PURE THEORYOF LAW

bJ HANS KELSEN

.......... _.........._..._-- ..

MAX l\;NIGHT

Ttl" LA.'''''''" E",,,,,,,,g, LTl>,C,.... Now)",.,

-,

I,BJ>J n, 0-31 ;~.-- ~-~., (p'''''!'''')151\)

PURE THEORYOF LAW

by HANS KELSEN

rr.o

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE

The preomt work i. a .nn.~.ion of the OO>ld German edi.ionof Ham Keben'. Rei.., Reelt41.It,., publi>htd in '960, a compl ly revi>td v....ion of lh. Ii... tdi'ion. pubUohtd in '9H. Inthe firn edition K.lIen conlintd him"'lf I" formula.e Ihe ch"actui"k resulu r>f hi. PurIt Randa to rIl that a lheor.,. w ....... lint draf..... con",incdin Rd.... Hallp'I"'Dblnlit; ur StMUredtbklmof pnncipJ_to the mult. of a den-lopmmt originating fromImd..,dco that arf thc cemcnlO of pooitive legal ord.... increasing, a general ,heory 01 law i, in dangtf of mi..ing 10m.Icpl phenomena among I" fundamental leg.1 concCfl'1: tom. of.h"",, concepu may ,urn Out \.0 be too narrow. othcn '00 wide.K.IKn U much aW1l.r

vi TRANSLATOR'S PREFACJ;:nOl a, the final woro but'" an ent..p,i.., that would wne/i' byCQutinued additi""'_ "'linemenu. Ot improvement. in ~enL

Thi' tnn,lation, camully checked by the amhor, "'present, cOJtlpromi'" bo,tween a content,-wn.ciou. auth", and a furm-wn-JCious transl.t"". Kel'en', irom""'" ."pe,ienc. with mi,intttpre.tation' of hi' worb as a mmlt of "elegant" tl"anslations had to bethe deciding faetol" when .."",ingly repetitiou. "" G..manic_"""nding passage,. e"punged from"" pbr.ued. in an e..litt dultof the t'an,lation .. too literally milT01"lng the ""iginal, w..e ..-.un-ed. In view of the de.. iled Contents po.ge an ind.,. wasdi,pen.!ed with.

A pe",onal note moy bo, pennitt.d. It w.. my good fonune toOludy under Profe"'" Kelsen lJoth a, the UOlve",ity 01 Viennaand at the Un;"e",ity of California. My admint'on r", the JCQpe,integrity, and con,'oteney of hi' the"'Y hoo Wen mateh.d onlyby my '''peet for bi. humanity and mod..ty, and my aHrctinnfor the man him.elf. The long work.ing association with him pr0-vided me with my most """'an/ing intellectual experience.

I would like to expre.. my appcinion to hofessor AlbertEhm;weig of the Uni,..,i,y 01 Califomia L.a.w School in Betk..ley wh_ initiative made thi. work. possible, and whose goodollie'" srcu

CONTENTS

I I.AW AND NATURE

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"'I

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::

j_ Ib, SOC,,[ Oiikto Sod,] OrdCTI prIJI. The Ac, .nd ]" !. 1l< Oid"

IQ I,,, A. 0 P.... 01 MOl1!li1I. lltlotivity of Mor>1 VIllU

Ill. LAW AND SCIENCE' . !.

VlIl

,6. Log.1 1'0'01111 and Rule 01 1..0.. 7''7 Ca_1 S

..

...

..,n,

..,

..

'"

."

..

Nornla The Mnn;

>to

oj ,, U>Piil'" "'WHn lntetll."on.l .nd ,~"..,..I l::>. "0'I IlL. MUll", ",,"llIMi,p ..'W""" I"", Norm 'ro,tri'ii 511d) A Mon,,'k Co"""''';nn J! 1....."b1. '"

..' , lkOl, 01 La_ .nd II.. o[ ,.. Wotlo ,it

l 1.>... ,.,oj ,"M'" OOlill""l Inn Adl""ft"l13 by In'.......''''...' l::>. "4

.,. Intetu.,,,,,,.1 1..> nd Notlon.1 I..>w \ j The !In',, or 1 n".".,1 and "'.,io...l 1.>... ,.3

Vlll. INTERPRETATIONlS Th. N.m", of [n'''p ''on

'j Rob,;,. [nde.ni or ,he L.....ppl,;ng A

ILAW AND NATURE

t. TH "Pl1U~ THlI:*Y

The Pure Throryot Law il a thwryof pos;';'-c law. It;, a theoryof positive law in gcnent not of a .pccifie legal order. ]t i g.""ulll>oo.y of law. nOI an in'eTp.....'ion of .ped/ic nuion.1 ori",emational '"pI norm.; bu' it offen a thtory of in'ttp,e,.liOll.

As a ,htol)', i .. ex.;ltuive ""'IX"" i. '0 ~now and to dncribc illobift'.. T"" til"".,. an....pts to anI...". ,Itt question "'N' and how-pnodellU). no

. Til. Acr ....... ITlI~ "lEAS'S"If we dilI "'ia'e b juri.u) belW.... !.he procesJ f legiolalioo and iu pTfXlu.n ....nding beforehim; lflally !.his UtenW hoppm;ng meanl: a judicial dccWonwas ""wd A men:hant writn a I 01. a ~trUin COIlttnt to .n-od~,. moerchant. ..1>0, in lUm i!.h ltt,tr; thi> ....,....m.-, hoyt rnDdudotd a lqall,. biDdiQ,g 0DCIuxt. .sc-.bod, CU.lfOtht d...th nll

.....w ..,.11 ....T1JU ,

pnulvcd. To ~ """, tbe man Kling ratiDoully. (Ul.nt(u hi. actwilh a dC'6ni... mDIlina tlw apC'aIl'q the :oct haucwniina; to 1M I;Iw. F. is to h.>pptn t(l Ioi< tor.lortcinfs wbtn ht dits. Tht ..,bjoniv........ni"ll of lhil KI is at_....L Objecti"""" how....... it is DOt, Iota..... _ lqplformaIiti... wft.. 00l obltrvtd. Supplt a otCttt organiat;"" In.t ding to rid lh.. 1Iaiion of ...bYtni,.., tl.........ts, condtm... tod th a man IlMIught 10 be a traitor. and has a nwmhtr tlttCU...what " wbjtl""ly he'li..... to be and all, ". d..ath ptnally"; oJo.jtc.iv..ly and legally. how.."... not a dealh ptnalty but' ftmtmurd... wo, "arrinl out, alillough th...x,....n.1 d1'CUm"~n"... of aF.mt murder at"CUlio.ri

......w "NO N"TUU

,i"e meaning ,..,.uhing lro", i.. imerpr.""ion. Thpecificallyl.gal m.aning of this act i. derived hom a "norm"' wh""" comemrd." \0 th. a", this norm conf... legal meaning '0 'he ac', so ,ha'it may be in,erpre,ed according '0 this norm. Th. norm lunc,iom;u sch.me "f interprela'i"". To pm i, differently, The judgmenttlla, 'n ac, of human behavior. perf"rmed in ,ime and .pace, i."legal" (or 'illegal"') i. th. ,esuh of. 'f>'ific, namely norm.,i'e.in'

LAW Al a IMWDI an acts acu ""prn>n a ..m direc~ .. a unain brh.........

,...hic:.b an ~t locI it dttcribed-io fuodammlalll dif....mtm.a .... oatemml: "ODI1>fthing ougb. 10 bt~- ..hieh it l.hoi'~lDm. by ..Itio::h a tIe cxp ,on: "an it oonfomu 10 anough," i, no< ~tirclr conK" bauoe it is Dot the it that coafonns'0 the BUgbt, but Ihe "IOmC1hing' 'hal one tilDe ;1 and Ihe othertime ought '0 ""-it i. ,he "_thing" ",hich figuutivtly cao bednignotod as .he can'en, of ,he is (>I" "" the colllent of the nughL

I'u. in dillerelll woro., one ca" .1", ...y: a ecruin IOmc'hing_lpi6c.Uy certain ba~ior:as it ough' "'~. Bm equali.,. i. noc identity. The

beha~ior th.. i. the (Omen' of 'he nonn ('ha' is, the behayior thalought ,n ~) and the actual heha~ior (th.. i. the bchayior thali.) are not identical, though the nne may be rqlUll tn 'he other.Therdo..." the u.ual way to dncribc .hr relation between anactual bcb.~ior and a nOrm to whkh the beha~ior (""'",pond",h. xt""l brha~ior u tb. brlLJ.Ylor ,1LJ.'~ordi"JJ '0 'he norm-

LAW ANt> NAT

...ppootd to ais< (eIlO u.isI ~hOIe oubjcctin mnning i. io----H we UIWlX that an ladi-"id..... ought > b......... in TUn. "'....,. nn:I if to. dots not boo.ollhc: let ..-llooot mcanin& is Moupt,~. tlx objoaive mnnin&" 01 an act. iJ olid...... binding upoe lhc: addraKC. lba the incI''''''.... It whomi. is dilftltd. Tbt ousb' which is bjtin II>aDi.ni ot an anof will ;,; aloo mmlnd of Ihe ..fl\c,.I, nOt ,b.! of the gang>'cr, hal ,h. meln-ing of. valid non'll, binding Up"" the add.aocd indiyiduaL Only1M om oldc., nO( the olher. is nOTl'll'p""i,ing aco. ~u.., lheoII">cioJ', ""t iulhoriztd by ...... law. "'ben:u Lbe pupler'. act isnot baKd on such an luthor;.unl nonn. TIu: lo:giolati,'c OCI, whichlUbjlinly Iw the ~nil\l ot ....'ltl. aloo I\.u 1M objtcliW'mcaning----thal is.~ lQ~ntna of a mid nonn---b

lAW "''0 ~'''TUU ,

a nOl'IIl which i. the .ubiceti_e meaning of an act of ",iIlth.t m....ought 00 bthave in a certain way. da not loll",,' from the factualact, that i. to ....y, from an iJ, but .gain from a nonn .uthOTi,ingthi.""t, that i, 00 say, from an ought.

NcmtU "ceOTding to which m.... ought to btha_e in " c......ioway can abo bt created by cu.OOm, If m.... who JOCially live to-ge,her bth.ve lot Klme time and undet the ..me circumst.oce" inthe ..nle way, then" tendency_th.. i. psychologically. a will_come. into an exi.tencc within the men to bth,ve a' the membt...of thc group habitually do. At fi ...t the .uhjcetive meaning of theacll ,hat constitute ,he CUStOm i. not an oughl. But lattl', wh....thel not bth.ve in the mannet in whichthe other membt", n",omarily bth.v., th.... hi. bthaviOT will btdi....pprm'ed by the othen," COntrory to their will. In this way thecu"om htcome. the exptesoion 01 a collcetive will "hOOt .ubice.th'e meaning i. an oughl. However, ,he .ubicetive meaning 01 theacU that constitute the cullom am lit intctprtted .. an objec,ivelynlid oOtm only il the custom h.. betn in"ituted by a highernolm .. a nOtm

'"...11_ meaning io ,he norm which;" only presupposed in oucthinling--.>.'l iJ < the meaning or : cff""tivene,",EffccI;"co"" i. an "iJ-fact"_thc 1,",,1 tho, Ihe norm i. ,""Iually ap-plied 1nd obc)'ro. the fan .hat poople ,"",,,ally beh1vc according.olhe norm. To ..y .ha, a norm i. "v1lid:' however, mean. SOm.,.

ct, p,.

"

....w ANI> NATlIU"

thing ~I", Ihan Ihal h il actually applltd and obtytd; i. m~anl thatit "YEAI to ~~w and appliw, although il il orue tllal there.....y ~ .....,~ connK.ion br.wn ""lidi.y and ~f(ccli~...ao. "-general l~l norm il .~rdtd U ~alid only if ,!w: huIlWl be-hnlor that il .quLo,W by i. ac.ually conlonnl wich iI, at least to.....,~~.A norm chao il not "bo'yfd by anybc>dy anywh~.~, inochn ..onIs & norm tha. it no< ~lICCl"~ ac l~... to 1OIIl~ degJO:w........ tha' i. it poocibl~'1> brha.~ in a r.ly CDIllnlTf to it: a nonathat w...~.o proaibr ''''''1 lOClICIh'ng ough. to ~ done 01 which~~ t.-l ~ba"" tIw i.e cctllSl bappen ..........ruy accarding to lhoe laWl 01 nat",.., alwa)" and tftJ)'Wbn~would ~ all~ ... a AOrlIl which _ to preKribe tha' lOnlfthing ""gbt10 bettly in...ro E.Itiftt>ft& it a -.di.ioo 01 validi.y in eM lmSt Wtckcti>'mnl Iw ... joia lhoe pooitina: 01 a Itp.l nottlI if

"....w AND NATUU.

norm " confin~d to ubedicnce to it. But obedience to the lrgalnorm can be induced by other molive", If. for inotalKC, the lego!delict i. at the ..me lime a religious delict, obedience

u.w AND NATUU .,

be valid e,'erywhe", and always, Wt i., i, can refer to evem. nomalter w~ere and when they occltr. Thi. !aller alternati,'e wouldbe the meaning of a nonn which doe. n"" "omain any .patial ortemporal Hmi! ,he normi. ret"""'tive. Bu'. legal norm may rder to the past no' only with=peet '0 the d.lic, bUI abo wi,h re.peet to tf>

f~~~~H,P ~.., ~.PH~i'~~U_~! i~lj .Hi, P, ffl ,-0'. '~l~.~... - . " .n.""::I"" .... .b' 1_. _.., 1Ijis"~g.;ti-g.iif~ '~!i'o, Iaos;lg, "llta._. ~2. '!it~ i ! , l' i., q: q t[I ~;-L ~, Hi" "1 j: lil"l I'iL .. ~;.::r82. .~(I.Q,;l 2.8."0..1: :;r~~ ~~ ::l_l!::j:l$8 g'.,. .. 1.:. i'!1i'o-ifg'iii' ~':i,E,:l;s.= C ~" '" i\ S ,,~.~.~ il~,- _"J I.,.i-'-'='lil"~""'" rl-~lrll 'I"!I!!lti"{I~~[ltl~""ii:~t-'i!':lS~l~.~~",::l[l.~~6:f;t,~~. t --! -I. a' " ,~~~tf.~fl~it.l.l ~ i.~i~'li'~iai~~.j !i~ [~~:[~ ~i ~iri:itiil!J:[~ii!llii!!I~I~fJI;! !Ji!;!i i2. 0 _.::l ~-~""2..:i" o;.e if1 2,!i1 ir. ... ~""" ~ d.!!.5- 1Ij 11- R i:".. !S";;:g;;;-!l';5:~ ... li 11_ ... ~~a. 1l5!l,~~_-'1.~;!! K!!," ""~-cr"'(~~:T B-if ~~ ~~ _",:T~ -~ i:~ Se~!~~~f~"i}!~:i~.. ~~]li~![~i[I~~ li.llla4&jl'r~;~ ~!~~~"r!.lti2.i~~~:~~~.~~ itlili~.:;a,-' ~-H "'l! ,~h ',_j.a.n-" '8' tV':;;;; ~ ";!~" !I,~ It "'~ !l~""~ II ~.r.. ,l" ~~l- U,~.;,~",,

.....w ANI> NATOU .,

alway> human b.

d) Po,ili"" dnd Negative Regula/;on"Commdnding, Aut/ior;zing. Perm;lIing

The b

"LAW A"" "ATtJU

ing for wcfCive acts .. saneliom. an individual iuthoti,t",itive funetinn ofpennit1ing i' theref"'e fuudamentally connected wi'b ,he fune.tinn of commanding A definite human behavior can be per-milled nnly within a nonnat;"e nrder that rommand.t dilieremkiuds of behavinr.

