on the market for anextended period of time lets people know youare serious about your profession, and givestime for relationships to develop.

Pricing:

1. The nitty gritty on how to do it is that it takessome trial and error, and getting a littleexperience under your belt.

2. If you are uncertain about your bunch price,run it by your wholesaler! They’ll tell youwhether or not they can pay what you areasking. You have to decide whether or notyou can compromise.

3. Don’t let the phrase, “I’m only paying $2.00a bunch for these!” stop you! What yourwholesaler isn’t telling you is that on top ofthe $2.00: 1) he had to pay freight/shippingcharges, 2) he had to go pick up the flowersfrom the airport, and 3) he’s not going to tellyou the quality of the flowers that he has justgotten.

What you can offer:

a. free delivery or comparable delivery chargesb. “locally grown garden flowersc. superior quality and varietiesd. flowers that are difficult to get shippede. consistency in quality of product

Consistency is your word and the excellence ofour product will pay off in the long run. You willdevelop a good reputation as a grower andmarketer if you maintain a standard of excellence.The superior quality of your product, consistentpricing and bunching, and punctual deliverieswill make a positive difference in the success ofyour business.

46


Pricing Specialty CutsJohn M. Dole

Oklahoma State University

Vicki StambackBear Creek Farms, Stillwater, Oklahoma

Introduction

Setting prices can be a difficult task even forexperienced firms. If prices are set too low,potential profit may be lost or, worse, productmay be sold for less than the cost of production.Conversely, setting prices too high may result inlost sales and dumped product. Not surprisingly,prices that growers receive are often too lowrather than too high. A few signs of too low ofprices are:

• Gross profits are getting smaller on the same orrising sales volume.

• Net profit is decreasing, especially if sales areincreasing.

• Your prices are less than your competitors’.• You get very few complaints about price or

customers buy without asking price, hagglingover price, or ask what is/is not included in theprice.

• Prices have not been changed over a long time,especially if expenses have risen.

Prices can be based either on 1) your firm’scost-of-production or 2) on the market. With thecost-of-production method prices are based onexpenses, labor, and desired profit. With themarket method prices are set according to whatother companies charge or what the market willbear. While the cost-of-production method isbest for long-term health of a firm, most firms use

a combination of both methods. For example,with some species you may not be able to chargethe calculated prices and have to rely on themarket price. In such cases, you must decidewhether or not to grow the species.

Record Keeping

The first step in cost accounting is to keeprecords. Considering the extreme time constraintsof the typical grower during the production season,record keeping should be as convenient and simpleas possible. If possible, an employee should bedesignated as the record keeper, allowing theowner/grower to focus on other tasks.

1. Cultural - planting dates, pest problems,spacing, and other cultural procedures.

2. Chemical - chemical applications, date ofapplications, rates used, applicator’s name.Contact your local cooperative ExtensionService or chemical supplier for moreinformation on chemical application rules.

3. Environmental - weather conditions,temperature.

4. Production - include notes on quality as wellas quantity.

5. Financial - all expenses and sales figures.6. Postharvest - notes and trials on vaselife of

each species (cultivar) or on the durabilityand color retention of dried materials.

47


Calculating Stem and Bunch Costs

The following is one system for helping you todetermine what you need to charge for your cuts.Use the enclosed worksheets (Worksheet 1 forannuals, Worksheet 2 for perennials or woodyplants) or adapt the system as needed for youroperation. The system is intended only to giveyou a rough idea of what you need to charge;contact your accountant to learn about othermethods which may give you more in depthinformation.

The following system focuses on two types ofexpenses: Allocated costs and unallocated costs.Allocated costs are those which you canspecifically attribute to a particular crop species.Unallocated costs include all other costs that arenot direct attributed to a specific crop, includingmost or all of the expenses listed in Table 1.

For the beginning producer, the only allocatedexpense may be seed or plug costs. As theproducer becomes more experienced andimproves recording keeping, more expenses canbe allocated to specific crops. This will allow amore accurate comparison among crops and allowyou to determine which ones are most profitable.For example, lisianthus is more labor intensivethan direct seeded larkspur and determining theamount of labor needed for each species willallow you to attribute the labor costs to eachspecies. Thus, the allocated costs for lisianthusand larkspur would then reflect the difference inlabor — allowing you to set more accurate bunchprices.

