15 Cohesion+in+English

7/29/2019 15 Cohesion+in+English

1/38

Cohesion in English

Cohesion is the grammatical and lexicalrelationship within a text orsentence.

Cohesion can be defined as the links that hold atext together and give it meaning.

Cohesion can be seen in terms of ties that occurthroughout the text

.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_%28linguistics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_%28linguistics%29


2/38

Conjunction


3/38

Conjunction can appear in many different

forms

E.g succession in time can be expressed

through a verb

A snowstorm followed the battle

or

The snowstorm was preceded by a battle


4/38

Or by a phrase or clause

After the battle there was a snowstorm

After they had fought a battle it snowed

Or by two separate sentences

They fought a battle. Afterwards it snowed


5/38

Your nutrition can determine how you look, actand feel; whether you are grouchy or cheerful,homely or beautiful, physiologically and evenpsychologically young or old; whether you thinkclearly or are confused, enjoy your work or makeit a drudgery, increase your earning power orstay in an economic rut. The foods you eat canmake the difference between your day endingwith freshness which lets you enjoy a delightfulevening or with exhaustion which forces you tobed with the chickens. To a considerable

degree, your nutrition can give you a coddled-egg personality or make you a human dynamo.In short, it can determine your zest for life, thegood you put into it and the fulfilment you get out

of it.


6/38

Because they are under the personal dominion of anowner, slaves were always vulnerable to sexualexploitation and cruel punishment. In all cultures, slaveswere symbolically dishonored. For example, they were

branded, tattooed, or required to wear distinctive collars,clothing, or hairstyles.

Also, regardless of place and time period or the ethnicityof the slaves, societies have imposed certain commonstereotypes on slaves - that they were licentious,

childlike, lazy, irresponsible, dim-witted, and incapable offreedom.


7/38

In the Christian world, the most important

rationalization for slavery was the so-called

"Curse of Ham." According to this doctrine, the

Biblical figure Noah had cursed his son Hamwith blackness and the condition of slavery. In

fact, this story rested on a misunderstanding of

Biblical texts. In the Bible, Noah curses Canaan,

the ancestor of the Canaanites, and not Ham.But the "Curse of Ham" was the first justification

of slavery based on ethnicity.


8/38

It was not until the late 18th century that

pseudo-scientific racism provided the

basic justification for slavery. Yet even

before this era, Europeans associatedwhiteness with purity. Blackness had

sinister and even satanic connotations

since black was the color of the Devil.


9/38

Although the government was elected for

a three-year term, the Prime Minister

decided to hold an early election.

Meanwhile, the opposition parties, whichhad anticipated this move, had been

planning their own election campaigns, but

they had not expected such immediatepublic support.


10/38

S1 There was this guy that she was reallymadly in love with that went on and ended upworking on some oil rig somewhere

S2 Really S1 Oh yes she was really loyal, very struck on

him

S2 Smitten

S1 Smitten with him, had he had he asked herat that particular time, er, I think she would haveprobably married him


11/38

Some words on the border between

conjunction and discourse marker

Well, now, of course, anyway, surely, afterall


12/38


13/38

The Australian prime minister has called an

early election. The date was selected to coincide

with the start of the Olympic Games. This

decision was based on the views of hisministerial advisers, who predicted that voter

confidence in the government's policies would

be strong at this time. ... As previously

mentioned, decisions on the timing of electionsare based on predictions of voter confidence in

the existing government.


14/38

There are two main types of cohesion:

grammatical, referring to the structural

content,

and lexical, referring to the language

content of the piece
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexiconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexiconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar


15/38

A cohesive text is created in many

different ways. Halliday and Hasan

identify five general categories of cohesive

devices that create coherence in texts:reference, ellipsis, substitution, lexical

cohesion, and conjunction.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.A.K._Hallidayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsis_%28narrative_device%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjunctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjunctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsis_%28narrative_device%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.A.K._Halliday


16/38

Cohesion can be achieved through the use of the following

referential devices

Anaphoric reference is the most common

type of reference, used in everyday

conversation and writing. It occurs when

the writer refers back to someone orsomething that has been previously

identified, to avoid repetition

I sawJohnyesterday, hehas a new hat.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphorahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphora


17/38

Cataphoric reference is less common in

speech but can be used for dramatic effect

in writing. It occurs when the audience is

introduced to someone as an abstract,before later learning his or her name. For

example: "Here he comes, our award-

winning host... it's John Doe!" Cataphoricreferences can also be found in written

text, for example "see page 10".
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataphorahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataphora


18/38

Cataphora can be used to great

effect

When the 111th U.S. Congress convened

January 6, two people who hope to be

senators were absent. Illinois' Roland

Burris and Minnesota'sAl Franken bothwill have to wait to take up their places in

the Senate.


19/38

Exophoric reference is reference to

something outside the text itself but often

in the immediate context or part of the

common knowledge of the participants
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exophorahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exophora


20/38

Cristiano Ronaldo has escaped unhurt

after crashing his Ferrari sports car into a

roadside barrier in a tunnel near

Manchester airport. The car was badlydamaged when it was involved in the

accident at 10.20am today on the A538

Wilmslow Road, but the 23-year-oldManchester United winger was not injured.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/football/ronaldohttp://www.guardian.co.uk/football/manchesterunitedhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/football/manchesterunitedhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/football/ronaldo


21/38

C. Can I have ten oranges and a kilo of

bananas please?

V. Yes anything else?

C. No, thanks

V. Thatll be two pounds forty

C. five pounds V. sixty makes three, four and five. Thank

you


22/38

Types of reference

Personal reference

I, me, mine, my

You , yours, your

We, us, ours, our He, him, his, his

She, her , hers, her

They, them, theirs, their

It, its, its

One, ones


23/38

Demonstrative reference

this, these, here, now that those, there, then

Comparative reference

same, identical, equal, similar, additional, other different else - adjectives

identically, similarly, likewise, so, such

adverbs better, more, so, less, equally


24/38

But then, Mr Dubois reflected gloomily,

women never had any prudence. Though

he had profited by this lack many a time, it

annoyed him now.