"

.....w ANO NAnJU .,"To permit" i. also u"'" in the oeme of "to emi,le (b""h!ig.").

II If i. command to 'n obj"'ti"ely

.Coftt

"valid norm and is, in 'his ",nlti,u,ed by tn"", atearbitrary. Otb..... huma" 'en of will can cr.'ll. other nonn. 0PP""site to the former one.; and the'" other nonno, 'lien, ron"i,u,evalne. that are opposite to th"'" rom'itutod by 'he onn... Tha'whkh i. "good" according to the one norm may be "bad" according to an",he'. Th..eore 'he norm enacted by men and not bydivine authority, can only con"i,ute relative valu ... Thi. means:The validity of a nonn according '0 which a certain behavioYought to be,:U well:u the value cornlituted by tlli' norm. does uotexdude 'he p!lIibiH,y 01 the validi'y of a norm according towhich the opposite beh..ior ough' to be ronOli,uting an opposi'evalue. For exampl., a norm could be valid forbidding 10 commit.uicide or '0 lie under all circum'ta"".., and an",her norm couldbe valid permitting or ~m commanding 'uicide Or lie. under cerlain circum'tanc.., yet it would be impcwible to prove ra,ionally,Ita, only one 1 ,h... 'wo nOrm" but nol the Olber, i. the lrulyvalid one.

II howev.., 'he nonn preocribing a "

LAW ...NO N"'ruU .,i( ili. value i, con"i,u,cd by an objec'i"ely valid norm, ili.n the

judgment that ",,,,ething r.al. an actual human behaviOI. i,"good" or "b>.d." expreaoes the idea ,ha, ,hi, behavior conform,with an objec,h'ely valid norm: that the behavior oUgh' to be theway it i,; or ,hat it doe, no, conform wi,h the objectively validoorm: that the behavior oUgh' not '0 be ,h. way it i" Th.n ,h.,'alue u an "ought" i, placed in jux,aposi,ion to ,ht ttali,y as the"i,"-,'alue and reali,y belonging to 'wo differtn, .phe,,,,, j"" a,,h. "ough'" and the "k"

If the sta'.ment tha, a behavior- conform1 or doe, not conformwith an objectiv.l)' valid nonn i< de,ignOled as ....Iu. judgmtm,"then thi, valu. judgmUlt mu" be di"ingui,hed lrom ,h. normtha, com,i,u,e, ,h. valu., Th. , ..Iue judgment can be ,rue or un,rue. becauoe i. refe... '0 a norm of a valid orde., For example. thejudgment ,hat .ccording '0 Chr;"ian mo",lity it i, "good" to lov.on.', friend, and to hale one', enemi.. ;. umru' benu.. a normof the valid Cnri"ian mo...lily command, to lovt not onJ)' one',friends but also one', enemi.., The judgment ,ha, it is logal '0 in.flic. upon a thitl the ~n.hy 01 death i, unITu. if 'he valid law inqu..tion comm.nd. '0 puni,h a thief by deprivation of l=damhu< no, by depriva,ion of life, A nonn, how.ver, cannot be eith.r

The value comti,u,ed by an objec'i.ely .alid norm mu" be dis-,ingui,hed (rom ,h. value tha, con,i,.. (nOl in ,ht rtlation '0 norm. bu

aO LAw ANu NA-ruU

an ,- 'j,ivdy valid notm; i, i, only a .pial judgment about uaol_ity.

If somebody "'l" that IOmething i. good or bad, but if ,hi, " ..e-ment is m..ely ,he imm

LAW ">10 >I"TUn"

.. lAW ANI> ""Til""

individual (that i., a 'UbjCCljv~ value). then 'hi' vallie judgmenti...obj

"'W ASI> NATtIU .,baed. Alxn"e all. '-ever, the _ br which legal n""",, are ere-IUd...."., into oomidera.;,;.. ... 01>;.0. oflt .. oomnhi,. ill p."po"tful om be a ..bjeoive .". objec-Live n.1.... judgment. dtpmtIiat ... tht: IUbjeoive or objt.ive charKU1 of

S. TK. SocLu. o.x...) SiC Or4cJ I'rucribi"f SaIoctiMu~ beh.>.ri be-bu.1 need not be-in reb-lion 10 Oe ind'wid..w to othu ind;rid...ab can M dit-tn or indi,fU. M'urdn is th~ bddovior of. llIurdnntOWU'd the mun;k,cd , di,ca relation betWffD """ individu.aland anothtt. He "00 dcHfOJ'f " valuable objtcC xli dim:tly in ,..,-La,;oo 10" thing, bUI indirtaly in relation to m.., who arc inleT-nlM in ,he "bjocc, particularly i" own.,.., A norlI\llti", oroeT ,ho,.'Sul.,.. human behavior in Its dirt,,,, or indi."", r.l"tionJ '0 oth.rhuman beings, is " 0.,0;;.1 ortle. Moral, and law are loch lIOCialorde...

0" ,h. other hand. JOllie hal as ,ts bjtel n"U", normativeoro.... that don not ha""" _ill] chano FOT~ act.! of hunun.hought. which atl :octI"'re con""...ndcdor forbidden. diff...... ' tyl"'" nuy be diJI.iDgu~ Ire ideollypeI. "'" Ivtngc lypeI. The lIOCi.o.l order nuy comnund I ttrt.\;"humIn behavior withOut It ....chinl!" Iny COc WOTd. TI>c princ:;ple. to react upon ... e......in hum,nbehavior with .~d or puni"""..", ;.. Ill. principle of I.,ribu

.,lioD. a.......-d and pwtil.hmn>t .....y be cUled .,anctions," b.......wI, only pm,"'_ ~ ;. '" alkd..

fI...J.IJ.aoocialordoor y-..da~oo-dtr'.. to'm'ndaanaia bdlm... by j_ altaehiDc a disadYul~ to the oppooIlCbehayior.!oI" c:umpl... dqlri.,.t.ion of lif~. be>lt.h, heedom, ""-'-,ite bellaviorcommanded: The bchaviorwhich is "commanded" ;.not the behavior which "ough,".o be attuted. That a bcl..vior is".OflumUlde,~. aDd tIw this oi"...tion .....y IN: d

pr_ two con8icW1s poli.ial lDW!encin a l.elcological ((IIl.8ia..~ li.uatin is poooibJ... b\lt p:.IiLi i. mould be noot

".,~ :... n'''''

I~AOJdd""p pu~ I~Al>JddV "p;lAO.I ''1' "Ao,dd..!p ,(po!qn. ,uo''l'lo .IO!A"'lXJ. ""PUIUIlOO:> ''1' "l(l AjOo:>UO'ljOW" 'pUClUUlOJ 1]"O!A0'l>pnpU!'1ppo.. J.:I'I'O:l'" "! 'lQ1.>J (J"ltl.J'>O ,ou qS""",[") AjU'''''''H '!"'pop"" AI....!'.u;> '00 '! OO!lnq[,,~, jO ,[dpopd ,,,, P'q>U"" ,.,,,8!,, JO "p'o[UOW "'" O! u;>A> ""oJ""'''' po. 'p'L"'" .1[0,.\0'" ,,,, 01 "",,, u'J",J ,,,,,,,r Al'U~plA3. ""m.. ,,,, 01' """llo~ "., ,,,, 0>," 'OU O{l,n"" '''0,/ P'''''''' '0,/'" 'noA '''OJ 0,/'" "",/1 '''01 n"" JI .>0.'1"Im.o> ,no, ,MI, no" 0, A'" 1 '''II :Aw,u, ,no....." 1'''. "'",,,S!'U ,noA ~Mll II"'" no}., '1'1'" '" '! ,.", 1".'" "." no}. .1!.....! 0,/"'00 "I''''' 10" oa no" 0' ..'" 1 ,ng :,,'00' ,oJ "'001.1'''. , .., U. 'OJ'l.> uY. '1'1"' ...'" 'I ,.", p.lS 'I" U['."ur 'JOp.lO [olbl ''Il wo;q P"ll'lnSU!"!p "'I""'''' '! puo '...,p.lO lOP..,.," 'PO"'1 0' P"""P!OUO"I "plO l1Uow'lJ1 Allon.o 'p"!lddo 'OU'! uo[,n'l!'''' JO 'ldpUIJd "'I' 'P!"'" "! "plO u" 't[ '""~'Iooddo111 'OJ ,u,m'l'!und '0 'I '01 p'L"'" .lIU!'!,.,," InO"'!'" :IO!'mj">1["" "1'1" 'lJ1U!) '00"""'" SUIQ!J:>t>,d JO!,-,o I"!""" " lllO.Ij '''''".!lIP "IPUp'la

1'''''!l'u"S /no"m "'P'D IOPOS 'U'I.L ',V ('I

'SU!""",U 'I",n., " IOu '~.'I,"mlOU."'" ""O>'!l"JP JO ,d"uo, ''I' ...." '!'1' U! p:ooO 'JO".,,>q Jl'''' JO"!IOW 'II' 01 p.l.lb, ,nolJ11'" 'tlu,wqt!und "'l' 10 tOO!'!I''''''''Il

"nn.LV.~ "I

LAW ...'Iart inlt~ IU.lUnlC",...u that alfcct hi. ialmmialC in_ acmrdiDg to aYi< und...n.im..ed. [.'m mod"", man. wh~n hi, by mio-fortune. will ohm instinctively uk: Whl, hIve I done to deservesuch puni>hmentl H~ will be i!>Clined to Int...pret hit goodfortune ao I'Cward for conscientiouo obocrv;otM:C of Cod'o commlt>dJ.. In thi; n:tptet hip... d~.~loped religionl arc diJtinguiihcd-(I. ,.

LAW ""0 ""T ,he member of another group of thiskind in a natural way or by m.gic. 1t i. to be ex,,",uted by themember1 of ,he laner again.t the member1 of ,h. former group.Murd.r wi,bin a group originally Wi< probably ..nctioned only byth. r.v.nge taken by thpirit of the murd.red on the murderer.But inJOlar a. the .piri, of the d.ad has power only within hi. o"'ngrUp, a murder committed by a m.mber of anmher group can bere....na:.d only by acts of the victim', relati,. Only ,be nonfulfillm.nt of the obligation for revenge i. ,ubject to the transcendental..nction of r"".nge from the lOul of ,he murdered. It .hould benoted that blood rev.nge, this old.., socially organized ..nelion,originally work.d only in the rel.,ion between group. It d...'eloped to a "lUerion fonctioning within one and the ..m. grouponly when the social cQlflmuoity cornpril

so l,AW 4tm NATUU:one a11-powerluJ. Cod tnnSfo:rred Ul aoothtt world. How lIluch tIu:IDcial MIca of .etribution doalilWftl this developlllent "-' tIu:fact Wt wllm ""'" in his faithi~ in .:oddition Ul this worldUI no limiu are imf"*d 0111IWl', wisb-ful6lli"l phulwy. it p'oouca. a~tal cwderwhich is ..... fund .......wly dikrm. &om that of the _piria1tocieI,.

6. Ttli Uc.u. o....a.) Tite lAw: A .. Ordtr of Hu....... Be~

A theory 01. la.. mu.. btgin by deSning iu object ....tter. Toarrive at a definition of Ia... it i. convenient .o .....rt from the Uggeof language. that i '0 determine 'he meaning of the ..ord "law".. equivalem '0 ,he Gennan word ~chl> F..nch d,oil, Italiandir;/IO. Our ta>lr. will bt to examine whether the oocia1l'hC11Oll1ena

f...u&,.., N...:n~ I................. "' ....e..- ...,".. , die -"'"0(""'-11

UW AND NATIJU ,.

dl:lCri~ by ,b~", word, ba"e common char.u;tiOi by wbichtbey may be distingui,hed from 'imilar phenomena. and wb"h""th..., characteristic> arc ,igni6GU\t enough to aerve a, elem~nta fora concept of ooci.l...,ien,ilic cognition. The roul, of 'w:h an inv..tiga.,ion could conceivably be 'hat the word "law" and itsequivalmts in oth"" language> d..ignat.. "" nuny different objcet1ltha, ,hey canno' be comprehended in one concep'. Howev"". thisi' no< 10. Becau..,. whm we compare 'he objects 'ba' have beend..ignated by 'be word "law" by different peopl.. a' dilf""mt'imo, we see 'ha' all ,he.. objec.. ,urn out ed on tbe b..ic norm ofthat orMr.

