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Contents FOREWORD iii Chapter 1 Introduction to Accounting 1 1.1 Meaning of Accounting 2 1.2 Accounting as a Source of Information 6 1.3 Objectives of Accounting 10 1.4 Role of Accounting 13 1.5 Basic Terms in Accounting 14 Chapter 2 Theory Base of Accounting 22 2.1 Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) 23 2.2 Basic Accounting Concepts 24 2.3 Systems of Accounting 33 2.4 Basis of Accounting 34 2.5 Accounting Standards 35 Chapter 3 Recording of Transactions - I 41 3.1 Business Transactions and Source Document 41 3.2 Accounting Equation 45 3.3 Using Debit and Credit 47 3.4 Books of Original Entry 56 3.5 The Ledger 64 3.6 Posting from Journal 67 Chapter 4 Recording of Transactions - II 91 4.1 Cash Book 92 4.2 Purchases (Journal) Book 117 4.3 Purchases Return (Journal) Book 119 4.4 Sales (Journal) Book 121 4.5 Sales Return (Journal) Book 123 4.6 Journal Proper 129 4.7 Balancing the Accounts 131

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Transcript of 11th Accountancy

Page 1: 11th Accountancy

Contents

FOREWORD iii

Chapter 1 Introduction to Accounting 11.1 Meaning of Accounting 2

1.2 Accounting as a Source of Information 6

1.3 Objectives of Accounting 10

1.4 Role of Accounting 13

1.5 Basic Terms in Accounting 14

Chapter 2 Theory Base of Accounting 22

2.1 Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) 23

2.2 Basic Accounting Concepts 24

2.3 Systems of Accounting 33

2.4 Basis of Accounting 34

2.5 Accounting Standards 35

Chapter 3 Recording of Transactions - I 41

3.1 Business Transactions and Source Document 41

3.2 Accounting Equation 45

3.3 Using Debit and Credit 47

3.4 Books of Original Entry 56

3.5 The Ledger 64

3.6 Posting from Journal 67

Chapter 4 Recording of Transactions - II 91

4.1 Cash Book 92

4.2 Purchases (Journal) Book 117

4.3 Purchases Return (Journal) Book 119

4.4 Sales (Journal) Book 121

4.5 Sales Return (Journal) Book 123

4.6 Journal Proper 129

4.7 Balancing the Accounts 131

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Chapter 5 Bank Reconciliation Statement 150

5.1 Need for Reconciliation 151

5.2 Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statement 156

Chapter 6 Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 181

6.1 Meaning of Trial Balance 181

6.2 Objectives of Preparing the Trial Balance 182

6.3 Preparation of Trial Balance 185

6.4 Significance of Agreement of Trial Balance 190

6.5 Searching of Errors 192

6.6 Rectification of Errors 193

Chapter 7 Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves 227

7.1 Depreciation 227

7.2 Depreciation and other Similar Terms 231

7.3 Causes of Depreciation 231

7.4 Need for Depreciation 232

7.5 Factors Affecting the Amount of Depreciation 234

7.6 Methods of calculating Depreciation Amount 235

7.7 Straight Line Method and Written Down Method 240A Comparative Analysis

7.8 Methods of Recording Depreciation 242

7.9 Disposal of Asset 251

7.10 Effect of any Addition or Extension to the 261Existing Asset

7.11 Provisions 264

7.12 Reserves 266

7.13 Secret Reserve 270

Chapter 8 Bill of Exchange 279

8.1 Meaning of Bill of Exchange 280

8.2 Promissory Note 282

8.3 Advantages of Bill of Exchange 284

8.4 Maturity of Bill 285

8.5 Discounting of Bill 285

8.6 Endorsement of Bill 286

8.7 Accounting Treatment 286

8.8 Dishonour of a Bill 293

8.9 Renewal of the Bill 298

8.10 Retiring of the Bill 301

8.11 Bills Receivable and Bills Payable Books 303

8.12 Accommodation of Bills 317

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AccountancyFinancial Accounting

Volume I

Textbook for Class XI

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii

Chapter 9 Financial Statements - I 331

9.1 Stakeholders and Their Information Requirements 331

9.2 Distinction between Capital and Revenue 333

9.3 Financial Statements 335

9.4 Trading and Profit and Loss Account 337

9.5 Operating Profit (EBIT) 351

9.6 Balance Sheet 353

9.7 Opening Entry 362

Chapter 10 Financial Statements 372

10.1 Need for Adjustments 372

10.2 Closing Stock 374

10.3 Outstanding Expenses 376

10.4 Prepaid Expenses 377

10.5 Accrued Income 379

10.6 Income Received in Advance 381

10.7 Depreciation 382

10.8 Bad Debts 383

10.9 Provision for Bad and Doubtful Debts 384

10.10 Provision for Discount on Debtors 387

10.11 Manager’s Commission 389

10.12 Interest on Capital 392

10.13 Methods of Presenting the Financial Statements 416

Chapter 11 Accounts from Incomplete Records 437

11.1 Meaning of Incomplete Records 437

11.2 Reasons of Incompleteness and its Limitations 438

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11.3 Ascertainment of Profit and Loss 439