1. Allocated costs: costs which vary directlywith the crop being grown, which mainly

Unallocated costs: costs which are not directlyattributable to specific crops, which generallyinclude any or all of the expenses listed inTable 1.Total size of useable production area (ft2)Total unallocated costs ($) ÷ size of productionarea (ft2) = cost for each ft2 of useableproduction area ($/ft2)

3. Estimated production per species or cultivar:

Annuals (Worksheet 1): total number of stemsPerennials (Worksheet 2): total number ofstems over life of crop ÷ number of years inproductionWoody plants (Worksheet 2): total number ofstems over life of crop ÷ number of years inproductionUse actual production records of useable stems(3a) or estimate production from literature andmultiply by 0.65 to take into account loss (3b).If your production records are based on numberof bunches produced, replace “stems” with“bunches” to calculate bunch price.

4. Calculations for specific crops:

Area (ft2) used for each crop x unallocated costper ft2 ($/ft2) = portion of unallocated costs foreach crop species ($)Total unallocated costs ($) + total allocatedcosts ($) = total expenses for each crop species($)Expenses for each crop ($) ÷ total stem number= $/stem. This is a ‘break even’ point. A‘profit’ will be made if the stem is sold forgreater than this point.Note: If owner’s salary and all expenses arenot included in unallocated costs and the cutsare sold at or below calculated $/stem, then theowner is working for free and no money willbe available to invest in the business.

include plant costs, but also any other expensedirectly attributable to a specific crop.

2. Dividing unallocated costs among crops: (thissection is only done once for all crops)

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Acknowledgments

This article was supported in part by theSouthern Region Sustainable AgricultureResearch and Education Program (SARE),Bear Creek Farms, and Oklahoma StateUniversity.

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Worksheet 1: Calculating Stem and Bunch Costs forAnnuals

1. Allocated costs per crop ($)

2. Total unallocated costs (for one year)

Total size of useable production area (ft2)÷

=Unallocated costs ($) Area (Ft2) $/Ft2

3. To estimate stem production, use either 3a for crops on which you already haveproduction records or 3b for new crops.

3a. Total number of stems per crop

3b. Estimated number of stems per plant or Ft2

Number of plants or Ft2

x x .65 =Stems/plant or Ft2 Plants or Ft2 Stems/yr

4. x =Area (Ft2) Unallocated cost ($/Ft2) Total unall. costs ($)

+ =Total unalloc. costs ($) Allocated costs ($) Total crop costs ($)

÷=

Total crop costs ($) Stems $/stem

x =$/stem Stems/bunch $/bunch

- =Sell price ($) $/bunch Profit ($)

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Worksheet 2: Calculating Stem and Bunch Costs forPerennials or Woody Plants

1. Allocated costs per crop

Number of years from planting to removal

÷=

Allocated costs ($) Years $/year

2. Total unallocated costs (for one year)

Total size of useable production area (ft2)

÷=

Unallocated costs ($) Area (Ft2) $/Ft2

3. To estimate stem production, use either 3a for crops on which you already haveproduction records or 3b for new crops.

3a. Total number of stems per crop

Number of years from planting to removal

÷=

Stems Years Stems/year

3b. Estimated number of stems per plant or Ft2 (for one year)

Number of plants or Ft2

x x .65 =Stems/plant or Ft2 Plants or Ft2 Stems/year

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4. x =Area (Ft2) Unallocated cost ($/Ft2) Total unall. costs ($)

+ =Total unalloc. costs ($) Allocated costs ($) Total crop costs ($)

÷=

Total crop costs ($) Stems $/stem

x =$/stem Stems/bunch $/bunch

- =Sell price ($) $/bunch Profit ($)

52


Weed Management for Outdoor Cut FlowersOrigianally prepared by Tina M. Smith

Regional Floriculture Agent, Mass. Coop. Extension

Edited & updated February 2000 by Joseph C. NealProfessor of Weed Science, Department of Horticultural Science, NC State University

Weeds compete for water, nutrients, and lightresulting in reduced flower yield and increasedthreat of serious insect and disease problems. Asuccessful weed management program utilizescultural practices such as cultivation andmulching, or a combination of cultural andchemical measures, taking into considerationlabor costs and the cost and availability ofmaterials.