The nor"", of a legal order regula.. human behavior. At lint,ight it ,..,m, at if this ..ntentt applied only to the toeial orden ofcivili>.o

,.inanimate obju have a u>O\1l" and are 'herefore basically notdifferent from human !>olnv- CononJuemly ",o

~PJO ]08:1] ~ql .\q M!-,:>s~,d 1"" ~A!"""'" ~41 ';s ll~lft,.....,, ''11 ''''''11\\"pJO'" ~qlO "I '~''"l I':I.l:;K:O' ~Ul'l,mlo,;q '01""'1''] "wmq UI.,.,," p"oWWOO ,;,q~-.1O!'"q:l.100;> ~'Il 'PJo8:IJ [onp,,!pu! POl""llo "11''\[!JOU!PJO '''''!S ""OI.d:o>:, "'.mOO JO ',," ""[1 '''11 ..."["1. P"~POOJ JO ~m':>q """'1 >1>1'''' I!~( 01 O~ o. ,up'O "! .w", 0 Sl!WUlOO.poepm"" JO :I!"" ""'011 P'o8:IJ IOu~ ,JOJ'J'ql p"....~[ 'ql(0 .ll:Iw'ISlund ''11 ~]j", "l "'I'!'" "11''''''''11'41 q,nw OS UOll'O'!'l1,Jll>J "no 'W!",. p:on,wwoo'nj 0'1'" ,po ["'1"4d j" lll:1mAoldw,''11 ';'1 II!" "!q ..ur.~. """" I""Pl"P'" 1"1"110 ''11 uod" p:osod'W!'! '",m,:" I! ''1'''1'''--'''''1"' "WOU"""' JO

".....1 tor interpttttd ....... ac.ioa of tbr .-.muni,y coruti...ud bytho: Iqpl ordc'r and npociaIly,.. a reaction 01 the lqal comm""itrapinsI a tocialIy dnrim(ntal !au. Tha. """"'" lh.a. thttriXI ....' bo: IIllril,,"e4 '" lItio oommu";ty; whi0. metn thaI ,he nttu,ion of tbr ..nc.iol'sia.l OK, luch u ,itl.. or donlliollJ, for c.........in ",eri,oriou.:ocu.Bm ."""",ds arc 1101 an dement common to.lI socilIJ ClOrtkrs d..ig.""'ed ao law: thty '"no noc an ~li.ol function of chot ordnt.Within these conri.... ordn:s

lAW ""0 " ..-ruu

the ltpl ord..... then this coerci,'e act has the char.u;ttr DE a lanc,i"". The human behavior against which the coercive act i. dirted is to be coJUid

"....w ..."" " ..~~ in the oru, that;s, c:. limitedon ...; and on... must di"inguiJl\ bt.wc"" a pefmillM an,l. prohib-ited ux of 101U. JI i. pe,mitted "' TO,clion againlt a _iaUy un~sirablt b0_mvior.... sanction.ha, is, u an l ..,hori

LAW AND N~TU~r.

ttutrali~ if the individualuthmizM '0 u.. force do not h",e'he character of >peei.1 organ1ltC,ing according to lhe prindplc ofdivision of Jabor but if lhelrgJI order ,ulhoriz...ll individlL1l. 10uS< force who consider lheir inter..u ,'ioJated by 'he illegal conduct of others; in o'her wmd. if the principle of >ell-help "ill pre.vails,

Legol order ~nd collulive ,ecurilyWhen the legal order determine. 'he conditi"", under which, andthe individlL1I' by whom, ph~ical fortt i. '0 be UlM, it proleenthe individuals who Ih'e under 'hi' order again.. lhe u.. of forceby olher individuals_ When 'hu protection has roached. ""rtainminimum we .peak of collective ,""uri,y, bee.we the security I,guaranteed hy the legal order a. a JOei.1 order. Thi' minimum ofprotection again" the we of phy.ical fo"," can be reg.trded "'",,-i"iug even when monopoly of foree is d=nt",li~. that is, evenwhen sclf.hdp "ill pte,ail. It is possible 10 conoider ouch a .tat< ..the lowe" degr'" of colleclive KCllrily_ However, we n,.y 'peak ofcollecti.. occurity only in a narrower "n" if the monopolj' offortt of 'he legal community ru.. re",hed minimum of centralizalion, so that ..!I.help is e""luded, alleast in principle. Collecti,'esecurily, in lhi. narrower sense, exi." when at lea" the quc

"UW ANt> ,....T

LAw ...........n.ru: 59la"F tho opber~ 0( faN thlol arc aubliobcd by tho lepl order ...aIOdi..... aI. coercive acu; Ibis Ift>

....w ..."" ....nzu:

C..,....;",. Kt> rH~ lAM ...., ......As "'" ....~~ froIQ a judicia/IO .... adm.iDilln..i..., CIDallIlU-Ilily.u "'" oplIoor-t 01: fac nprnpria.led II nnoary in "'" public inmesaid, .h~r dill'... fromuueble acdon or omiu;on of .n indi.ldual;lhe condi,ion il not. legally u:ertoin"

LAW ANI' NATUU

.'to i' (or, more correctly formula'M: '0 'he Oct that it i. """'".. inM in a legal proeMure) a coercive act, a' thi. fac' i, made by'he legal ordcr 'he condi'ion of coercive act. And ,hi. coerciveact i. a ..nction (in the ..,n", of a reaction agai",. a ddi, reli,gion. and rae... insofar .. 'hey arc intoM in concen"...ioncampo to prevent 'hem from a oocially und",ired behavior ofwhich. righ'ly or wrongly. in 'he opinion 01 'he legal au,hority.,hey are con.iderM capable, Apparently, ,hi. mo,i,,, i. Ute b..iJlor 'he limi'atio'" of libtic of an c""rci"" action. commanded or aUlhori'ed by legal ""den. The concep' or ....netion," undcntood in ,hi. broa-d.., "'n ....tben. 'he fo,ce monopoly of .he l"l!"l communi'y. m.y be formu

-c"~.~,,

,

~I ....w Il/g a conciu act 1(1' cnu.in btbarior. The fttedom left to the Indl~id....1 by the legal order .imply bynol prohibiting a "nuin beh..ior mUR bt cfutngtoi.ned lrom 'hef'ftdom which is "",i.i.dy gu:uan~ to Lh" indl~idu>l by e fretdcm of.n indi'ld....1 wh;m cnnoi'" in pnmiltinghim a =uin~ by noc pn:.l>ibi.iDg it. is guaranleed by thekpl ordtt eing f

UlW AND NATUU

itrd. for """rnple. beau.e il i. not related to ""her individual. oral ltan does Dot hurt anybody. But no' e,.."" e"ery behavior tha'

~'hurt othen i. prohibited. For example. it may oot be prohib-ited lhat the owner of a hou.e im",]] a ventilator intO a wall .itu_ated directly at the borderline of his property. But, at the ..melime, it may DOt be prohibiled that lhe owner of tbe neighboringproperty build< a hou,," whOil. Qne wall directly adjoino Ihe ,,""tilator~uipped wall of the l1m home ond ,hereby nullW.,. theelleel of the vemilator. In ,hi. ""ampl., one p.tty i. permitted 10p.....'em "'hat the other party i. pennitted tQ do-n.mely '0 pipeair into Qne of his room. by a vemilator.

If a beh."iQr opposite to the IlOl: prohibited behavior of anotherindividual i. not prohibited, ,hen a conllic' i. f'O'"ible againstwhich the l~al order mak.. no provi.ion. Tho 1~1 ot

....w "'''0 " ...ruUcondi,ion.) '0 ;$Ou. norm. ,hat command or forbid a COTtain be-!tavior, ouch at ,h. p='ice of a ce'tain religion or the expre..ionof certain opinion.,"

c} Th. lAw AJ a Norma,ive Coercive GrdM;Legal Communit), ond Gong oj Robber.

The low u a coerei,'e ord., i. oome,im.. characterized by ,he.tatement ,hat th. law command. a certain behavior "underthr....' .. of coord actJ, that i., of certain .vil.. Bu' th" formnla,ion ignores the Donna';'-e meaning with which coercive act< ingeneral and oanct;ono in particular are otipula,ro ~y ,he leplorder, The m.aning of a ,hrea, i. that an evil will b. inAietedunder COTtain condition.; ,he meaning of a lepl order;' that certain evil. ought to b. inflicted und.r certain condition> 0ec.>u.. ,hi. normative meaning i. theobjective meaning of th.... acu, do they have the chanc,er of law-llipulating, norm

"lqal orpa. n.. diller",," appan only wborn lht objrc:'i.... _.i.. of the avnm.nd io dettribtd,.he command dirled (fOIl>.....,iadividual I

".....w AND NATUU

exttution of ,he com,;,ut;on, thai is. of gen.,."l nann. Ibn, according to their mbj~t..i,.meaning, au,hori.., th ... individual"""abli,h gm=l norms preocribing """rch'e acts. In ,hi. way weimerpre. lhese individual.... JogioJative organ.. By regarding ,h.norm, authorizing the lrgi,l.,ive organ no' only as ,he mbjti".but al", a> ,he objective meaning of an act ~ormed by definiteindividual>, we intpret these norm. as "com,;.".,,,,,." For ,h. hi..IOri

uw A~D NATUU

fD' the validity of a legal order, rei..... only to a eomtitution whichiJ th.. ba.i, of an effectiv.. cocrciv. ord.r. Only if ,h...ctu.l b.h.v_ior of the individu.l. conform.. by .nd larg.., wi,h ,h. 'ubjectiv..muning of th. aell directed ,oward thi. hehavior_if, in otherwords, thubjl!Ctiv.. m.aning iJ recogniwl the objectiv..mning-nly th.n ar.. th.. acts int...-preted a, leg:ol acts.

Now w..... ready to amw...- th.. qu .,ion why ..'e do not at-tribut. '0 th.. command 01 a robber, i..ued und...- threat of de.th,the object;-.. m.aning of valid norm binding on th. addr.....,.)vN:,im; why w. do not int..rpret this act a. a legal act; why w. ",.gard the realization of th.. th",", a', crime, .nd not as ,h.. execu-tion of ...nction.

An i",l.ted act of on.. individu.l dllln

"lAW AND ","TVU

"",rial 'pheT" f validity ,h. gang opc...., .. arc actually applied to,h. robbers' activity .. btinction ~twun afegal community and a rob~r gang. Thi. h""e>'er. i. th~ di"inc.tion mad~ by St. Augustine who oays in his Civitas Iki: "S.t jn..tice a.ide then. and what are kingdom. but thievi,h putcha...' be.CaU"" whal ar~ thi~ves' purch.... but littl. kingdoms?" .. A stat.

-,.tn' A_,... n. c;/] ./ Gd, 'no ... by joll" '1

UW AND NATlJIlL

which i. according to Augu",ine a legal community, unnot existwithout justice. "Whe", 'rue just;';e is wan,ing. ,here un be nolaw. FOl" wha, low docs, ju.'; docs, and wha' is done unju",ly, i.done unlawfuUy:' Bu' whal i. justice? '"J""ke i. I "irtue distrib-uting on,o everyone hil due. What justice is ,h., then. ,h.. take.man f",m ,he true God and give< him un'o ,he condemned fiend.?",hil dimibu,ion =tding '0 due? 10 no, he ,ha, take< Iway 'hypop. ".

"

;0 UW AN" >lAT1JU,ion u legal nrders 2nd on,even American COurt. refusod to aclnowledge ""to of the revolu.;onary RunL

LAW ANI> NATUllX ,.withou, attaching '0 the opp

,. LAW ANI> NATUUing .ann;"n., i.

"ooIft1lDi.y. Af,.... all since QllftM..i.uo.",ttnla.. in the fonnallnUC and law in tht' ma'er;,,] stOUt.Thi, dis,i"",i"" "'knowll!1.. u. judge). Bu< it would be mo'. conte.'0 .pul of form of law and content of law r.uhe. ,han of la .. in1M fonnal and in ,he ,nalC1i>.1 ..n... However, lhe word, "legalfonn" :and "Iogal cont"m" ... unpreci>c and ...."" misleading in,hi,reopctt; in order to be in'eJpre.ed as a ltpl ace it is not onlyu'luired tha< tk .... be o:m.b1iohed br a certain proccdur~. butWo that tk an hI...., a cnu.in ....bjK1in meanilll_ n.c tnftni"lckpmds 011 c.hc ddnition of law. prauppaord If>llClh.er wi.h .hebaoic norm. If tk law .. 110I dt6~asa tTci\'t~. bu. only ...an oo-dcr .-bI.iWd aoxotdi"l to tk baoic DOnn (and if.~.c.hc basic l>OrIIl. is fonnubtftl ...: ....., oughl to behl."" ... tbe h;"lOrially Iirs! constitution preoaibeo). thm Yll

"Ibm all -.nl """"" cr~atecl by CUOU>m con>lit..~ a port of thelotplonkr.

TMrdore.lhm, '" ddinilion of Ia.... whidl. docs not de,......,""laWai '"~ onkr. "'_ ~ njcaed (,) Maute onlJ by;".d..:tin&; the d"""",. of weldon in,o the ddnition 0111... ill ,helIw dearly distiopiobtd from any other IOci:al onkr; (a) bea....cocoa.... is a fx&or oIlP""t u..pom.ace for the ODIIi..... 01 toeialrdatiomhipo and highly chmoa~ollbc~ ookn n"",t......; aod. 00 particul...ly. b;ouot by ddining law ... coc

LAW A~O sAnJll

havior i. 'he condition of a .unc,ion. If a legal order, .uch ;u a"a'n" pa..cd Iry parliament, oomai'" One norm ,h., preocribe. acetlain behavior and a second norm ,h., a"ach", a "'netio" '0 tI,eoonob"'rvance of 'he Ii..." then 'he Ii..., norm i. not and independen' Dorm, but fundamen'ally tied 10 'he """ond: the Ii ...t normme,..,ly d...iglla'es--neg.,i"ely--li'ively penni' acertain behavior. For....,.. mown before-,hey me,..,ly limit the.phere of ',didi,y of a kg.l norm 'ha' prohibir.. thi' behavior Iryattaching a ...nClion to the Dppt>li,e. The example of ..Ifdelenseh:u been ci'ed earlier. Another example i' found in the Uni'cdN"ion. Challer. Article " paragraph ~, forbid' all memben tome force: (he Charter ",tach... to the ult of Iorce the ..nctions"ipula

"....w AND NATIJU

norm >ccording to wllich 'he sale of "'_ beve.ages, if a Ii"""'" isobtained. is no, forbidden; that mt3m that 'he sale i' no' puni,hable.

The ..,.,and norm, restricting the 'pheTe of validity of tbe lin,. i.a Mpendcnl '10=; it i' rnuningful only in connec,ion with 'heIi",; both ferm a unit. Their COnten" may bt expr~ in ,he.ingle norm: "If somebody ",lI, alcoholic beve~ ",ithou< a stat.Ii""".." he ought to bt puni,hrd." The function of ,he merelyncg;o.tiv. p

....w ""11 ".mwl; .hm a CIO"Uin..pa ou,gh. 10 P'-

ul~ the I""'Uhmmt.N By thus pl.....ing the ru'" of Law tha. dot-lOibts the law. i. 0. r",,~IN thaI .Itt: DOfIIII 01 1M ctINI.itutioa... hich au~ the ~r~.ion of ~nnes.be lcpl.-..... haw rnao:Ie \be condition 01 connre _ ..... '"'"not anctions. But tbt ....,.,...1 roor-rn \hat ..ipulatft the cotn:n~actundcT all thac condi.iont 0. an indqlmdm......r -.R-nen Irthe coo:rcm: .act 0. Dol COIIImandcd ba::aux its IIoO

.. .....w ..",n NAnru:

i"l' MBr munkT i,.o Ix"nd~

II

LA WAND Jl.IQRALS

By dc,.rmining Ia",-oo fa, U it is the .ubjec. of a .pe:d6c scienceof law---al nonn, it is dolimit

The behavior 01 the indi,idual, which ,h"", norm, ptncribe, TO-f,," directly-it if true----nly to thi, individual; but indirectly toO1h.. merubet, of the community. For this behavior become' theobjttt of a moral norm in tl" con",iou,n"", of d,e community, onlybeam", of its consequences 011 the community. Enn the so-calledobligation, toward on"",]( are social obligation. They would bemeaningless for an individual Iiving in isolation.