11.4 Preparing Trading and Profit and Loss Account andthe Balance Sheet 444

Chapter 12 Applications of Computers in Accounting 475

12.1 Meaning and Elements of Computer System 475

12.2 Capabilities of Computer System 477

12.3 Limitations of a Computer System 478

12.4 Components of Computer 479

12.5 Evolution of Computerised Accounting 480

12.6 Features of Computerised Accounting System 483

12.7 Management Information System and AccountingInformation System 485

Chapter 13 Computerised Accounting System 492

13.1 Concept of Computerised Accounting System 492

13.2 Comparison between Manual and Computerised Accounting494

13.3 Advantages of Computerised Accounting System 495

13.4 Limitations of Computerised Accounting System 497

13.5 Sourcing of Accounting Software 498

13.6 Generic Considerations before Sourcing an

Accounting Software 501

Chapter 14 Structuring Database for Accounting 504

14.1 Data Processing Cycle 506

14.2 Designing Database for Accounting 507

14.3 Entity Relationship (ER) Model 508

14.4 Database Technology 518

14.5 An Illustration of Accounting Database 520

14.6 Relational Data Model 523

14.7 Relational Databases and Schemas 524

14.8 Constraints and Database Schemas 525

14.9 Operations and Constraint Violations 527

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14.10 Designing Relational Database Schema 528

14.11 llustrating the Database Structure for Example Realities 531

14.12 Interacting with Databases 539

Chapter 15 Accounting System Using Database 555Management System

15.1 MS Access and its Components 555

15.2 Creating Tables and Relationships for

Accounting Database 560

15.3 Vouchers Using Forms 566

15.4 Information Using Queries 588

15.5 Generating Accounting Reports 622

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapteryou will be able to:

• state the meaning andneed of accounting;

• discuss accounting asa source of information ;

• identify the internaland external users ofaccounting information;

• explain the objectivesof accounting;

• describe the role ofaccounting;

• explain the basic termsused in accounting.

Over the centuries, accounting has remainedconfined to the financial record-keeping

functions of the accountant. But, today’s rapidlychanging business environment has forced theaccountants to reassess their roles and functionsboth within the organisation and the society. Therole of an accountant has now shifted from that ofa mere recorder of transactions to that of themember providing relevant information to thedecision-making team. Broadly speaking,accounting today is much more than just book-keeping and the preparation of financial reports.Accountants are now capable of working in excitingnew growth areas such as: forensic accounting(solving crimes such as computer hacking and thetheft of large amounts of money on the internet); e-commerce (designing web-based payment system);financial planning, environmental accounting, etc.This realisation came due to the fact that accountingis capable of providing the kind of information thatmanagers and other interested persons need inorder to make better decisions. This aspect ofaccounting gradually assumed so much importancethat it has now been raised to the level of aninformation system. As an information system, itcollects data and communicates economicinformation about the organisation to a wide varietyof users whose decisions and actions are related toits performance. This introductory chaptertherefore, deals with the nature, need and scope ofaccounting in this context.

Introduction to Accounting 1

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1.1 Meaning of Accounting

In 1941, The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) haddefined accounting as the art of recording, classifying, and summarising in asignificant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events whichare, in part at least, of financial character, and interpreting the results thereof’.With greater economic development resulting in changing role of accounting,its scope, became broader. In 1966, the American Accounting Association(AAA) defined accounting as ‘the process of identifying, measuring andcommunicating economic information to permit informed judgments anddecisions by users of information’.

In 1970, the Accounting Principles Board of AICPA also emphasised thatthe function of accounting is to provide quantitative information, primarilyfinancial in nature, about economic entities, that is intended to be useful inmaking economic decisions.