Weed management begins with a survey ofthe site. Weeds should be identified and the levelof weed pressure noted. Weeds can be classifiedaccording to their life cycles. Knowing the weedlife cycle is important in determining the optimaltiming for cultural management practices orherbicide applications. Summer annuals emergein the spring, flower, and set seed before the firstfrost. In cultivated fields, summer annuals tend topredominate as the primary weed type. Winterannuals germinate at the end of the summer orearly fall, overwinter, then flower and fruit in thesummer. Biennials need at least two seasons tocomplete their life cycle and, like annuals,biennials die after flowering. Perennials, whichsurvive more than two seasons, can propagate byseed or vegetatively. Vegetative reproductiveorgans such as tubers, rhizomes (undergroundstems), stolons (above ground creeping stems),bulbs, and corms, are often resilient to bothcultural and chemical control measures and shouldbe targeted for control before planting the field.It is also important to scout weed populationsduring and after the growing season in order toassess the success of the weed control program.

Herbicides are available that may be safelyused to control weeds in cut flowers. However, inmany situations herbicides cannot be used or arenot effective in controlling all the weeds. Even ifeffective herbicides are available, growers shouldutilize cultural practices that reduce weedinfestations and spread. These practices will beespecially important where herbicides cannot beused.

Cultural Practices

Cover crops. If one is in the planning stages ofcut flower production, use of preplant covercrops should be considered the season prior toplanting or earlier. Annual ryegrass in rotationwith summer cover crops will provide organicmatter and reduce weed populations.

Cultivation and spacing. Some growers haveminimized weed competition with a combinationof early cultivation and narrow between-rowspacing. This can be effective if the crop gets ahead start on the competition. If the crop’s growthis impeded in any way, the weeds will take over.Regular cultivation can limit weed competitionbetween rows. However, cultivation can injurethe roots of some cut flowers, contribute to erosionand result in some water losses due to increasedevaporation. In-row cultivation is particularlydifficult and typically requires hand-hoeing orhand-weeding.

Mulches. Mulches can effectively control mostannual weeds from seed. According to Dr. Andrew

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Senesac of the Long Island Research Laboratory,black plastic, remay spun and glued, andWeedblock can be utilized successfully incontrolling weeds around field grown herbaceousperennials. In some studies however, due to thephysical restriction of the spreading shoots, thesemulches reduced Achillea and Stachys flowerproduction. Spreading perennials that do notproduce adventitious roots did not show anysignificant yield differences from the controls.Organic mulches such as bark, pine straw, andcomposted yard wastes, effectively control manyannual weeds. Some growers use rotted sawdust,wood chips, spoiled hay and straw. If notcomposted properly, sawdust and wood chipswill rob the soil of nitrogen. Bark mulches andpine straw can be used but are often too costly.Hay generally contains too many weed seeds andoften increases the weed pressure. Clean, weed-free straw is often the most cost-effective mulchavailable, but locally some growers may findother economical alternatives. Organic mulchesshould be applied to weed-free, warm soil soonafter planting. To be most effective, they shouldbe applied in a layer two to three inches deep.

Chemical Control - Herbicides

Herbicides can be classified into two generaluse categories: preemergence and postemergence.Preemergence herbicides are applied before theweeds germinate but after the crop has beenplanted. Postemergence treatments are appliedafter the weeds have emerged. Herbicides mayalso be classified based on their selectivity. Non-selective herbicides will control any herbaceousplants that are contacted. Selective herbicideswill control or suppress only certain types ofplants or weeds.

Herbicides are available in severalformulations. Usually, the sprayable formulations(emulsifiable concentrates, wettable powders,dry flowables, water-dispersible granules) areless expensive than granular formulations. But,

granular formulations are often safer ontransplanted cut flowers than are the sprays (dueto reduced foliar absorption). Sprayableformulations can be applied through a tractor-mounted sprayer in field or by hand-held backpacksprayers equipped with a spray boom. With abackpack sprayer, maintain a constant foot pace,even spray pressure and uniform nozzle orifices.Regardless of the formulation or equipment used,it is important to apply herbicides uniformly.

When applying a herbicide the square footageof the area to be treated and the calibrated sprayer/ spreader output (amount per area) should beknown. Misapplication of the chemical can resultin poor weed control or injury to the crop. Readand follow all label directions before applyingany chemical. A sprayer that is to be used forherbicides should be labeled as such and usedonly for that purpose.

The following is a partial listing of herbicidesthat can be used in cut flower production. Becauseof the wide variety of cut flower species grown itis difficult to recommend any one herbicide thatwill cover all crops. Due to labeling restrictions,possibility of crop injury, limited market, and thedifficulty in obtaining new labels many chemicalcompanies do not actively pursue cut flowerlabels. It is the user’s responsibility to followlabel instructions.