B. MoULl' AS RUU"'"rIONOF IHTllNAL nEHAVIO~

A distinctioo bot",.en 010131, and law cannot relate 'n the behav_ior to which the norm, of these two social orden obligate man.Suicid. may be forbidden not only by moral" but also by Jaw;courage and cltot.l,ity may be mnral as well a.logal obliga,ion'_ Noris the frequently a.""",d opinion Correc' that law prib.. oxta_ml and moral, intemal behavior. The norm. of bo,h orders deta_mine both lind. of behavior. The moral virtue of courage con,i".not merely in the intetn.l quality of feadeom""" but also in.n oxternal behavior cooditioned by this quality. And if, On the otherhand, a legal order prohibits murder, it prohibits not only thebtinging abou' a man', death by the e"temal behavior of ano,her,but aloo an intemal beha,-ior, namely ,he intention to bring aboutouch a result_ The "imemal"' behovior_po"ulated morally a 01 the individ"ah whose beh.vior the oro...- re~_ulates. It would he ,upern"o". to prescribe onl)' a belravior tha,c""form. '0 all inclinat'o,," and imerest. oJ 'host wbjrctrd 10 ,h.nonn. People follow their indination. or try '0 re.lite their in'.rem even withoU! being oblig.d to do 10. A soci.l order i. meaningful onl}' if a .llil.,ion i. aimed., other ,h.n ,h. O11e ,h.. re.ult>

LAW ANn MOI

.. LAW""," .......U

IlK -,v;ltcd beha..ior c:aonoo: be ..,pu:olCd. For this ru...... ""'-1M concq>t 01 monls cannot Ix limited to the nona: ~s..f'PI'aoyour ioclina

LAW ANI> MOt.ALS"

.ri.... Thi, queo'ion h.. ''''0 meaning>: One, What i, ,he relation,hip be'we"" the 'wo? The oth...-, What "ughl i, be, If both q" ....,ion. arc int.tmingled, miounde"'tandings re."II. Th. fim qu...tion i. rornetim.. amworttl by uying th.. law by its very na'me i.moral. which m""nl th" ,he hehavi", commanded. or prohibi,ed.by legal nor"" i, al", commanded or prohibited by ,h. moralnonn. Furth.rmore, tha' if a >cial order command. a beh.viorprohibited by morab or prohibits a beh,vior commanded bymornb, thi, om.r i, no' law. because i, i. not jnu. Th. q"estion is.1", an,wered, bowever, by .",tiog ,ha' ,h. law may, bu, n.ed no: jn") may neverthcl... helaw, ahhou~h ,h. po""la i. admitted ,ha' ,h. law ough' to bemoral, which mns: ju".

If th. qu."i law as a part of m"",]" which iden,ifieslaw and ju"ice.

11. R~LA.T1Y1TY OF MOItJlL VALUEBut if an ahoolu," nl". in gene",l and an ahoolut. moral nlue inpartkular i, ujcc'cd from ,h. point f view 01 >cientific cognition,bccau.. an ab",1 ute ,,,I u. can be a.."med only on ,he ba." of reli-gio". faitb in 'be .hool"t. and ,ran"""nd.nt authorIty of a dei,y; ifone m,," admit ,h.t. from th;. vi."'poin,. an ab",lu'e moral ord.rexcluding ,h. po..ibili,y of the validity of .no,her motal

"I.AW ""D MORA'"

1

lJIW "~D "'0.....'-' ';.uppooc a" a'pTlon, that U, ahsolute. ",oral value, one is u""bleto determine what mUll be OTdet too i>-relati'eJy-moral Or just. Allmoral orders have only one thing in common: namely, that theyare social notm. that i. nOT"'" thot order a c

..

, SU'loaAnoH or LK.u,....~"D Mooo..u. o...as

If i. it:oooumed that 1.1... monl by ""~, then, PfeM>ppooi...... b.ohll~ monl ........,. it it _"'Iess 10 dClWld dw eooy of pooiti..., la. &m.andJ. di"inctionbttwem law and monol. in gene",I, and ~",ecn law and justicein panicul,., thm ,hi. d,~y i, di,,,,,,M .inot ,he ,,,,ditiomlview, r

....w ANn MOa",...

"monl '}'Ite.'" but not to "the" moral 'l~..m ~nd therefore con,dtu'" only a relative, not an absolut. valu. judgment; ~nd (o) ,he

v~lidi,yof a p",iti".legal ord

u,w .."" MOMoU

The postulal~ to difeTrntLotl: law and monb, ju,i'pTUdonarate law .nd moral", sci"""" of law and ethics mean' that thevalidity of positive legal nonn< doe, not depend on ,hdt confonnity with ,itc moral order: i, mean., tit., from ,ho '

Qiling in a unain ltpl communi.,. this tb

III

LAW AND SCIENCE

'4.~ N....l M TIIZ OaJItCT~ no: Scu."C& OF lAw

T he obvious SlUemenl that the objleme1lt that the objte. of'he ocienee of law "Ittdl MTml, b,,' human b.thavior only '0 ,h,Uent tha' it i. df:tl'rmin~by Iq:al norms:u colldition or t_qll""'., in oth... words. to the ""'ntl thai human b.thavior it ~con,..., of legal Ilonru. 10''''''''_ nlatio

,.

lh~ logal th>ry is the proce. in which law is croated and applied_the law in motion. Wh.... by it i. 10 be noted ,ha, ,hi> pn"'...jn"n i. rognJa,

,.pear in the irm of ....rtiontaling be.... Fo< ~>:3mpl~. the normthat lhd. ough' to "" puni.hM i> h"'luently formulated by ,helegisJaoor in ,he ",menee, "Tholl ;. puni,hw by imprioonmen,";the nOlm ,ha, the head of .ta,. i. authoriud to .""dude tre.t~ i.""prIt i. further true tltat, according to Kant', epi"emology. thescience of law a. cgnition of the law. like any cognition. has con"itutive chancter_it "cre...,. iu object insofar as it comprehend.the object as a m.aningful whok Ju" a, the cha", of sensual pet.ceptions become. a cosmOl, th.. i.. "nalUre" ... uni6ed .y"em.through the cognition o( " ..ural science, so the multitude 01 gen.eral and individual legal nonm. c,."ated hy the leg.l org:"'., be-comes a unitary 'Y'tem, a legal "order;' through the ..:ience of law.lIut thi, "creatit\ll" ha, purely epi"emological ch.tlI"er. It i,fundamentally different from th.

"b .... one aaually me:uII a r lrpl au!heri'T (m thrform of~ .. iftdiridual 1>QnIl>). No jurist an e carried 0'" .ga.in" a pcrson wl,o d.....nOt ful~ll hi, maniaS" promise: .nd d..... no'

LAW ...... SClI:NCIt

that d.e ruI.. of b.w formul.a~ bJ """ ocima: of Ia. arThi. i. not lnmmpotibl. with """ bet that thac ...Ift of law an:OUfl:lI....u:-..a aDd m.." be OUsftt-llllaDCOa, heallit' they de-x:no. norm. prncribi"l thallQmOClh.ing ougbt to bt. "The ""(tomm. dCKribins """ valid;,'f of norm of criminal law tha. prt-Jaiba impriaottmmllor thef. would be fal.., if it._ to 117 thaIaccordinC '"

....w "NO SCIE1

".....w AND scrENCE

If we analyze our ".'em.,," abut hum;rn km.vior. howev",.we discover that we connect acll of human behavior loward Th. prindpl~. diff."nt frm causality. that w~ apply wh.n de.lIttibing a n.,rmat;v. ord~r.,r human I>< caned im.pulal;tm. By anall"'ing l~gal thinking it can I>< d.rnonlrated thatill the rule>.,1 law (th. ICDt."".. by which th~ lCi~"ce of law de.\Crib< di.rected into hi' ~ion.;or: If an individu", contract. an inle

"Til,. i. the ...rlin--memiontd ha,k (otm of the rule of law. Pr.-ciiely like a law 0.1 natu,e, the rule of I,,~

".......... "I1>e ociencc of I.l.. ClftnO( "'p'.... thil< notm.fd ((11\""'ion--particuLuly """ conn

lAW AND selENa

"rul. of Jaw rotmuJated by the ",i.nee of law doe. nOl. ....um. the.u~hor'tati,.meaning of the legal nnrm delCfibed by the rule; the"ought" in the rule olla'" hal only a dcriptive ehaTOeter. On theothet hand, from the fac. that the tule of Jaw dcocrihe. some,hingdoes no, follow th.t what i. de>cctuoc notonly actual fact., bu' also norm., tbat i. ,hpecific m.anins' offacts. may he dcocribed. Specifically, ,he rule of law i. not an impetative; it i., rather. a judgment, ".temCtl' abou' an object ofcgn;tion. Not does ,h. rul. of la", imply any approval of the d.-""ribed legal norm. The juri.. who de> th. law scien,ificallydocs n'>, id.ntify himself with the legal authnrity enacting thenTm. TI,e rul. of law remains objcctive dncription; i, doe> notbeenme p''''''ription. Th. rule does no mnte than 'tate, like ,he lawof nature, the link between two.lem.ntl. a lune,ional connection.

Although tbe object of the science of law i. 1

ph...iled ~arlitl, th~ rul~ of law hy wing th~ word "ought" e"pTe"'" mtl~ly th~ .pccifie meaning ill which condilion and conoe-quence. particularly delict and .anc'ion, aTe connected by th.legal nonn; ..h....by 'he ronnection d~>cribed by 'he legal law isanalogo"" yet differ.nt, from th~ connection of cau.. and .ffect.xpr.......,j in a law of "",ure.

Pteci>ely a. the law of natu,.., (th......nion d=riblttg natur~)I. DUl the d~scribed ohj~Ct, >0 th~ legal law (the a""Ttion de>crib-ing ,h~ law OT, in othtl word" the rul~ of law formulated by ,h~ocienc

....w AND SCt~NC~ 0,lion," th~n !'fih.P' a new wOTd but not " uew conc"", i'int..wuc

'9- TIIZ 1'Jw

lAW A'''o SCINCi:

"any n.ed lor an explanation of pheno",.nxi.ted in tho mind 01primiti". m.n at all, it was met by the principl. 01 ""tributiOll. Ifan ovent wa, r"ll"rded as harm/ul, it ",as in",rpTOted as. punish.m.m fr bad bohavior; if an .v.m ...as rogard< II an ,,.nt DCCUtl"Od which, in the collJCiou.ne.. ofprimi'i"e ",en, roquirod an .xplana,ion-;ond this wa. only an"""0< that dirtly alfoctt a co",..I, it was a normative imerpretation of nature, and>.inco tho norm of retribution, according 10 which thi, im.rprota-tion tak.. pi""", i. a .pocifically lOCial principle regula'ing thomutual khavior of m"". thi. kind of imorpTOtation t>1 not"TO mayk characterized a. oocionorm.th'. intrmed io tb. thinking of primiti.,. man. To him n.lUre "part of

".LAW AND SCI"-'ICE

his society .. a nor,nat;ve order whose clementi at. wnn'..! withooe another acwrding '0 'he p.in(ipk of imputation. Tlte duali'mof notu'e a, a '., order i, nnkoo"'"'0 him. ThaI outh a duali,m .xim in the thillkingof civilized mani, the result of an intellec,ual development during whkh hum3Jland other beingn." Thi1 developmen, i. th. ,.".ult 01 a tran,forma,ionof th~ principl. of impull,ion according to which in the nOrm ofr.tribmion the "roog behavior i. conne

.,,jon al nature, from ,h" principle 0( imputation to the principleof ""uuJitj", ~omi>" in man ~ming .ware th.. ,h. rel.,i"", b".,"'ecn .hings (as di"inguiollrd from rdation. b

..

un] .oeims and~ lOCW lIcin>s lha. do .- illterpm arior 01. mm KDlII'diDlI;IO

"effective one can oaf' If the condiL;olU, determined by ,he norm,ol the '(ldal ord.,., ac(ually eXI'I, the consequences conneclM withthese condition. 101m probably o:or; or, in e of an effectivelegal order: if a delic. detem,in ,hi, view i, mu"be said: the ."'teme'" 'hat Iegall"w like law. of na,ure are """t.110m about fu,ure events . For"alidi,y and elecI;ven"" are no, identi,,!. A leg.1 norm i. valid

-d.~...............1T'..".,.., r.- ,..,j ''''', pp. 'OS .