25/38

Ellipsis is another cohesive device. It happens when, after a more

specific mention, words are omitted when the phrase needs to be

repeated.

A: Where are you going?

B: To town.

Here we have to insert I am going

.Here are my white silk scarves I can lend youone if you like.

Onehere stands forwhite silk scarf

u st tut on is very similar to ellipsis in the effect it has on
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsis_%28narrative_device%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsis_%28narrative_device%29


26/38

u st tut on is very similar to ellipsis in the effect it has onthe text, and occurs when instead of leaving a word or

phrase out, as in ellipsis, it is substituted for another, more

general word. For example,

A. Ill have two poached eggs on toast

B. Ill have the same

where same" is used instead of repeating two

poached eggs on toast


27/38

Lexical cohesion

Lexical cohesion is basically created by

repetition (reiteration) of the same lexeme,

or general nouns, or other lexemes

sharing the majority ofsemantic features:The bus ... - the vehicle ... - the chassis ....
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexemehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexeme


28/38

Steve Bell 2008


29/38

Fog everywhere. Fog up the river, where it flows among

green aits and meadows; fog down the river, where itrolls defiled among the tiers of shipping and thewaterside pollutions of a great (and dirty) city. Fog on theEssex marshes, fog on the Kentish heights. Fogcreeping into the cabooses of collier-brigs; fog lying outon the yards and hovering in the rigging of great ships;

fog drooping on the gunwales of barges and small boats.Fog in the eyes and throats of ancient Greenwichpensioners, wheezing by the firesides of their wards; fogin the stem and bowl of the afternoon pipe of the wrathfulskipper, down in his close cabin; fog cruelly pinching the

toes and fingers of his shivering little 'prentice boy ondeck. Chance people on the bridges peeping over theparapets into a nether sky offog, with fog all round them,as if they were up in a balloon and hanging in the mistyclouds.


30/38

There is a boy climbing that tree.

The boy is going to fall if he doesn't takecare. (repetition)

The lad's going to fall if he doesn't takecare. (synonym)

The child's going to fall if he doesn't take

care. (superordinate) The idiot's going to fall if he doesn't take

care. (general word)


31/38

General nouns

people, person, man, woman, child, boy,

girl

creature

thing, object

stuff,

business, affair, matter problem, question, affair


32/38

there was a big protest and they and they

said well this wasn't really a photograph it

was a photo illustration done by an artist.

but the problem is they never said thatthey never said we've, changed his

appearance intentionally. so that's one of

the rules that i- number one don'tmanipulate a photograph ...


33/38

then keep in mind that these are allcomponents in, this overall data type. nowone thing to notice here is these are not

variable, declarations.

was also a precipitation tank so they're

dumping stuffin, and stuff's precipitating,at the bottom. the most difficult part of thecomputation is to try to figure out,


34/38

Lexical repetition

Nobody owned any part of theland

. Sotopo's fatherowned many cattle, and if the cows continued toproduce calves, he might as well become the next chief.Old Grandmotherowned the beautifully tanned animalskins she used as coverlets in winter. And Sotopo

owned his polished hard-wood assegais. But the landbelonged to the spirits who governed life; it existedforever, for everyone, and was apportioned temporarilyaccording to the dictates of the tribal chief and seniorheadman. Sotopo's father occupied the hillside for the

time being, and when he died the older son could inheritthe loan -- land, but no person or family every acquiredownership.

From The Covenant by James Michener.


35/38

Lexical cohesion can also form relationalpatterns in text in a way that linkssentences to create an overall feature of

coherence with the audience, sometimesoverlapping with other cohesion features.The understanding of how the content ofsentences is linked helps to identify the

central information in texts by means of apossible summary. This allows

judgements on what the text is about.


36/38

Conjunction

Conjunction creates cohesion by relating

sentences and paragraphs to each other

by using words from the class of

conjunction, or numerals. This can betemporal (after,before), causal (because),coordinating (and), adversative (but,

however), additive (further) ordiscoursemarkers (now, well, after all).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjunctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_markerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_markerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_markerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_markerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjunction


37/38

Thomas Telford was born the son of a shepherd in the Scottish

Borders village of Glendinning on 9 August 1757. Some sourceshave it that his fatherdied before his son was born, others that helived only a few months beyond Thomasbirth. Either way, the boysupbringing, living alone with his mother in the poverty of a two-roomed cottage, was harsh.

But in one key respectThomasproved to befortunate. Thoughhismotherwas poor, he had an uncle who was willing to pay forhim toattend school. Despite this generosity, money remained short andhe had to work for local farmers outside school time in order tosupplement the familys meagre income. This education, and hisfriendship with a local schoolmaster, were to provide the basis forhis future career.( cataphoricpoints forward)

Telford left school at the age of fifteen and was apprenticed to a

stonemason, firstly in Lochmaben and laterin Langholm. Theearliest reported indication ofhiswork dates from this period theGazetteer of Scotland notes that he was employed on theconstruction of Langholm Bridge, on which a masons mark is saidto be his. In 1780 he moved to Edinburgh, where he was employedin the building of the citys New Town.


38/38

Co-reference: Thomas Telford, ThomasTelford, he, his, him

Repetition: school, schoolmaster, born,

birth Conjunction: but, though, despite

Words same semantic field: pay, money,

income, poor Antonyms: harsh, fortunate

Comparison: some, others, either way

15 Cohesion+in+English

Documents

Transcript of 15 Cohesion+in+English