Nonselective, postemergence herbicides

Nonselective herbicides can be used to controlweeds in a field prior to planting or to spot sprayweeds between crop rows. Care should be takenin selecting a herbicide to insure that there will beno residual chemical present that could damagethe crop. Chemicals that would be used for thispurpose include glyphosate (Roundup-Pro),glufosinate, (Finale), paraquat (Gramoxone),diquat (Reward), and pelargonic acid (Scythe).Do not apply these herbicides over the top of cutflowers – crop plants will be injured or killed.

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Glyphosate is absorbed by green tissue andtranslocated to the root system of the plant. Sincethere is no residual soil activity, a crop can beseeded or transplanted into the field soon afterapplication. Actively growing weeds are muchmore susceptible to the herbicide. Many perennialweeds are best controlled in the early fall whennutrients are being stored in theroot system.

Glufosinate is also a translocated herbicide,but is not translocated as well as glyphosate inperennial weeds. Like glyphosate, it has no soilresidual activity and can be used as a sitepreparation treatment or as a spot spray to controlescaped weeds. Since glufosinate is not as welltranslocated , complete spray coverage is essentialto obtain the maximum control.

Diquat, paraquat, and Scythe are contactherbicides (i.e.: they kill foliage on contact butare not tranlocated in the plant) and have noresidual soil activity. They will suppress manyspecies of annual grasses and some broadleafweeds. Repeated applications may be needed toweaken and suppress perennial weeds. Completecoverage is essential.

Selective, postemergence herbicides

Sethoxydin (Vantage), clethodim (Envoy)and fluazifop-p (Fusilade) control most annualand perennial grasses. They can be applied overthe top of many broadleaf crops when grasses areactively growing and before they reach maximumsize. When applied to a labeled cut flower crop allopen flowers should be harvested beforeapplication to avoid injury. Do not use sprayadjuvants with Vantage. With Envoy andFusilade, use only the spray adjuvants specifiedon the labels. Use of non-labeled spray adjuvantsmay result in burn on flower foliage or buds.Additionally, to avoid over-dosing and associatedcrop damage, these herbicides should be appliedon an area-basis, not a spray-to-wet basis.

Some flowers on the Vantage label include,baby’s breath, chrysanthemum, gladiolus, iris,Dianthus deltoides, marigold, snapdragon(Antirrhinum majus), rudbeckia, and Dianthusbarbatus; plus some varieties of aster, celosia,coleus, gerber daisy, lavender, salvia, statice, andzinnia.

Some flowers on the Fusilade label includesnapdragon (Yellow Floral Carpet), calendula,bellflower, dusty miller, shasta daisy, threadleafcoreopsis, sweet william, daylily, variegatedhosta, liatris, liriope, geranium, ivy geranium,rose, sedum, annual statice, marigold, and zinnia.

Envoy is labeled for over the top applicationsto chrysanthemum, coleus, dahlia, daylily,gazania, iris, marigold, pansy, petunia, phlox,rose, Salvia, snapdragon, Dianthus, and somevarieties of zinnia. Envoy is the onlypostemergence selective grass herbicide thatcontrols annual bluegrass (Poa annua).

Preemergence herbicides

To prevent seedling weeds from emerging ina crop, a preemergence herbicide may often beused. Several preemergence herbicides areavailable for controlling annual grasses and small-seeded broadleaf weeds, but large-seededbroadleaf weeds are not as easily controlled.Careful weed scouting can identify hard-to-control species and facilitate the selection of themost effective herbicide for the crop. Ifpreemergence herbicides are to be used, be surethey are labeled for use on the crop plants to begrown. Also, in a mixed field of cut flowers allspecies being grown should be listed on theherbicide label. For information on herbicideregistrations for cut-flower species consult theNCSU Extension publication AG-427, WeedControl Suggestions for Christmas Trees, WoodyOrnamentals and Flowers.

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Cutflowers are usually started fromtransplants, divisions or tubers, but sometimesare grown in the field from seed. Generally,preemergence herbicides should be applied aftertransplanting. Research has shown that mostdirect-seeded flowers are more susceptible todamage from preemergence herbicides thantransplanted seedlings. To achieve the same levelof safety, the herbicide usually should not beapplied until after plants emerge and areestablished. Each of the herbicides describedbelow should be watered-in to “activate” or movethe herbicide into the soil where it can be absorbedby germinating weed seeds.