-oI'PM~"",d ~41 AI"'" m'! '"'''"110 lU~lUO:> ~1I1 .. ~U!w""p>Jd JOU ~41 :nn.~ p>l"p,,,d ~ AIPJ0'l U~ mUOll\U,n:>S >0'4' jO 11.... u:>S 'Il' I.'", Alu.w!m ""0 ''''("m,! '.unin Jill "'I1"""'] "UO"" W.IOU IO"P!_'il'''! ''1' JO uopru&., ''1' I. Iroo ,ouP''''''!P '1 'I "UO!'1"1' lmO' JlW)'!l)"d JO l'c, ''II ','"4'0U .....p"'"j JO ,'o,!'" '4' "'.J II". 'V "''''''IlU.lI'lOJd '!'I' ,,,und IOU p>'u'M ...,"".'>oH ""'In) ''II U! JI>JIll"I ''1' U! IOU ',..d "11 U! "!I "u,!mxJJOO puc ','U'j';x:!x, ". JO UO!'''''''lduuo .. "I1JOW!Jd mopJu,,! I! "',".'\OH 'lU''''' ""Ill) 0 JO UO!"!P...ill '4' '! uo "''''-I 01 'I'l!"od.! '!!! r>J9!J>A.! "n,"u JO "'"l\~n""V .,UJ,1J 'mmJ ,n""o ruolu!p"ill ,,. "UO",JO "nu,u JO Uo;> '4' po-. UllOU 1.8;>1 JO ,dOJuOJ "1' uJ;>''''JIIVl-Of "I' .t01'!"!"""v,v4J '! 'P!4'" '".01 JO ,;>o'!'" puc 111011 ~u!l-8u!,o J1IL

'''U'",'m,'''j~no JIlL ''''"1101''' "4'O"V ''1 ."Vj '4' lImq"""p M"I)O 'I"' '4'',vldo, 01 U"'V" 00 'w,OU j~l P;>,vIO!,' "l' P1lvAU! 'v PJollJJ 01UJ 0" ,v4 "'"I JO 'JU,!", '4'-lu,,,b>.>.JU! "PA!I"lo. '! 'O"'"4"'l4)U' ~'AO.d_uuo" 1~01 ''II 'Ill'" ',limoJ"oJ U! IOU '! .to!Av4Jq'UlOS I! '''1l utl ''I' ']11'" .UUOJ""" '"11' '''[lO''O'!'''''U' '114," 'ou '! '! l! U',,"

n""3':>I'

"dor

lAW ANI> SCIU

....w ..."" XlE.'ehlvior interpreted ... merit, lin. or tklic,. To \>e tru . it iI e"'tomary to oaythat the merit. lin, and delic, a", impu'ed to the min ...pon.ibl.foe Ihi. \>ehavior. But the ..al mtaninll'of thi.l.. tem.nt is that Ih.....n ought 10 \>e rewarded for hl1 meri, (more prce'"I.,.: that the

.'LAW AND ""~~'C~

rn """ance for hi> .in (more pTtc~ly: ,hat ti" .in of ,hi. manought to h,,'. its penance): that the oiminal ought '0 be pun-'''",d (mOTe p,;..ly: that hi. crime ought to get ,he pnui,hme",it d..",). Il j. nol behavior defined a. merit, ,in, or crime th..i. imputed to the man_mch an impntaton would i>< mptT8u",,',.inee human behavior c.anllo' be "p"rated from the bchavinghuman !>ting. If the qu."ion of imputaMU j. ",i..

ro< example: Monl. command that if someone" In need heoUgh' '0 be helped; if klmeone obep this command, hi. behavioroUgh' to be appro....d. il be dilObe)'., hi. heha"io< ough' to be di ..approved. The "'nctiom of approval and di...ppro,,1 are in'p"'edto ,h.ir immedi..econdition-4he commanded aid and the prohib.i'ed nonaid; tbe commanded aid i. imputed '0 the fact whO$

LAW ANI> SClUICIt

as a moral or l, the faCt tba, be i. not .ubjecled '0 the law of cowali,y) ma....resf"'lll'ibiii,y (and tha, m.am: imput:nion) poooibl. i> iu openconflict with the fac.. of >o

""'0>1 "'us! speak tho lnIth .1...)'0 and ~hru;~ kJlow t Ihe truth can ~;n """form'., with this1... 01"".....- dt:OClin "'OIiu lor bdlavior llCCOfdinl to the!>Mm. It norm that would prncri"" that man ""ght not to dieorould bT

uw AND .lC1~"CE

,ha~ ,he olle that preued Ihem '0 rd'r.. in from comminillg Ihede.,./. E"en a convinc"'/ de,"tmini", can f",,1 ",rnone when he h..done somelhing that he con.iden to be wrong: ju" a' even a convinced determinist doe. by no m",,,, d.,.", Irom hi. view the con.du.ion that a behnior forbidden by moeal. OT law must not bedisapprov"'/ ot not be puni.h.,./_th.. no irnpu,ation muSt takeplace. Imputation pr"'upJ'O"" neith" Ihe fact Ot fiction of Olusalnond r.ausal1y determined.

The allernp' to maintain the idea of fr:

lAW "'''0 SClI!.NCf;

r.spec' '0 man btcau

pr~...nL But imputation don not take place in .very ca... ofirresi"ibl. cmpul.ion.

Finally w~ mu" memion th. view that d.ttrminilnl and moral-ltgal re.pomibility can b~ con.ider! In be comp:uibl. only by re.f=ing In th. fact that OUr knowllge 01 the cau..l d.t.rminationof homan behavior i< ittad"'l.uott cootradictory, I>tcausc theone i. an order of something that iJ and th~ Qth.,... ar~ ord~,... of

"ocmethins tho. _, 10 k I_patibili" as OllIlKd.iction (:lit nJM only betwem an UIft1ioa ,h>._...th.i:Ilr u aftThe principle of impuu'Oon,;n it> Ofigin.1 munins. 'ior pracriMd by. nann i. condition~ by &l>OI.h.,human bd>avior; condition and """""'lut:nCc arc acu of humanbellavior. Bu. the nonns of ~l order r>rII in It.. "".emenlut "Jlder

"",n bcIu.~ior ough. D' tab plan. tht wndi.iono do noo. or '-acrwi.~Jy..........'" a lou,,"''' bcIu..ior; and il (U"Mr. in thisax wo .he con"",';'" bnw"", tht coadi.ioni"l be. and thtcondi.ioDed. h"....n ~ha.ior is dai:gnaoN as Himp"ta.ion.~ lhnIthi. _Ott"" iI.-d in a wid... wnw .han tbt .......1_. roo- thtCIllIUIe'lunKt is .... only Unpu.td '" a human ~ha.ior (00-. "'....,.he IUUaI .......inol:Ut'qunll

uw AND SCI~NC~'"'

demon.,TO'" ,h.. all gene",l norm. 01 an empirical """ial oro....(including geneTal norm. of ref",inment) can p",,,,ribe a certainbeha"ior only und.... certain condi,ion., Therefore "'el)' geneTOlInonn euabli.h.. a relalionship belween two ..to of lac", whichmay be described in the $Utom1ator to i..u. the'" .nd not otloer norm, and "'hat .ffeclS leg.i,la,ive a

'"'UW AND SCIENCE

i! the obi'"'" of c.l .odolog)', but certain parallelphenomena in n.tuTe. Lik""'i>c a phl'.iologi". who im."ig;a'..chemical or phy,leol pro

.....w "'~D IKU>OQ 'o!>pi6c pooiti, lcpl -'''J. dill"eani"J. a", tUm intuoomidcr.uion. Thi. opoci6c mtaDinc. , conti". (Jr i' ."i'li atall) I:>o,w..n cottain economic or political laCll Ind 'he ilwcr.a,ing "CII on the OU' hand Ind I:>o'w..n th.", ac" Ind ,h.human I:>ohovior 'ho' the, i"'.nd to bring lbout on 'he ...h.... I"'he la"n cue. the au",i eonnK'ion ""i... only il'hl< I:>ohavior i.actually moti""'td by men', id....bou, the i"..",ion of ,h. Ia....noting actS, motiva'ion which by no ......... is .i....l.. the cuebea"'" obedience co ,Ite law i. &e

'Of ....W AND tcID"CIt

man. In oht P"'rudi"ll i'l'&"I oht condi,ion was shown under whichthit diJrerenlialioa is poooible: .he condition iI: P"'at>ppo6ilioa of~ bui< '- in ..hid< the law is e

..,

'hem in rules of law that do not....."" am,,! conn""';",,, Jih Illconsist in the fordble innktion of 'n evil or. exp,ased negatively,in ,he forcible depriv..ion of a ""I"e; in co~ 01 copi'al punish.ment the taking away of an individual', lik in CO~ 01 corpora!punishment. as cmtom.ry in earliec tim... blinding. amputation

'0'

no. STAno:: .uncT Of' ...... 'og

ol. pan of~ body; in""",, of imprioanmm. th~ dq>ri.....ion 01libnty; in GISt 01 a 6n~, the !ali.. away of _ ... np

''0 ""t! lTaTlC .uncT OP lAw

n"wn. from the con~' 01 the IcpI onItt. That !.hio purpooecarui... in prnmting (by dttt'lTina) the commilhon 0' _I";""ol an aetihmctlt or civil aocu,ion is om""'" from lbc act bJ whkh IhellOI'M ...,.,led bJ Ibis 1Itt. is appliod--

."

.) Tiu lk/ia {I,u IV....." is NOI N~plio .. h,C",""UW.. 01 llu Uw~ to tht I""'"i"i dty.;.... tht Ktion .. rdnin......no:>mti.,tint u.. mndition of th", (Oncivt xc onkrrd br lIlc kpl0Id0r "po...nll 1M dellc' (......Uy called ~tht wrong"), and theCXIftci.... XI icpo_nu ..... A.ot1...... An .:tion or rdn.inmmlUlllma the cha~r 01 ddict only if the lqal ord

...

io f'O:I"l"daI .,min a entai.........um of oociny by no IJlCIU ' ...monlbut. to the WDtnl)', a monl obIiption, and the jail _~oe pro-_cd as tbe CIllWtJlerll meaning of 1M kpl ord....I 01 tht delict. II 3anaUl. twh>.rioo- has btm~ the condi.ion of a WKlion.

n not SO behave.no logical conu"diction exis... Both .,atements r.an "and !ide by.ide, both can be 'rue", the same ,ime. The exi"""ce or validityof a nonn commanding a ile. 'heothe e""nti.l lac,. are e"hau"ively described by a conditional"alnn""t that ..yo; "JI a cerrain behaviot i. present. lhen a certain sanction ought to be ex""utrd:' In this 'ta'emenl. the delictappeana. 3 condi,ion. oot a' a negation 01 the law; and ,hi. show.that the delict i> not a fact ...nding oUIOide, much 1... in oppo>i.lion '0, the law. but a fac, in.ide Ihehw and determinrd by it_itshOW1 that the law, ,""cording to iu nature. relen .pecifically tothi. fact. Like everything ebe. SO the delict (in German: Unre

".-. ((lmpo.o. ddic< is '""" ,he GOlly e-dioion 10 wlUdl tanttioa isauaehal ointt 1M CGDdi......'''1 faa as _ .sbaI1-r be ......J-UI 01 many parts, indudinJ buD.D. bdlarioo- rna. anDOl botdeinl'd as delia (1Udl as. for CAmpl lhc I~t;yexl aeati"l;lhc cn-rnoJ IloOnJl .hidllktnmin..

n,~ ....A1lC AS~ OF lAW'"

certain way." Since the legal ord.... i. a social order, the behaviorwhich an individual i> obligattd to adopt i> a behavior whi

,,' THE STATIC ASPEC't 0.- l-Aw

through the legal order by .tipul>ting a ",nc,ion. However, a legalobligation i. nothing dot but the po;eWnd case of lulfillmon, of an obligalion. Th. indi,idnalwhn lulfill. lh. obligation lmpo>Oell (oJ in the actnalobeying of lh. legal norm. (tha, i" in the lulfillmenl nf th. leg.lobligalions ..ipulatO

'W! "'~[ ~q',ou ,oq '[UOW llUO '~'1' pu~ '[l~'~ ld""llOO I"~'I ~ lOuf! Clmp" '0) "uO)lcll!lqo" '"'1' ~U " Uq U'A' '~'111 pmUO~o '1,n. JO l'!jlq!'~od '1'1' P!OA. 0.1. ,wn 011UO..... '! ~00 '0 _I'."oo!,cll![qo jO'OW puo uOllcll![qo \l!&>[ JO P!UllOO" '"'II 011 '11U1'00'"'1 'OIA~'1~ ,,!mdo ~'1' 'Ao'1 OS[~ 1.w 1) '0'1 ....p.zo ["-'OWo 1'1 ~'1'![qo,., uo!'ollnqo U~ _01'~'1~ 'W... ''1''U>lum "! '""0'1 ',ou ~'u ,nq 'low UO!'~~I[qo joll>[ V 'J>A>l"'l'" UO"""!ldwIl"-'oW ou '"'I puo J'pro [l!&>[ ~A!l!'od 0 01 l!'AI,np", ""J>.! un!,,oll!lqo Il!&>[ 0 JO ld"uo.> ''1.1. 'op 0' "ISon ~'[ lOll'" op 01 ,,[1l00"1''''"''0 '1'1'[_" '''pro lUOW ",!.".]PJ ~'1,lq ~J>]l.1O 'J '"'1'" op 01l'Illno uow '"'1' fiolO1n., ''1' O"uonw~Plno." 'l'1dOllOllqd [...OW','0"')1 JO 'If>'1' j1l-l'u>:> ''1' '! 'PI'1'" "jd!)u),d P,oo!,u.m ''fl

'ro!A"'l~ '.u01'!P"'lDO' 'lD'''lI'P "'ll").,,d 4"q.... ..,p.lo [O.lOW'.uoPIP~'''IO' pu. 'IU'J'lI!P lUq '''!'''' 10U.,.,P IlH"'OW ''"[01 '.lDO)! "m,ll1"!".]'" 'P""!>OiI'l~'I-lmp '0 UO!l0~Il'lO :4"j~U3-..lq'!Ud.. p.lO." U.lW~'41 'Il!.~\

"1~j"O,, puv UV~lvj)rqO loj"l (q

.UO""0"' ''1' P!o," ") ''''l' 'uol"'S!]'10 ''flJl9["J 'O!""'1'q '!'Ilq 0111"""" '.IOP-""l' 0'1'" PU" .oo",u", ''1''DOq" lluliq II.' "! '"4' "UO",.ll!\qo ''1' ""IO!A lin .IO!A"'l~ '!'11'1 '0'1'" l~op'hlpm ''1' '! 1[

'~'I'.]" ')'1 '0 !""P!A!PlJ] "'I' lIDlo.ll. P"'''''!P 1I0!U,,", ~ ~'I""".'! """01O:>P D'qM p"u,~,uo~ OJ. ,." mo'l'"q,,'" ll. Ir 'lon, ,r Irllp!.'IP"1 '4' '0" 'I 'I 'n"''''!'1 UlOlI "'''''':!lIP~tl!'ll'lUOII'" uop.llnq" ~'1' 'Ploq _0 '"'I 0'1'" lp()'p'UJOII'ou '! 1"0_P!A)P") '!'1' 'Oil oo".~,[qo ''1' JO J>fIl04 .10 ''''('Ins '41 '~p"I~U'~)"P '! oq." 'DOprll![qo ''I' JO m>luo.> "'[1 ",m]l'uo;> '''!AO'pq""''I'" I~OP)A!PU! ''1' '! " 'l!l~[[llON ".1"0 Ioll:>[ ''1' ,('1 p"'~rnd)",.. "'.., ~o .L::d$"V C>UVU ~,,-'-

n' THE STATIC .....P~ OF ....wpose obligatiom, and that the .pecific function of Lb. law_in conuadistinction .cd ,hat the obligation to beh.500t~thing, but one can !>c: oulho";xed only to do some,hing. How_evet. one may be l~any obligatw to make usc of one'l authoriza,ion; an ac'ion to which an ittdividU

'"behavior i, "'puluM in a norm, .h~n ,he 'tal""'ent .hot oom.,.body i. legally obligattd (h... a legal dUly) to behve in a CeTtainway. ,."ren '0 a behavior "'hkh it the opposite of 'he bed or positively pennitted. Legaloblig..iotl i. nOlo or no, immedia'ely. ,he behavior th", ought tobe." Only ,he eoere;'-. 0

rH~ SrAnc ASPI'.Cr OF lAW

somtone elst, when the !anction ha. the charact.. of a civil ""eculion. A i. ohliagatm to ..nd"," t,OOO to B, if the lC of Hahilityfor the nonfulfIllment of a legal duty con>ti'uted by civil eXecu-tion into a property. tWO """ibilitie. must bl: distingui,hm: (a)that the prope.,.,y into whid> the civil execution has.o he dirw:Jis the propcny of .he individual agail", whom the coercive ac, i.dirccttd; and (b) that the l'rope. In the former case the individual i, liable witb hi, pnlOfl and hi, proper'Y: in ,he latterc:ue t,,o individuah ha"e to be con,ideretllor liability_the onewho has the authority to di.pooc over the prop which constitute the prop

",~ STATIC ASPl:Ct OF lAW " ,

men,ioned coeTch.., acU which do not have the eha",eter of ..netiono: In these ca~, tOO, ,he individual agairu, wllom the coo",iveact is dimoted is nol the .objec, of a I:Jehavior delerrnined by lhelegal order as the condilion for the coercive ac'; bu' only theobject of a I:Jehavior deurminrd by the legal order consequence.namely ,he object 01 the coercive acto dimolrd against thi, individ.ual. The difference i, th>! in ca... 01 liability lor lIOmeone e1....delict, the condilinn. of ,he coercive act include a rtain beh.viorof acertain individual. where.. in ,he cale of roercive acts Lhat donOt have the chaneLo' of sanetio'''. ,he condition, do not include.uch hehavior.

d} It,dividual o"d Colleaive LiabilityThe differenole individual belo"g '0 lhe""ne collec,ive group, Such a relation i. u.ually ptnupposed whe"the legal order stipulate> liability for Someone else', delict. In ,hi..n... liability fOT a delict committed by another may be charac-terized a' collective liability. But one om '''of a "ate wh_ m-gan hal committed. violation of inUrn.lionallaw.