Accounting can therefore be defined as the process of identifying,measuring, recording and communicating the required information relatingto the economic events of an organisation to the interested users of such

Fig. 1.1 : Showing the process of accounting

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information. In order to appreciate the exact nature of accounting, we mustunderstand the following relevant aspects of the definition:• Economic Events• Identification, Measurement, Recording and Communication• Organisation• Interested Users of Information

Box 1

History and Development of Accounting

Accounting enjoys a remarkable heritage. The history of accounting is as old ascivilisation. The seeds of accounting were most likely first sown in Babylonia andEgypt around 4000 B.C. who recorded transactions of payment of wages and taxeson clay tablets. Historical evidences reveal that Egyptians used some form ofaccounting for their treasuries where gold and other valuables were kept. The inchargeof treasuries had to send day wise reports to their superiors known as Wazirs (theprime minister) and from there month wise reports were sent to kings. Babylonia,known as the city of commerce, used accounting for business to uncover lossestaken place due to frauds and lack of efficiency. In Greece, accounting was used forapportioning the revenues received among treasuries, maintaining total receipts,total payments and balance of government financial transactions. Romans usedmemorandum or daybook where in receipts and payments were recorded andwherefrom they were posted to ledgers on monthly basis. (700 B.C to 400 A.D).China used sophisticated form of government accounting as early as 2000 B.C.Accounting practices in India could be traced back to a period when twenty threecenturies ago, Kautilya, a minister in Chandragupta’s kingdom wrote a book namedArthashasthra, which also described how accounting records had to be maintained.

Luca Pacioli’s, a Franciscan friar (merchant class), book Summa deArithmetica, Geometria, Proportion at Proportionality (Review of Arithmetic and Geometricproportions) in Venice (1494) is considered as the first book on double entry book-keeping. A portion of this book contains knowledge of business and book-keeping.However, Pacioli did not claim that he was the inventor of double entry book-keepingbut spread the knowledge of it. It shows that he probably relied on then–currentbook-keeping manuals as the basis for his masterpiece. In his book, he used thepresent day popular terms of accounting Debit (Dr.) and Credit (Cr.). These were theconcepts used in Italian terminology. Debit comes from the Italian debito which comesfrom the Latin debita and debeo which means owed to the proprietor. Credit comesfrom the Italian credito which comes from the Latin ‘credo’ which means trust or belief(in the proprietor or owed by the proprietor. In explaining double entry system, Pacioliwrote that ‘All entries… have to be double entries, that is if you make one creditor, youmust make some debtor’. He also stated that a merchants responsibility include togive glory to God in their enterprises, to be ethical in all business activities and toearn a profit. He discussed the details of memorandum, journal, ledger and specialisedaccounting procedures.

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1.1.1 Economic Events

Business organisations involves economic events. An economic event is knownas a happening of consequence to a business organisation which consists oftransactions and which are measurable in monetary terms. For example,purchase of machinery, installing and keeping it ready for manufacturing isan event which comprises number of financial transactions such as buying amachine, transportation of machine, site preparation for installation of amachine, expenditure incurred on its installation and trial runs. Thus,accounting identifies bunch of transactions relating to an economic event. Ifan event involves transactions between an outsider and an organisation, theseare known as external events. The following are the examples of suchtransactions:• Sale of Reebok shoes to the customers.• Rendering services to the customers by Videocon Limited.• Purchase of materials from suppliers.• Payment of monthly rent to the landlord.

An internal event is an economic event that occurs entirely between theinternal wings of an enterprise, e.g., supply of raw material or components bythe stores department to the manufacturing department, payment of wagesto the employees, etc.

1.1.2 Identification, Measurement, Recording and Communication

Identification : It means determining what transactions to record, i.e., to identityevents which are to be recorded. It involves observing activities and selectingthose events that are of considered financial character and relate to theorganisation. The business transactions and other economic events thereforeare evaluated for deciding whether it has to be recorded in books of account.For example, the value of human resources, changes in managerial policiesor appointment of personnel are important but none of these are recorded inbooks of account. However, when a company makes a sale or purchase, whetheron cash or credit, or pays salary it is recorded in the books of account.Measurement : It means quantification (including estimates) of businesstransactions into financial terms by using monetary unit, viz. rupees andpaise as a measuring unit. If an event cannot be quantified in monetaryterms, it is not considered for recording in financial accounts. That is whyimportant items like the appointment of a new managing director, signing ofcontracts or changes in personnel are not shown in the books of accounts.Recording : Once the economic events are identified and measured in financialterms, these are recorded in books of account in monetary terms and in achronological order. Recording is done in a manner that the necessary financial

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information is summarised as per well-established practice and is madeavailable as and when required.Communication : The economic events are identified, measured and recordedin order that the pertinent information is generated and communicated in acertain form to management and other internal and external users. Theinformation is regularly communicated through accounting reports. Thesereports provide information that are useful to a variety of users who have aninterest in assessing the financial performance and the position of anenterprise, planning and controlling business activities and making necessarydecisions from time to time. The accounting information system should bedesigned in such a way that the right information is communicated to theright person at the right time. Reports can be daily, weekly, monthly, orquarterly, depending upon the needs of the users. An important element inthe communication process is the accountant’s ability and efficiency inpresenting the relevant information.