Bensulide (Betasan) controls crabgrass,annual bluegrass, other annual grasses and a fewbroadleaf weeds for 3 to 4 months.. Ornamentalsneed to be well established before the applicationof bensulide. Some labeled flowers includealyssum, asters, bachelor’s button, calendula,campanula, candytuft, coral bell, daffodil, dahlia,daisy, freesia, gazania, gladiolus, marigold, pansy,primrose, ranunculus, stock, sedum, sweet pea,tulip, wallflower, and zinnia.

Dithiopyr (Dimension) is a preemergenceherbicide, primarily used to control crabgrass inturf, but is labeled for annual grass and small-seeded broadleaf weed control in several flowersincluding celosia, daffodil, daylily, hosta, dustymiller, marigold, pansy, sedum, tulip, yarrow,zinnia and others.

Napropamide (Devrinol) will control certainannual grasses and annual broadleaf weeds.Flowers on the label include African daisy, aster,chrysanthemum, dahlia, daisy, gazania, geranium,gladiolus, narcissus, hosta, petunia, and zinnia.In field trials, high rates caused yield reductionsin zinnia and marigold. For effective control thechemical must be watered in after application.

Oryzalin (Surflan) controls most annualgrasses and many annual broadleaf weeds and

should be applied only to established plants.One-half inch of rainfall or irrigation is needed toactivate oryzalin. Flowers on the label includebaby’s breath, chrysanthemum, echinacea, Frenchmarigold, gazania, gladiolus, iris, liatris, pansy,petunia, rose, salvia, yarrow, and zinnia.However, severe injury has been observed ontransplanted celosia, begonias, gomphrena, salvia,phlox, and several other species. XL is a granularformulation containing oryzalin + benefin that,in research trials, has been safer to transplantedherbaceous ornamentals than spray-appliedSurflan.

Trifluralin (Treflan) controls annual grassesand a few broadleaf weeds for about 6 to 8 weeks.It is volatile and must be incorporated by irrigationimmediately after application. The granularformulation is more often used to reduce vaporlosses. Treflan is probably the safest herbicide ontransplanted cut flowers discussed herein;however, it is the weakest on broadleaf weeds.Flowers on the Treflan label include: scabiosa,shasta daisy, snapdragon, stock, snow on themountain, sunflower, sweet alyssum, sweet pea,sweet william, zinnia, cosmos, dahlia, dianthus,Dimorphotheca, forget-me-not, four o’clock,gaillardia, gladiolus, Ixora, Lobelia, Lupinus,and more.

Pennant (metolachlor) is anotherpreemergence herbicide that controls annualgrasses but its main use is for preemergencecontrol of yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus)from tubers. Pennant does not control purplenutsedge. Pennant is currently only available asan emulsifiable concentrate formulation that canburn tender foliage. Pennant is labeled for use onallium, alyssum, aster, carnation, chrysanthemum,daffodil, daisy, daylily, dianthus, gaillardia, iris,delphinium, lupine, phlox, Queen Ann’s lace,rose, snapdragon, tulip, yarrow and a few otherspecies. Injury to gladiolus and zinnia has beenreported.

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References

Crop protection chemicals reference (updated annually).John Wiley and Sons and Chemical and PharmaceuticalPress, New York, NY.

Ford, T. 1991. Nonchemical weed control. 1991 CutFlower Management Short Course, January 15-17, Univ.of Maryland Coop. Ext. Serv.

Mastalerz, J.W. and E.J. Holcomb. 1985. Bedding PlantsIII. Penn. Flower Growers. pp 350-355.

Neal, J. C. et al. 1999. Weed Control Suggestions inChristmas Trees, Woody Ornamentals, and Flowers.North Carolina State University, Extension PublicationAG-427.

Scott, J. 1991. Chemical weed control in cut flowers.1991. Cut Flower Management Short Course, January15-17, Univ. of Maryland Coop. Ext. Serv.

Senesac, A. and J. Neal. Weed management guide forherbaceous ornamentals. Cornell Coop. Ext. Serv., LongIsland Horticultural Research Lab, and Dept.Floriculture and Ornamental Horticulture, Ithaca, NY.

Original text is available at: http://www.umass.edu/umext/programs/agro/floriculture/flowral_facts/weeds.htm

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$15.00 SOUTHEAST OUTDOOR CUT FLOWER MANUAL

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