". 'tHJ: srAnc ASp~ 0' ......w

CoIIe iDt~nded or lo,..,....,n bythe individual whose khavior i, being consid~~ and the,""" inwhich the ev.nt happ

YHI: ....A11

".TKI sTATIC ASrUT o:r ....W

poope"" and Ibis ought 10 1)0: I'tI>Iinftl. gMiml. oblig>lion. The ..nclion of ciyil uution ,ok..pia onl~ ,..h." ,hi. oblip.ion i. not (..Hilled. If ,he ..ncl;on ofcivil "":I"ion is di'tetenting '" posit;'.., 1.1... ""","tT.1M: usuilly on an>i oblip,ion '0 m.h '.p"r.J..ion for ,h. d.m.ge.no. hi. li.hility lor ,he fulfillm.n. of ,hi. du,y. i anc,ion. Th.Anction Ottuf1 only if n~ith.. ,h. fif1' nor th~ >t:COOd indi~id",,1.... k.. rq>antion for .h~ iII~llycau""damagt'.

Til" STAT'C ....PI

u, nm sr"TlC ....PECT OF LAWvidu~l has d

THE ...ATIC A'FECI" 0" ....w ",

.he oblig..ed behavior. i. d..igno.ed .. ex'rd,ing a right. How-ev", in elSe of on obligaLion to r.frain from .n ocLion. ,uch .. LOrefrain from murd.... or burglary. on. does not u'u.lly .peok of ...righl or claim "nOlto be murder.d" or "nOl '0 be burglari>ed," Incue of an oblig..ion 10 tol..... 1

.., TH& ,rAnc .....u:r or UlW'be rcfttion 01 a I"PI obliptioo_d.c concq>< of" ",ofla. rigllt"- ....y facilitate, '" an ,iliary I:OI1pl. ~ daaiption 01 ~ltlIy 01. the .....'e) 10 the ~"..yiorof .he obliptod individual, Iud> he oblip.ion '0 do ,nm....,.iCrvice--onc is $l,i,fi

Tnt ..,.ATJC ..",aT OF UW n,animals cannOt "m.le. claim" ,ha, would corre

'SO TH& &ToOne OOSPI!CT ".. ......

ordcT. Ihm i. '--'eo ....idtol that a oubjective righ. (u a rdlc:tiJIU) praupposa a corTapondi... lcpl obIip;ioo-tion of other individu.l. 10 '01 .... '. 'hox dilpooi'iolU,10 'hat ,h. righl to ,hing il .110 righg.inn lletlOll. I< i.,h. rela'io" lx,.....,,, Individu.l. which i. of primary imporunce,.nd mi. rel..ion i. impli.d In Ih. righ, to. mingo 10 ia corutitUledby 'he ohlig"ion Q/. ",h... indi.idu.all to di....rb .be fin' one in hildifpooition over a ..,uin ,hing. Wlul il dClCriMd al .he uclwi...,'dominion" of an individual ov.r. thing ilthe legally fli!",la'ed(Xd... ion of all ",hm from .h. dilposi,ion 0.... 'hi, thing. Th.dominion of m. on.. i. 1~lly m..",ly ,h. r.Au of 'he """I ion ofm. oth.... Til

.,.

only oe

'3' T"~ nAnc MJ'1'.C]" 01' lAWxlIaally is.- an at.>I ..'t rWlI; il is lhQ/ltd iIU M ,not bu. auy also "" proml in .IK cueof claim> or i";" pmo....... rOO" elWl>p1e. if a dcbcof it oblipledto rmdtt a s~fie thing.o tht crtditor. let w ...y. if _body isobligated by a con'ne 0( ...It to Inns(... lht _"t>ttSh'p of a ope.d6c pie of mM... blt~yOO".tal =ate ". oont~bod)' tb~. Inthi. alit ,h~ .igh, of tht crtditor is dirra-lip...... not'o JlU'~1 him ........ his disposition of a aTtain thinghad brm. r;ola,td.

c) Tu ~Rigltr A ~IJ P>oI.t.led r"lC'TUtTIlt' ddinitiort 0( lbc law in a ath;..ru"" ....- "" a l~l1y pro-tltd int......... rnq....ul, prnnlltd by tnditionol Kim oflaw,rtf.... to thot rip. as 1M .tft... of a legal obliption. This defini.lion dtatly di>piays 'ht dualism .hal'3Citri"ic for lndi.i"""lKitnu of law; I"" rigttl. ,h is, lhe law in a .ubj

THE STATIC ....~I:CT o~ tAW."

concept. Thi. contndiction cann", be avoided by admitting. rcI.ti"" between l.w in.o objective sen.. and right., l.w in a subjecti"e sen... n.melj th.t the JaUCT I, an inter... protected by thefotmer. If the law i. conceived a., norm. the Jaw...-e>en in a ".ubjective ..n ..---- not seem to be possible if the act to which one i.ohligated toward the oth.... romists in inRlcting an evil on him,Thio io the Ca" if the act h.. the character 01 a ",ncti,m prescribedby ,he legal order, and if the commanding and executing of the"'nction in concrete .imation. hal bee" made the Content of theoffici.1 obligation of the la"applying org.n. Norm.lly, nobody i,imeteSted in the 'ulfeting of an evil. If.n interest i' protected bythe obligation in question. it c.nnot be.n iot......t of the individ-ual againot whom the ..nction i. dil

1J4 ~ nc Alt'U'f or ......

the oIlicial dUly 01 'M 1a pp1ying organs. iJ ..... desipalfd as...l>j.i,c rdln righ.; in on languav one dlT"'Cific individual; and in ,his KIt ....the low i, ind.t0". by ala i. the aKu.;on 01 a oonTIlii."o,lon ;, no< ..",,",,"iv.ly d""";bed by ~.ing ,h.obliptlon of on. individual to behove in a c.".ta In way 'oward on",h... individual. For ,h .-n,ial .Inn.... i, .he Itgal power be-......cd upon the latter by the 1","1 order '0 bringlboul. by a law",i...he n

na .sTATtC AS1'1

." Tl

TII~ STATIC ASPcr OF UW

'"loward whom anoth~r indi-'idual is obliga",d to beh>\'~ in a ar-l.3in w.y_namely the I~gal P""'or to "art th~ procedure thatl~adsto a court d""i,ion in which a concrote ""nelion ia OTderro asroction again" lh~ violalion of ,h~ obligation.

Like ,h~ .ubj""t of an obUgalion, th~ .ubjre. of. right abo maybe not only on~ individual. but ,wo or ..,v~r.d individual>. Subjretof a righ, ar~ ,wo or mor~ individuals if the obligation (iden'icalwitll th~ reae" righ,) constitut", beh.oior tow.rd twO or mOTeindi,-U1uab; and if th~ I'llal powCT '" bring about by a law sui. th~e"""u,iou of a ",nuiou as a Teaction agailUt th~ nonfuillillmem of

th~ obligation may be e".",i\Cd by on. individu.l or ,h~ oth.....altth~ judgm"" is not in conformity with th~ law; by thi.> act a pro-cedur~ is .tarted tha' may set aside the at"",ked judgm~nl and re-place it by another. Such l.gal poWCT is no, only grant.d 10 theindioidual iu rda,ion to whom the obligation ~xim, bur al", to

th~ s"bj"", of the alleged legal oblig.tion. According to mod~mprocedural law, not only th~ plain,ill but al", th~ def.ndant mayappeal again" a judgmcot unfa'oubl. to him. Th. legal power ofthe d~fenda", is ~x~rciacd to oppo" the ""tion of the plaintiff, topr...cot the .nforc.m.." of an obligation Which, in the view of thedolend."" docs not exist. In ,hi. ca.., w. do not characterize thelegal power of the defendant a' a '"right" in the 'p

"s

~) Tiu ~Ri&~t"" ,il. !'wi/iN Perwl .......By the >U1ftnm. that an indiridual Ius the right 10 btha"" in aanuin , ('f ific:olly; to C3lTJ .... a :octirity is lq:olly ..... pn>hibited10 this iDdividuaJ Of WI Olhcn are obliplal not to prcvml thioan;'",.,. or tha. u.. l2rt

~ pr "ll"Ie;.] permi"'on isprohibi'td, ,h., is, .ubjt 10 ...."C.lon. This p".mission doe> no(coruin in the mere ''''galive ,,,' of no< being prohibittd, but inthe pooi,;"" "'" of a commllni!y org:on. I< plaJ'l an imJlOlUnt rolein modern amdmt .... IiCftlII: orcooc iono~ from tlM:autharitid.

1) TN PoIilic.J llitAUThe soalkd "polilial r>u~ reprncnl a spttW (:11"10'1. n...y..~ u....UJ

TH", IT"TIC AlPUT OF UlW."

Ihooo= IUbjcclCd 10 the DIDftDI WI th.U NlH't;"" i. cun:iood by a parliament ckcood bythe people. In this cue Ihc ptO(~ of me IDnn:aIion oflhc will ofIhc SUll.C-the by memben of parlPmcnl.Tbcrcfvoe in Ihit ""'" ,.... riah.. CIlin of me individUlllJ formincII.., COfllllIUCIlC}': Ihc .igb' 10 Ole and tbc righ' of .... eloe'od 10be ..,emben of parliament and to join in the dllCWlion &rid dedsloru the.e. Thcoc at. the political tigb....

II the rucncc of th... tigh .. CON;'" in grDlting individual, ,h.capacity of participating in ,h. fonnation of the will of the Ita,.(in ,h. creation oll.-gal nonn.), the.. the righ" cot.l>li.hed I>y pri-Vat. law, the private right" tOO, ue political righ": for ,hey 100.1I0w the entidod individu.l lO ..to pan in the rorma'ion or thewill of th.....te.

The la,,

,,0creo.ic>n of the iDdivid.,al noon of tho: judim' oI'M f..161~1 oJ. another indi.id....r. b-lip -ani the ,....... The atclllioo> of t.h.is lrpl POW'" _,.bu. no.u ~n: eoubIiJbed.

TM political rip.. include tht= iI>Gl1lchroenul rights"..libertiet ltipulatiolability) 01. property.of ,.... penon. 01. opcuIt (opecio.lIy of nor private rigbt> In tbe ,echnical len.."They an: prohibition. InlOlar a. tbey forbid the ,iolalion by.tatut... o"'tutory orden of the guar.ttttecd rights. th.. is, tolimi, or reICind tJ,em; but th..., "prohibition," do not in ,he ma'n(on,I" in imposing the Tcpl obHgation upon the legi,latlY. organ'0 refrain from en.(ting .uch ,,"utts, they

.,.ll-" STATIC ASPECT UP LAW .,.

this purpo"'." The constitutional gua",n'ee. of fundamentalrights ar. provi,iom of th. con11i'u'ion bj' which th" coment of"a,ut., .nmed by the l'Si.1alor alld .latutory orders i..ued by admini"",ti,'e organs i. d.'.rmined nega'i'ely. and a proec..... it "'ouldbe ab,urd indiocriminately to impooe 'he same obligations and the"me righ" upon all indi,'idoal~hild",nand aduh. the ..ne andthe in""ne. men and WOmen. AJ! for equali'y in 'he ""'U''', thecon! ltaindifferenc.., .uch "' diffeTens 01 ''''e, religion, ""to" 0' propertymust no' be made in ,he 'tatutes-tb", ..atut.. whkl, do m.keonch difference' may be annulled as uncons'itu,ionaL If 'he constituti"" doc; no, determine specific difference, that must not bemade in ,he statut.. and if the consti'ution comains a formulaproclaiming ,he eqnal ity 01 .n indi,'idual., then this constitution-ally gua",n,,,,,d equality can hardly m..n anylhing el.. bu' c

... .,."... nAne A,nCT OF ....W

that ~ norm ought to be applied in confOTmi,y with thi> """m, principle which expre,,,,. only 'he meaning immAllrnt in uchnOml. A judicial deci.ion which does no, InRie. upon an individn.l pun;,hmcnt provided for in the "otul. to be applied onlybccalUe ,h. delinquent i, a white. nOi a N< appli

..,

and DO admiDiW ripu and libn.iQ ""hibition~ of ..-...rirtia>( lq:iolation prnt>t>tonad by "'" co

I""P)."PO! ''1' In'''lU SOllq 0' :la,"od I"s,( ''1' '"'1I""p!~!pO!'4'j!'100 'd~ ''1' 01 AIOO Inq 'lnl""1"""!'nl!"OO'''O "" jO 1";>"'S '0 I"np!~!p"! ,," 01 fn'Il10" POI' lU;>Eu> '! ,oq """,,, lo"o!,nl!"uro"n ".0" J'>''''lIOU '! 'p.>'.10!,' '! "O!lIl'!l'''O' ''1' .1'1 pa>l""--'u"," .1U>q!1.Iooo, ""'4""'" '! ID '",., ",.,"", '"4' .Itl' JO ,.pi!." '! ''IS], (",u,m'''Pu''J POll"'""" ''1' 0''1' :ill.O" I""p],,!p"! "1' JO 1";>d>J ''1' '" S,,!-1'"'1 >J"po,,,,d" >lU!'!"! 0' ",""" 1"lJ>1 ''1' '"'I ""0" 1""p'A'p"!'!'1' .1'1 p.>1"1I" l"nP1~!p"! 'l(l A1UO Jl PO" :,"',,'" (""o!''''!''''o,"n U" JO '!''''l "\l UO p.>w>J, '! "uoo 1""p!A!pU! "u J! "pro,.. :C'11O"1-"0!'!"1' 1"!'!I'''!" -'" "0 ",!"c,,'1"!Wp. 0" Aq J'>'"IO!A,! mnp-;>;>') JO .'!I"nb, I'""1"""'''S .11I0001101[1'UOO ''1' JI ""O!""'" ='ll)0 "o,,""'"x' "11 01 'P"'I ''''I' :unp.>;>l!.q!'101d .11I"lJ>1 :>.to ,u-.&.o ='11 u''1.1. '''4ii!] I",,!l!!od JO 10 '''9]010 ""I '" 'pn, tl",m'l,!"nd 'UI""" ill''1' uodn "!11"! AO'" U"O'1"1""" " 'I"U01111'I""lY.>Un '! 'IO'''l' '41 "''''' u, 'lu4' 'm~'ill '!'1L'p.>ullllJ,mnoo 10 'p.>I"jj[nillD.ld 'l"'AOJddu 'A",! .1''1' ""n,o" ''11I" 'l1IUUO!,nl!''''O' ''1' 'OJ 'lq!",OO= 'pOW >I. (,,... ''I' JO l""''1''1' JO tl,.. ''1' "S)':Cluno, 01 ','"'1 0'1"') U!'1':> ~'I' )0 lJ>! 0 ",Ell'I'!O 01 '1'1'1tulI!llnJ ''1' jO m,m>.:>.l0J'" ''1''In. "'"I ,''I "'0'1" Sul'q 0' '''"~I ~'[l '" ",\1;>0 10u.>OJ> .,"'10J ''1',uq, '" '14S!' "",,!,d 0 '! '1']'1'" '>i">i ("'IU'[:I''ll "1 1l(l!!. 'Al'''!