1.1.3 Organisation

Organisation refers to a business enterprise, whether for profit or not-for-profit motive. Depending upon the size of activities and level of businessoperation, it can be a sole-proprietory concern, partnership firm, cooperativesociety, company, local authority, municipal corporation or any otherassociation of persons.

1.1.4 Interested Users of Information

Accounting is a means by which necessary financial information aboutbusiness enterprise is communicated and is also called the language ofbusiness. Many users need financial information in order to make importantdecisions. These users can be divided into two broad categories: internal usersand external users. Internal users include: Chief Executive, Financial Officer,Vice President, Business Unit Managers, Plant Managers, Store Managers,Line Supervisors, etc. External users include: present and potential Investors(shareholders), Creditors (Banks and other Financial Institutions, Debenture-holders and other Lenders), Tax Authorities, Regulatory Agencies (Departmentof Company Affairs, Registrar of Companies, Securities Exchange Board ofIndia, Labour Unions, Trade Associations, Stock Exchange and Customers,etc. Since the primary function of accounting is to provide useful informationfor decision-making, it is a means to an end, with the end being the decisionthat is helped by the availability of accounting information. You will studyabout the types of accounting information and its users later in this chapter.

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Box 2

Why do the Users Want Accounting Information?

• The owners/shareholders use them to see if they are getting a satisfactory returnon their investment, and to assess the financial health of their company/business.

• The directors/managers use them for making both internal and externalcomparisons in their attempts to evaluate the performance. They may comparethe financial analysis of their company with the industry figures in order toascertain the company’s strengths and weaknesses. Management is alsoconcerned with ensuring that the money invested in the company/organisationis generating an adequate return and that the company/organisation is able topay its debts and remain solvent.

• The creditors (lenders) want to know if they are likely to get paid and lookparticularly at liquidity, which is the ability of the company/organisation to payits debts as they become due.

• The prospective investors use them to assess whether or not to invest theirmoney in the company/organisation.

• The government and regulatory agencies such as Registrar of companies, Customdepartments IRDA, RBI, etc. require information for the payment of various taxessuch as Value Added Tax (VAT), Income Tax (IT), Customs and Excise duties forprotecting the interests of investors, creditors(lenders), and also to satisfy thelegal obligations imposed by the Companies Act 1956 and SEBI from time-to-time.

1.2 Accounting as a Source of Information

As discussed earlier, accounting is a definite processes of interlinked activities,(refer figure 1.1) that begins with the identification of transactions and endswith the preparation of financial statements. Every step in the process ofaccounting generates information. Generation of information is not an endin itself. It is a means to facilitate the dissemination of information amongdifferent user groups. Such information enables the interested parties totake appropriate decisions. Therefore, dissemination of information is anessentialfunction of accounting. To be useful, the accounting information shouldensure to:

• provide information for making economic decisions;• serve the users who rely on financial statements as their principal source

of information;• provide information useful for predicting and evaluating the amount,

timing and uncertainty of potential cash-flows;• provide information for judging management’s ability to utilise resources

effectively in meeting goals;

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• provide factual and interpretative information by disclosing underlyingassumptions on matters subject to interpretation, evaluation, prediction,or estimation; and

• provide information on activities affecting the society.

Test Your Understanding - I

Complete the following sentences with appropriate words:

(a) Information in financial reports is based on ..................... transactions.

(b) Internal users are the ..................... of the business entity.

(c) A ..................... would most likely use an entities financial report to determinewhether or not the business entity is eligible for a loan.

(d) The Internet has assisted in decreasing the ..................... in issuing financialreports to users.

(e) ..................... users are groups outside the business entity, who uses theinformation to make decisions about the business entity.

(f) Information is said to be relevent if it is ......................

(g) The process of accounting starts with ............ and ends with ............

(h) Accounting measures the business transactions in terms of ............ units.

(i) Identified and measured economic events should be recording in ............ order.

The role of an accountant in generating accounting information is to observe,screen and recognise events and transactions to measure and process them,and thereby compile reports comprising accounting information that arecommunicated to the users. These are then interpreted, decoded and usedby management and other user groups. It must be ensured that the informationprovided is relevant, adequate and reliable for decision-making. The apparentlydivergent needs of internal and external users of accounting information haveresulted in the development of sub-disciplines within the accounting disciplinenamely, financial accounting, cost accounting and management accounting (referbox 3).

Financial accounting assists keeping a systematic record of financialtransactions the preparation and presentation of financial reports in order toarrive at a measure of organisational success and financial soundness. Itrelates to the past period, serves the stewardship function and is monetary innature. It is primarily concerned with the provision of financial information toall stakeholders.

Cost accounting assists in analysing the expenditure for ascertaining thecost of various products manufactured or services provided by the firm and

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fixation of prices thereof. It also helps in controlling the costs and providingnecessary costing information to management for decision-making.

Management accounting deals with the provision of necessary accountinginformation to people within the organisation to enable them in decision-making,planning and controlling business operations. Management accounting drawsthe relevant information mainly from financial accounting and cost accountingwhich helps the management in budgeting, assessing profitability, taking pricingdecisions, capital expenditure decisions and so on. Besides, it generates otherinformation (quantitative and qualitative, financial and non-financial) whichrelates to the future and is relevant for decision-making in the organisation.Such information includes: sales forecast, cash flows, purchase requirement,manpower needs, environmental data about effects on air, water, land, naturalresources, flora, fauna, human health, social responsibilities, etc.

As a result, the scope of accounting has become so vast, that new areaslike human resource accounting, social accounting, responsibility accountinghave also gained prominance.

Let’s Do It

Many People in today’s society think of an accountant as simply a glorified book-keeper. But the role of an accountant is continually changing. Discuss in theclassroom what really the role of accounting is?

1.2.1 Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting Information

Qualitative characteristics are the attributes of accounting information whichtend to enhance its understandability and usefulness. In order to assesswhether accounting information is decision useful, it must possess thecharacteristics of reliability, relevance, understandability and comparability.

Reliability

Reliability means the users must be able to depend on the information. Thereliability of accounting information is determined by the degree ofcorrespondence between what the information conveys about the transactionsor events that have occurred, measured and displayed. A reliable informationshould be free from error and bias and faithfully represents what it is meantto represent. To ensure reliability, the information disclosed must be credible,verifiable by independent parties use the same method of measuring, and beneutral and faithful (refer figure 1.3).

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Box 3

Branches of Accounting

The economic development and technological improvements have resulted in anincrease in the scale of operations and the advent of the company form of businessorganisation. This has made the management function more and more complex andincreased the importance of accounting information. This gave rise to special branchesof accounting. These are briefly explained below :Financial accounting : The purpose of this branch of accounting is to keep a recordof all financial transactions so that:(a) the profit earned or loss sustained by the business during an accounting period

can be worked out,(b) the financial position of the business as at the end of the accounting period

can be ascertained, and(c) the financial information required by the management and other interested

parties can be provided.Cost Accounting : The purpose of cost accounting is to analyse the expenditure soas to ascertain the cost of various products manufactured by the firm and fix theprices. It also helps in controlling the costs and providing necessary costinginformation to management for decision-making.Management Accounting : The purpose of management accounting is to assist themanagement in taking rational policy decisions and to evaluate the impact of itsdecisons and actions.

Relevance

To be relevant, information must be available in time, must help in predictionand feedback, and must influence the decisions of users by :

(a) helping them form prediction about the outcomes of past, present orfuture events; and/or

(b) confirming or correcting their past evaluations.

Understandability

Understandability means decision-makers must interpret accountinginformation in the same sense as it is prepared and conveyed to them. Thequalities that distinguish between good and bad communication in a messageare fundamental to the understandability of the message. A message is saidto be effectively communicated when it is interpreted by the receiver of themessage in the same sense in which the sender has sent. Accountants shouldpresent the comparable information in the most intenlligible manner withoutsacrificing relevance and reliability.

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Comparability

It is not sufficient that the financial information is relevant and reliable at aparticular time, in a particular circumstance or for a particular reporting entity.But it is equally important that the users of the general purpose financial reportsare able to compare various aspects of an entity over different time period andwith other entities. To be comparable, accounting reports must belong to acommon period and use common unit of measurement and format of reporting.

Test Your Understanding - II

You are a senior accountant of Ramona Enterprises Limited. What three steps wouldyou take to make your company’s financial statements understandable and decisionuseful?

1. ——————————————————————————————2. ——————————————————————————————3. ——————————————————————————————

[Hint : Refer to qualitative characteristics of accounting information]

1.3 Objectives of Accounting

As an information system, the basic objective of accounting is to provide usefulinformation to the interested group of users, both external and internal. Thenecessary information, particularly in case of external users, is provided inthe form of financial statements, viz., profit and loss account and balancesheet. Besides these, the management is provided with additional informationfrom time to time from the accounting records of business. Thus, the primaryobjectives of accounting include the following:

1.3.1 Maintenance of Records of Business Transactions

Accounting is used for the maintenance of a systematic record of all financialtransactions in book of accounts. Even the most brilliant executive or managercannot accurately remember the numerous amount of varied transactionssuch as purchases, sales, receipts, payments, etc. that takes place in businesseveryday. Hence, a proper and complete records of all business transactionsare kept regularly. Moreover, the recorded information enables verifiabilityand acts as an evidence.