"'.., AO ""'-dSV 'lLV..., ~11-L H,

gena:oI rq>nl of a IU'''~ ,hat yiolata

,., THE ITAT1C .uPKT or LAWconooqu"""""'" For elt>nlpl... jf thr l the chJ~ of a nonn.:oti""ordn regulating human behavior.

The function of the lori,a1by ,he legal omer. In Ihe brood... "''''', a (ertain I>olilft "" individoal 10n:ft:U,~ u... act of in",",,,,",'; but it don n(II aulhoou.e "",body'0 ret lid. 10 litis~ wnw...., bu....." ~vior. &tnmintd by u.. I~I otckr .. a cood:ilion or """"ftl_ItUl,'" re-prn KIImit d~licB--nly they are enabled by .IX1q>1 ordn '0 do to. flu, 'helxbll"ior ..... con.i,u'", t~ delia b

na "'FAne .uPCr I' lAW 14 iprolIibiled by .vior ...... th~ he word ~aucd in a narrower......, wbell it doQ i",p1ya~; in h.. .....,tndititlall oheohe legal order to bring about legal conse-quences by his heba"ior, thaI is, consequences .,hicl< >h~ legalord.... attacl>n ".>h,. behavior. Til_legal consequmen ar~. howeYt!', no, >he lIJ1C,iom which CO/'''''Iuencc of beMv;or arcdircacd aa:oin" the individu.1 ""h..ing in thi, w.y (Le., 'gain"the delinquent or hi. ,cl.,ivet). The capacity 10 bring lbou$OInt:tion by one', ""haYior il>h~ capacity to commi, I delict and IIdiainguilbed from the capacity to .ct. The legal t oI>h~ capKi,y to act ufen are, a.ccordi"l to,radi.ioaallcience 011.0.., esKnti..llly obligatiooJ .nd rightl o ....tedby 1"&,,,1~~ opKi.y to act II pri ....rily the cap.cityto oondualepl ....nRO'ioN (CacM/Uliltiieil); bu, capaci'y toahe won!.

But abo >he lcgal capacity 10 conduo

",lopl orda, in a"i.,,,, jJ ,he capadty. confcrr"", "pOll individuals bj' til< 1tg"~1 order, to croale,on the bali, of gen......l Itg.1 norm., Jpaci., iu. true lopl pown.

1 (2~ty "'.' is underwood '" m....D the OIpaci.y of bringingabout lcpl eoDKqumcn bronc'. bch:l~ior,and if ODe rcprdo as acorucqucncc 01 a Icpl ,nruxtion lhc lcpl obIip.icn-and that""""'" an iDdj,iduall>(lt1l>-- just as in thc ca.IC of th. ro-.alltd ..padty to arl, all I"thori",.ion is present to ~rcuc, or toparticipatc in thc .reation of. lcpl nonno-in all 'Moe ~:un thcIcpl order conf.... a Icpl powC't upon c...... in indi..idualL Bu, not

'~~4 I"'S0 ..udlo" JO llb,uo, ~tp'01 "'1""'P "'l,.nrn U011JUn, '4' JO ''''m'''' ~41 wOJJ lU'.I.:IJ!!P'1'041 JlU!4'~WOl u'41 'AI!UnWUU" {d,! 'II' 10 mdlo P;>lI~J IOU ~oUO!lJunJ "II ~U!'P"X' ']""Pl"PU! ''II """" ='11 U! '",U!S ,:"U',.:>1'" ~'11 U!'111M 'IOJ lUE'uoowl tI" Ao(d 'MO( \"""!'OU'"U! ,{q pa!lOtp"o "10" Aq p>popuro "~!I"~I Aq 'w'ou ["-,,,u,ll JOu0]10"" ''I' '"'II puo :"PlO [olio[,tp Aq ol~'lfl P"'lID4,no ..mOl.,:>ddo 10 "'lIOU 'Al11 "'lM 10) AI""l.:>woo ,.",olio 1m' MO( 0 lluuq 'mp>1[l.ld "lIU"lU!wpo ID ("P!P.n! 0 u, 04.... t:>IUro ''11 Jl W ',UOII"",,,,', ["S>[ ,m", "opuo, 0'1'"']"OplA1PU! "1' II J.:IMOO [o'il>[ Jl"!~A"E'I"UlWJl"""." 01 ID "uo"l"P IE!J1Pn[ '1"'" 0' '''lOm'I'''u,Ol,("npJA'PU! "1m'", JO All,,",,'" ~'II" ~."", """, "ll uJ "JJllOI:>dwoo., '10 'lonpl'lP"! "" JO (tlqJl!. 1""'11100 .0 ~'OA!'d) UU'I''II JO JS"" ]""!"'P" "p U! ",{.Il!, PU! ',UOp""'U.'1 ]d.>( "np'''OJ 01 A"JEd., ''I.L '.1.:11"0 loll,[ ''I' Aq P>ll'IuOO ""'00 10&>[ ~'I'JO "'p.,x:. ~tp til II,,,UO' 'I"'IM p:m.lJJuoJ '1 UOIPunJ ''I' 50 '"Jto P>U'lOO! 10" '1 ~JlI,,:>dd. "!U' .,,"[ .\H'I"OJ ,>MOO [olio, 'q.L .:~J"'I:>q, louo)l'pu, "'op "MOO l',llJl 0 llu!'''lllO' JO ."., [[0 III;"

......., ~O J.:>:IdSV "uns XlU

.,. TIt!: ....TIC ....PI:CT OP "'W

c) The Concept oj "OT8"4n""Organ" of a community i. an individual who ""donn. a functionLbat can Iln" '''''" ,I>< nonoo.otl '" two fa th, "" ....- I>d...... , r",,~

-cr ,..

,.

Till< STATIC ASPEC'< OF lAW .,.the brood." sen...) by iI, can be allribUlrd 10 lhe communi,y con"i,u,rd by lhe norma.ive OTder, can be inlCTpre'rd a' function of.h. community; and .v..y individual wltmc behavior U d.ler-mined in l~. nonnal;". orocr-.\nd thi. mea", ev.ry m.mber 01the community-ean be TI,ga.rd.d a. an OIgan of lhe community.An individual i. an organ 01 ,h. communi,y, if and '0 .h,,"'n'thai, h. f.nd... a be~a.iOT ,ha, can be a'tribu'ed '0 the Cornmunity; and a bellavior can be .ttributed '0 .b. community if i, i.dctenninrd a condi,ion or C

I~l communily commits an il1"83.1 act. Th~e i, a ..nd.nCj' e-causc not "authorized" in thenarrower StllSC. If the attribution to the legal community;' thuslimited, then the individual committi"g a doHct is not intCTpretedto be a community organ, and hi, behavioT not a, the function ofan organ (an "organ function"). To the 1"83.1 community, then,only thaI behavior i. attributtt! which refen to tbe concept of"capacity to ac,"-which doe> not indude the capacity to commit adelict,"

If we thu. eJtClude the committing of a del;'t from tbe organfunctions attributable to a 1"83.1 community, then any beh"'i,,rd.tcnnined by .he 1"83.1 order constituting the legal commuuitymay he regarded .. a function 01 the community if it dOC' no< con.i" in committing a delict: Thi, behavior may comi" not onl}' in

th~ cation and application of legal nonn., including the partid,.... _ t. diKl.",t'" ' ... >ndi_ 01 "'" '"""""" qU>llfted., "

'"pa,i"" in the creation and applica tbat co",i" in po'c lunctionary .,." deai&',a,I as "r'gan.;' and the legal power bestowed upon them, .. ,heir "compe-ten",," (or "juri"";aion"). Even 'he individual who lulfill. hi.legal obligation, or exercises a ""nex righI, or make. usc of a p'i.tive ped" communi,i... Bu'every cOmmunily must have o.gam-....,"en Ihough not ,he kind,ha, [unction. according to 'he principle of di,-i,ion of laOOr_becau"" a community an only function ,hrough organ>. that ,.,hrough individual. determined by ,he nor""'tive order. If "normative oroer determln.. ,ha' (,",,,,in funetio,," under

,,. 11

THE STATIC ASPECT OF UW

'"provided lor by 'he constitution. Di'"", calling of an individual(or of individuals) 10 a funclion implie. "'If-crca'ion ol 'he organconcerned.

A minimum of division of labot- i. p.....m If 'he leplonlor-".g., a primi'i'.., legal onicr-$tipula'" ,hat cer... in lunction., ouch a' 'he a""..... inmen' of the exi"ence of a d.lict in aconcre,c CaS' and 'he Clt""u,ion ol 'he sanction provided for in ,h.law, ough, .0 be performed nor by each 01 the individuals .ubjec.'0 the order. bm only by men of. ccr.. in age; 01 if, according '0existing l.w, a lawcatingcu,tom sh.n be cs'ahlished no' hy thebeh.viot of all individual' subj""t to the o,d... hm by the major-i,y of 'h"'" who have the lepl ,,"pacity '0 .ct; Of, .g.ln. if accordIng to existing bw only individu.ls who have reached. ce,tain .geand are mentally Klund .re c.pable to regula,e thei, mutual""""omic ,elationships by lepl tnmsactintu, Bo, 'hi' minimum oflabor division which not even 'he mOlt ptimiti"e Irg.1 order canforrg, i. no, '''fficien', a

,~ Tlt" STATIC AJl'KT OJ' lAWbiply dc.-tlopal Iq;ol ordtt i..... i'u'a a democn,ially de0 ~ecu'c lepl.",n_.ion" why (I) wh..n lhe 1"1"1 p-roculu", h... '0 be ini.iatMby a opeci6c act din:.;,ed ,,,,,,.nt i...... speak in one

'>1at 1M iJItem"ion1 a>IIUDuni'y in 1M;" lIw-acau"l and law-appI,in& f"na;"'..

Ilaide tho ooacept 01 ~orpnM ",'!10K criterioa-iJI addition ..,cnu.ia a>c>d.i JUodl ... IU, nc..-is way bylbe order, and that ~ !uD

'! "''l'~J ',PH'" ~4' '~ldw""" JOJ 'J! '~P ~4' .oJ ~lq"'I'!:>SP ApoqAu. 'OU 'm .lll"l"~ru ~'" .0" 'PIl4' ~4' J~4'!','J. ".IOjA"4X1 "''''JO """""'XI,, ~4'!""d 1l,,!X1 'I I""P!A!PU' "''110 A"0" ru~41)0 .~4"'u u'4' ']""P!'lpUI U. JO 4"'P ''1' ."".,u~ II! All"'

-u~w " .10 PI''1'" JO .IO!A"4X1 ''11 JI "UO!uuO4' jO"O!'lPU,''1' 01 llu!p.loJJV '("o"",u,,",,d>J lim",,,,, 1"'11""""') '''''!'''"'U'''']dJl Aq 01'4' .oJ ..pnp pUt "411!. ~,">J' p"o '''P''P 1I!!I"l "'ljll!,"I"'x, JI"'IJq '1''1' U! 0'1'" ","'''l"~,:...d,, 'Ao4 ""w'l"nplA!pu!=q' """I ll.l'pow 0' llUIPJ= '>J0J''''1~ 'II! An',"'Ul ~'I' pu.""Pl'4' ',(d""u Jorll!.~ll!t{)IJjO ':I'q". '4' "I 01 .10 """P Idol puo "411,. ~'"'1 0' 1""PlAlpulu. JO A,!Jod., '41 A,podoJ ]oBoI .. ""."ll!"p .uo,'1' I'''OP!PU~

"O,.......L",..,.J~d."lI:(I'.~ll~"*I"Il) .ur.lVdv:J "tvo:., ",'

,:uclllo" JO ,,uJUOJ ''11 JO JJ"","", "1' JO lluIPUO"-"P"" "" Aq,,], P"" 'A'I""wmoo 108>] ~4' 0' "o,,'u"J 0 S"I""'Illll" "I "'"1"'0' 4"1'1'" UOI'"~ '1'1' JO 'J""",,, '4' JO SUIPUO"'''pu" UO AIUO " "'01 ~'I' JO lI{J!>1tUloo Jy""~':>f 0 JOJ ''''''''I~"lI-uo11...>U"J ''I~

1I\Y1 ~o .L:>:l4SV OU.V,U ~IU

."