1.3.2 Calculation of Profit and Loss

The owners of business are keen to have an idea about the net results of theirbusiness operations periodically, i.e. whether the business has earned profits

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or incurred losses. Thus, another objective of accounting is to ascertain theprofit earned or loss sustained by a business during an accounting periodwhich can be easily workout with help of record of incomes and expensesrelating to the business by preparing a profit or loss account for the period.Profit represents excess of revenue (income), over expenses. If the total revenueof a given period is Rs 6,00,000 and total expenses are Rs. 5,40,000 the profitwill be equal to Rs. 60,000(Rs. 6,00,000 – Rs. 5,40,000). If however, the totalexpenses exceed the total revenue, the difference reflects the loss.

1.3.3 Depiction of Financial Position

Accounting also aims at ascertaining the financial position of the businessconcern in the form of its assets and liabilities at the end of every accountingperiod. A proper record of resources owned by business organisation (Assets)

Qualitative Characteristic of Accounting Information

Decision Makers(Users of Accounting Information)

Understandability

Decision Usefulness

Relevance Relability

Timliness

Dedicative Feedback Verifiability FaithfulnessValue Value

Nutrality

Comparability

Fig. 1.3 : The qualitative characteristics of accounting information

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and claims against such resources (Liabilities) facilitates the preparation of astatement known as balance sheet position statement.

1.3.4 Providing Accounting Information to its Users

The accounting information generated by the accounting process iscommunicated in the form of reports, statements, graphs and charts to theusers who need it in different decision situations. As already stated, there aretwo main user groups, viz. internal users, mainly management, who needstimely information on cost of sales, profitability, etc. for planning, controllingand decision-making and external users who have limited authority, abilityand resources to obtain the necessary information and have to rely on financialstatements (Balance Sheet, Profit and Loss account). Primarily, the externalusers are interested in the following:• Investors and potential investors-information on the risks and returns

on investments;• Unions and employee groups-information on the stability, profitability

and distribution of wealth within the business;• Lenders and financial institutions-information on the creditworthiness of

the company and its ability to repay loans and pay interest;• Suppliers and creditors-information on whether amounts owed will be

repaid when due, and on the continued existence of the business;• Customers-information on the continued existence of the business and

thus the probability of a continued supply of products, parts and aftersales service;

• Government and other regulators- information on the allocation ofresources and the compliance to regulations;

• Social responsibility groups, such as environmental groups-informationon the impact on environment and its protection;

• Competitors-information on the relative strengths and weaknesses of theircompetition and for comparative and benchmarking purposes. Whereasthe above categories of users share in the wealth of the company,competitors require the information mainly for strategic purposes.

Test Your Understanding - III

Which stakeholder group… Would be most interested in_____________________________ (a) the VAT and other tax liabilities of the firm_____________________________ (b) the potential for pay awards and bouns deals_____________________________ (c) the ethical or environmental activities of the firm_____________________________ (d) whether the firm has a long-term future_____________________________ (e) profitability and share performance_____________________________ (f) the ability of the firm to carry on providing a

service or producing a product.

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1.4 Role of Accounting

For centuries, the role of accounting has been changing with the changes ineconomic development and increasing societal demands. It describes andanalyses a mass of data of an enterprise through measurement, classificationand summarisation, and reduces those date into reports and statements,which show the financial condition and results of operations of that enterprise.Hence, it is regarded as a language of business. It also performs the serviceactivity by providing quantitative financial information that helps the users invarious ways. Accounting as an information system collects and communicateseconomic information about an enterprise to a wide variety of interested parties.However, accounting information relates to the past transactions and isquantitative and financial in nature, it does not provide qualitative and non-financial information. These limitations of accounting must be kept in viewwhile making use of the accounting information.

Test Your Understanding - IV

Tick the Correct Answer

1. Which of the following is not a business transaction?a. Bought furniture of Rs.10,000 for businessb. Paid for salaries of employees Rs.5,000c. Paid sons fees from his personal bank account Rs.20,000d. Paid sons fees from the business Rs.2,000

2. Deepti wants to buy a building for his business today. Which of the following is therelevant data for his decision?a. Similar business acquired the required building in 2000 for Rs. 10,00,000b. Building cost details of 2003c. Building cost details of 1998d. Similar building cost in August, 2005 Rs. 25,00,000

3. Which is the last step of accounting as a process of information?a. Recording of data in the books of accountsb. Preparation of summaries in the form of financial statementsc. Communication of informationd. Analysis and interpretation of information

4. Which qualitative characteristics of accounting information is reflected whenaccounting information is clearly presented?a. Understandabilityb. Relevancec. Comparabilityd. Reliability

5. Use of common unit of measurement and common format of reporting promotes;a. Comparabilityb. Understandabilityc. Relevanced. Reliability

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Box 4

Different Roles of Accounting

As a language – it is perceived as the language of business which is used tocommunicate information on enterprises;As a historical record- it is viewed as chronological record of financial transactionsof an organisation at actual amounts involved;As current economic reality- it is viewed as the means of determining the trueincome of an entity namely the change of wealth over time;As an information system – it is viewed as a process that links an informationsource (the accountant) to a set of receivers (external users) by means of a channelof communication;As a commodity- specialised information is viewed as a service which is in demandin society, with accountants being willing to and capable of providing it.

1.5 Basic Terms in Accounting

1.5.1 Entity

Entity means a thing that has a definite individual existence. Business entitymeans a specifically identifiable business enterprise like Super Bazaar, HireJewellers, ITC Limited, etc. An accounting system is always devised for aspecific business entity (also called accounting entity).

1.5.2 Transaction

A event involving some value between two or more entities. It can be a purchaseof goods, receipt of money, payment to a creditor, incurring expenses, etc. Itcan be a cash transaction or a credit transaction.

1.5.3 Assets

Assets are economic resources of an enterprise that can be usefully expressedin monetary terms. Assets are items of value used by the business in itsoperations. For example, Super Bazar owns a fleet of trucks, which is used byit for delivering foodstuffs; the trucks, thus, provide economic benefit to theenterprise. This item will be shown on the asset side of the balance sheet ofSuper Bazaar. Assets can be broadly classified into two types: Fixed Assetsand Current Assets.

Fixed Assets are assets held on a long-term basis, such as land, buildings,machinery, plant, furniture and fixtures. These assets are used for the normaloperations of the business.

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Current Assets are assets held on a short-term basis such asdebtors(accounts receivable), bills receivable (notes receivable), stock(inventory), temporary marketable securities, cash and bank balances.

1.5.4 Liabilities

Liabilities are obligations or debts that an enterprise has to pay at some timein the future. They represent creditors’ claims on the firm’s assets. Both smalland big businesses find it necessary to borrow money at one time or the other,and to purchase goods on credit. Super Bazar, for example, purchases goodsfor Rs. 10,000 on credit for a month from Fast Food Products on March 25,2005. If the balance sheet of Super Bazaar is prepared as at March 31, 2005,Fast Food Products will be shown as creditors on the liabilities side of thebalance sheet. If Super Bazaar takes a loan for a period of three years fromDelhi State Co-operative Bank, this will also be shown as a liability in thebalance sheet of Super Bazaar. Liabilities are classified as long-term liabilitiesand short-term liabilities (also known as short-term liabilities).

Long-term liabilities are those that are usually payable after a period ofone year, for example, a term loan from a financial institution or debentures(bonds) issued by a company.

Short-term liabilities are obligations that are payable within a period of oneyear, for example, creditors, bills payable, bank overdraft.

1.5.5 Capital

Amount invested by the owner in the firm is known as capital. It may bebrought in the form of cash or assets by the owner for the business entitycapital is an obligation and a claim on the assets of business. It is, therefore,shown as capital on the liabilities side of the balance sheet.

1.5.6 Sales

Sales are total revenues from goods or services sold or provided to customers.Sales may be cash sales or credit sales.

1.5.7 Revenues

These are the amounts of the business earned by selling its products orproviding services to customers, called sales revenue. Other items of revenuecommon to many businesses are: commission, interest, dividends, royalities,rent received, etc. Revenue is also called income.

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1.5.8 Expenses

Costs incurred by a business in the process of earning revenue are known asexpenses. Generally, expenses are measured by the cost of assets consumedor services used during an accounting period. The usual items of expensesare: depreciation, rent, wages, salaries, interest, cost of heater, light and water,telephone, etc.

1.5.9 Expenditure

Spending money or incurring a liability for some benefit, service or propertyreceived is called expenditure. Payment of rent, salary, purchase of goods,purchase of machinery, purchase of furniture, etc. are examples of expenditure.If the benefit of expenditure is exhausted within a year, it is treated as anexpense (also called revenue expenditure). On the other hand, the benefit ofan expenditure lasts for more than a year, it is treated as an asset (also calledcapital expenditure) such as purchase of machinery, furniture, etc.