'"punisMd, tbm lhe punislulblc a1Ut ~ ""''''''p''blc of .,ing.Thi.. howeve '0 apply to dclicll whic;h a,.., Coo

lIi,u'cd by. finc or dvil execution. For these ..netion. COfl"" in alorc~ dcprivat;on of Ulpmy rights, analoo be the ... bjcc< of .... obIiption to poy the ",open, tn. By.... I&m

,ro T ...I: ITATlC ....1'Y.Cr OF U ..lo'~. must to ngard rn( nprCM'.......in u the ...bjm cl t.b~obliption). ibm ... 3K conltorutd ..it.b :on obligation "'lbout awbjta. lor _boot nonlulfillmm. ,1M: Icpl up, .........,;.... is liableonly with hi> pcra>n. not .'lh his property. Tradi.ioII&l tbearTm .... 10 repro lhor rqorarnuti,... at ;dt he hao ... fulfin from

T1U< .....ne ....u:T OP lAW ,',

""" ""tt< of tht .epr-.lW individ....l. eopccUlly '0 yield the1IX CIt C1llWUmpOoa 01 tht P'opn-'y to the ~"""'W individu.>1to obt: ""."'" 01 """ la,,,,,,', abili,y, III Iiptioa to p

".TIll: STATIC ASPECT OF In addition to ,talUtory repr

"".!:tIro f! 1! lJ'~ r_ll>l :>III ~'1 "",n'!IIou I! "!'1'P"-JO I'IS!, 8ulpuod= ~'I' JO I~qn, ~'1' P"" ""!lei!!'I" U.JO I~qllt:>lll ",,",MPq "! 1'"'11 ..,~qn, IdbJ 1IM1>d.uo:l :>IlI'~l/l1-,,!1'pul OJ !u!p.oo:uv

"OU..-n'l! "lY:lTl 'I'lL '.$

"lJII" OJ ~I!*II:>-U, "'I ,,!dAp '~IPftI"" td>[ la,..cq R .udd. "'!'l: "1.... Ol.up.JO"! 'qIll OJ ""!1....,.". '11O!'!l"'J :aQljAIID!ln...-.-b. Wln'nI 1" """" :>Ill OJ ""!1"U!lf!puIl1W "! 'uo!'-nIl!-'-". JOI lIOIUl OU'~ "'! >.I:>Il.1. -n",,", puc "",!,a"...., :>Illo>,nn oq", ~"" ~'" 0"'11 1:>1110 ~poq>wol JO "",E>J:>". "q!!-'-puc IUO!ldn'i0 II"!"" 1'1 .110 '! "''1'0''0 S,,!,g~o:>q '0 SO!ld!!'!oU0fI"'CI"UI loll>j V 'lu-..:l "''110'''' S"tlY'U>q '0 ll",,U,.""" .'0 1I"I""!"-..:I 'l1O!l""'''UI ,oll>l 0 lO Inq ..UO,'OlIl..,m,,,JO 1I0xll IOU PI""'" ~11O ""'1' 'InO!,!"Y I. p;I,:f~' " "O!I"'1!"'10 '1'I'll 'p;IJ!''''l"I"' ''1' 118no.t'l' p;lI'. >;I,!JO"'''. :>IlIl! I'< 1,...II"" O! p>q!;l)UP ".1l""J :>Ill}! 'ljUO ,u;llJJd I! PJOM ~'11 JO-,g!dl ~'" Ul ""!1n""""u1'l1 '(lodp"IJd JIll1'1 ~IUO p;If!:;IQJQ XI 'A!lnll:>l>JCbJ'Ill p". p;lI.....!A 10 p;lUYlnJ XI """ JA!I...UJDJd">O!Id!lqo :>Ill I"", 01'1""""P!'"!J'lIl l"ll!JlMlln.:>Ill JOI I>OP 14>11J!P 'MIll OJ !u!p.>O)..". ""l 'UO!l"'!-'O"Pn. "" II' IJft'I ap 110 PJ'lIUOp>d '''''!P'''IlUlrd>1 ap """.. 1UJD.>d f! UO!l..........xb.o l>OJ!U ""'!'l: 01 po.u;>JI'ftD~ll""'" ~1. I.... 1""P!A!PO!~n. :>Ill 01 ""''''lUI'. tit""!'"'!""J lOll .... UO!uam.q "'II ~ plOlOJ> tlqB!l ptII JlIO!ld!rqo:>Ill ptII '1""!'fA!P"! 1tu~n. ~'" .Iq _ "P""Ill !qp;IUUOp>d l~ I'

'..TtlI' ITATIC ASrttT OF LAW

a ..,1lI,;"" bnWtt:ll ind"id....r., lhnIl.he traditional ddinitioa is_ ....IT_....... tho: lopl ordtt aablisheho.rioo"" oblip1Olr1. bu.. 3100he

THE STATtC ASP"""" OF L\W'"ga,ion, of the OTga", In erealO or apply 'he legal norn,,), but

reftexe> of the obligations e"ablished by ,he'" nonn,. Besjd...in thi, case we cannot ,peale. of a relation between ,uperionand inferiol"$, bec.""" the norm

U"M'",! uOI,ol>J ''1' .0 ""u"" 'w.. "1' U! UO!,ol>J I"s,r jH'Ind.. 0'I P""'!P'! ""!"'O ''I' W0'l'" ''''!o~o lonp!A!pu! p;>,cll!rqo ''1' puo,n. 0' .,."lOd I"s,( ''1' 'I'P" P'lAU! tOnp!A'PU! ''I' U~"\I'q UO"01>1 ''1' "''1'0 ''1' "" PA>l 'w.. ''1' " uOII,ulp.lOOJ pu. PU"'l'lIO'q' uo UOI'O")p.1OqUS P"O tlO""U!P-IOJ>d,,. o=.\t'>II >J""'ll!P ''1'"0 "". '''01'"1''"' 1"s,1 ,,",,!,d puo "lNnd """""'1 >J"'''ll!P ''1',...J '" ,nil ..uo,q, rOUOl"plU,,(q "" ....,d .. '0 p>,.uS!t>p ""P"I"1"8>1 I"J)d'(, ''II '! II 'uO[",u" ''II ,oJ '''O!I'PUO' "p.oo IVbI'II' ill P>,"uJl!"P ''''"j 0"" """"""1 "01'01'" ''l' '! '!'1l.. (U!I'P,ql) p>1J!p 'J """'u,, 'Il' 1I"11'" "U'"~ .IO)A"4>,cll! Iqo ''1' PU" J,.\too l"s,r ''1' '1'f'" p>'AUI ,"np'A[p"! '4' """>>:>"!P >:>"" ''1' lIl1!"pID [[Uou r"lIp!A!PlI! uo unOJ 0 "q lIu!n,,! 01 ~U!P"'I 'JOp>xudo 'UO!''''' r"8>r" 1IU1~'" "'I '''~'!lI! 0' ""'00 r"s,1 ''1' .,UllOlll U!'"-=" u, 'A"4>op-sl"lIPIA!PlI! 0"" JO JO!"oq>U!UJJ"'p-,,,or ''fl u"">'I1O UJ '-"'U""W lI!mJ>J ul 10'9 ''1' pJ"."OI ',''''l>q P"1cl![lqo 'Il' lIl1!]""

~]d A'l P>"I.!-OI">P "llU'PIlJUi ,," "'0' ,u."~!" 1U.l!>t "1' "noJ.", Oil '! 'I'I~ .u.mou'4d IU"""I""' ,(1108>1 'IU>J'JI!P 0.", 11>'''''>qIIOP"I" ... '11'!X' ''''!llJP' \08>, Ou ,.., '!II' U! 'rx!",d 'J,.,.>l0H .''l~J x.u" ~u!puod,,,",],,,"! pur uo".lI!lqo r'~'r' 11>,"',-""I 110""1" .....u,,!'"p] rcll>1., jO UO,,!U9'1' '41 U! ,,,8>p 'woo

....Y> '-0 .endS>' 'u.n, a,,-'-",'

na .UTI

d.t.m,ined heha"iar of lh. On' and lh. law-d.,.rmined boha,'ior01 lhe olh..,..

Paran.ling lh. tI,co'l' that lhe right is a legally pTOtoc'cd inler_e". i. the tllCO'l' that lhe legal "Iatinn i. an actual relalionship ofa sexual. oconomi. For a c"Snilion ditceted 'oword lawaIa system of norml, no other legal relalionl exiM. But aho fTOm ,h.poin, of ,-iew of a cognition dirted toward actual teality it mtUthe admitted that by bw_and this me:uu by the idea that men haveof a legal order p...... ppo:!ed to be valid-actn.1 r.lation, botweenindividuah o

nt~ STATIC ASPECT OF LAW'"

mean. always designaled as a l~gal .ubjea, lhen it i. lhal-1ik~ lh. concept 01 r.lfex right-facilitate ,h.dcocription. Th~ir use i. permi..ible only if one iwarc of thi.lh.ir nature. To aw.k.n thi. aw.rene" i. 'he task. of 'he Pu,eTheory of Law. IIlh. Pure Theory .mploY;! ,h.,., conc~p",. il ;"done only in the SCn", here dcocribcd.

Ju"," tr.dition.l ,heory plac~s "'ight" ahead 01 "obligation:'so i' regards the leg.l ,ubj""l primarily .. a .ubjea 01 righ" andonly ",conduily., a ",bj""t of legal ohliga,ion. In German legallheory, which distingui,h.. !>ttween law and right .. belw",nohj""tiv. law and subjen;>'e law. the con""pl of "legal ,ubj""t"-in Germ.n Rcchl.."lJjekt (literally: ,ubjec' 01 Law}-is eJosdy

~N.... _. "''' "PI f

".

",nn""IM with the eTci"e cbaracter, which i. evidemJy the 0ppo;!itc "f frCubjttt of law [Rechl""bidt,leg.l .ubject] becau", he h'" tha' p""'ibili,y of 'dl-detennination,'ha' me,n, 'hat he h'" a [free) will" (CUTru. tkT I",/it"/;",,,o, 1o,hed., ,813, I, 4. 5, 6).

The fietitiou.n... of rhi.definition 01 the c""ecpt 01 the lubjectof law i' apparent. Becau.. if one can talk at all about ..Udetermln"lon "f the individual in his cap,,,,;ty a legal subject,namely in lhe realm of oo-callcd priyatc law (with Tespee' 10 'helawcre"ing function of a legal contract), then legal .lelf-deteTmi.n..ion. th .. i. autonomy. i' pre",nt only in a very limited ..n...FOT nobody can create righu ror him",II, beeau.. the right of the"ne presuppooes the obliga,ion of 'he other, and .uch legal Telation can ~ularly only be eOlabH,bed in 'he field of pri"ate law,according 10 the legal order by an agreemem of tWO individual.,And even then only if 'he legal order oonfelTed upon 'he agre..ment a law'creating lunnion. Therefore tbe legal dClCTmin"ionultimately originates in the objective law and not in 'he legal .ub-

,

TI,E STATIC Al;PECT OF LJIW'7 '

j.. sul>ordl"",ed to it. Con

'71 TIl. srATIC ~UT OF lAW

funcUoa. bu, abo U- o

{rom twnk, hnn~he., and blOlaOm., but merely 'he totality of,h"", element!. The ph)"i",,1 or juri.. ic per..,n who "ha'" oh1lga-tioM 31Id righ a' th.ir hold.,.. is th... ohHgatiOTl' and righlS----1l

~omplcx of leg.l obligations and rights wbooe totality i> ""pr"""dfigumti,'.ly in the concrpt of "person," "P.,...,n" i> merdy tb.penonification of this totality.

If e.pecially the fac" Ole an.lyzed which are p,....,ted in tradi-tion.1 theory a' "rightnd obligatio,," of. juristic penon." .nd ifthe word "right" i. used in i" .pecific, 'echnk.l ..me I the word(m....ning a legal p,,,..'e. or competence to be exercised by bring.ing .n action .gaiost ",mebody), then we find that the.. righ".nd obligation. ex.~tly like th"", 01 a phy.ical per",n. ha"ehum.n behavior., ,heir conten'. and are in thi> ..",e-,,,,d onlyin thi...n..-righ" and ohligations of hum.n beings. Only byhuman heh.vior Can' right be exercised or an obligation he fulfilled or "iol.ted, Thrrrlore i, cannot be the relation '0 a humanheing which i! the element ,hat diff....ntiate. the physic.1 orn.tural penon (TOm the juristi~ or .ni!ici.l pOT"'''. Therefore.too, ,he ....called ph)"ical per"'n annot_in contradistinuion toth. juri!tic penon_be defined a. """ething li~e a qualifiedhum.n being. qualified. that i. by holding rights .nd obligation.Such a delinition i. to be rejected jUst .. the definitiotl of the conc.p' of rIgh,., "a leg.lly protec,ed im.....'." Ju" a. ,he righ' i.not a (Iegall)' prot

.,. Tll~ IITATIC ASPU"r O~ .....W'he PToblcm of "I"'non" i. ill the lau anal)"';. 'he problem of 'heunity of a complex of nonm. The qu"'ion II: what u. here) which. i. p,..,,,,mM., ... plll'sic.]~n, -tion of log.dly 'denn' !.oct. In -trated by an analJ'' concern ill Klme way the in_teres" 01 the individualo who form the corp"""ti()n, and >tin arenot...-a. traditional theory a"umeo-their obligation. and rights.are thtot iutupreted ... obligatiOn> and right> of the corporation.and hence the lauer i. concei"ed a

T>U' ST..TIC ""neT 00- lAW 175

.... 0( IDCIDt'J coI1eaa1 lhroug:b ciyil o

,,. THE STATIC AIJ'EC]" OF U ..bdD~iot 01. a h"..,..,. bri,. be 'nlnp,...... "" the bthlo ...... of ..._ponotion--oJ:l jtlM: "'UriboJ,N to tbewopontion} Which aretbe corditions UJ>dor wbid> :0 human bring pertonao ... refr.tinofrom perlonaing a cnuin actioa u. his cat-i", :00 an COP" of the~ Ooody toIl.rItCd with this probl_ it tbe probI....of the CCHpun..... :00 tbe ""bjt 01. obliptioDs and richu. Sinaobliptions and ri&hu can 0111, ....e hWDan bdla,.... at tlKir CU>-lm" 1M Itpi order QJl impolC obliptions and conln riJblS onlyufIO" human beiDp. "T'hio IULemtIIl LIr.>. a ...... pooation 'I tbe lOb-jea: of obliptioru and ri&hu. t i..a rommunity consti,ul

THe IT..,,,, ASPccr OF ....w."

......" .." of" wrpontiollfcpl'eoenlS" P""ialltgal ~, 10 be dis.,iDpbbtd &om lhc ....,iona! I~ order, ...h.iS. It.Cldon: ..... can distil>-KUish between !be Morpna~ and Ihc -""""bo:n~ ttl" co,pooa.ion."is ID be "",cd that the ""P'" cl a clividual who l""h ,he capacity toace. The misinterpreta,ion of Ihe anthropontorpltic """"phil

"~a THE STATIC A$PCT OF LAW"jur;";ic peroou" a. a real emily, a. a lind of ,upennan or organ.i.ml, i. the unpermi. and the curre,ponding obligation to pay a membership Ire,howe,..,., are described .. rights and obligation, of the members