1.5.10 Profit

The excess of revenues of a period over its related expenses during anaccounting year profit. Profit increases the investment of the owners.

1.5.11 Gain

A profit that arises from events or transactions which are incidental to businesssuch as sale of fixed assets, winning a court case, appreciation in the value ofan asset.

1.5.12 Loss

The excess of expenses of a period over its related revenues its termed as loss.It decreases in owner’s equity. It also refers to money or money’s worth lost(or cost incurred) without receiving any benefit in return, e.g., cash or goodslost by theft or a fire accident, etc. It also includes loss on sale of fixed assets.

1.5.13 Discount

Discount is the deduction in the price of the goods sold. It is offered in twoways. Offering deduction of agreed percentage of list price at the time sellinggoods is one way of giving discount. Such discount is called ‘trade discount’.It is generally offered by manufactures to wholesellers and by wholesellers toretailers. After selling the goods on credit basis the debtors may be givencertain deduction in amount due in case if they pay the amount within thestipulated period or earlier. This deduction is given at the time of payment on

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the amount payable. Hence, it is called as cash discount. Cash discount actsas an incentive that encourages prompt payment by the debtors.

1.5.14 Voucher

The documentary evidence in support of a transaction is known as voucher.For example, if we buy goods for cash, we get cash memo, if we buy on credit,we get an invoice; when we make a payment we get a receipt and so on.

1.5.15 Goods

It refers to the products in which the business units is dealing, i.e. in terms ofwhich it is buying and selling or producting and selling. The items that arepurchased for use in the business are not called goods. For example, for afurniture dealer purchase of chairs and tables is termed as goods, while forother it is furniture and is treated as an asset. Similarly, for a stationery merchant,stationery is goods, whereas for others it is an item of expense (not purchases)

1.5.16 Drawings

Withdrawal of money and/or goods by the owner from the business for personaluse is known as drawings. Drawings reduces the investment of the owners.

1.5.17 Purchases

Purchases are total amount of goods procured by a business on credit and oncash, for use or sale. In a trading concern, purchases are made of merchandisefor resale with or without processing. In a manufacturing concern, rawmaterials are purchased, processed further into finished goods and then sold.Purchases may be cash purchases or credit purchases.

1.5.18 Stock

Stock (inventory) is a measure of something on hand-goods, spares and otheritems in a business. It is called Stock in hand. In a trading concern, the stockon hand is the amount of goods which are lying unsold as at the end of anaccounting period is called closing stock (ending inventory). In a manufacturingcompany, closing stock comprises raw materials, semi-finished goods andfinished goods on hand on the closing date. Similarly, opening stock (beginninginventory) is the amount of stock at the beginning of the accounting period.

1.5.19 Debtors

Debtors are persons and/or other entities who owe to an enterprise an amountfor buying goods and services on credit. The total amount standing against

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such persons and/or entities on the closing date, is shown in the balancesheet as sundry debtors on the asset side.

1.5.20 Creditors

Creditors are persons and/or other entities who have to be paid by an enterprisean amount for providing the enterprise goods and services on credit. The totalamount standing to the favour of such persons and/or entities on the closingdate, is shown in the Balance Sheet as sundry creditors on the liabilities side.

Test Your Understanding - V

Mr. Sunrise started a business for buying and selling of stationery with Rs. 5,00,000as an initial investment. Of which he paid Rs.1,00,000 for furniture, Rs. 2,00,000for buying stationery items. He employed a sales person and clerk. At the end of themonth he paid Rs.5,000 as their salaries. Out of the stationery bought he sold somestationery for Rs.1,50,000 for cash and some other stationery for Rs.1,00,000 oncredit basis to Mr.Ravi. Subsequently, he bought stationery items of Rs.1,50,000from Mr. Peace. In the first week of next month there was a fire accident and he lostRs. 30,000 worth of stationery. A part of the machinery, which cost Rs. 40,000, wassold for Rs. 45,000.From the above, answer the following :

1. What is the amount of capital with which Mr. Sunrise started business.2. What are the fixed assets he bought?3. What is the value of the goods purchased?4. Who is the creditor and state the amount payable to him?5. What are the expenses?6. What is the gain he earned?7. What is the loss he incurred?8. Who is the debtor? What is the amount receivable from him?9. What is the total amount of expenses and losses incurred?

10. Determine if the following are assets, liabilities, revenues, expenses or none ofthe these: sales, debtors, creditors, salary to manager, discount to debtors,drawings by the owner.

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Meaning of Accounting : Accounting is a process of identifying, measuring,recording the business transactions and communicating thereof the requiredinformation to the interested users.

2. Accounting as a source of information : Accounting as a source of informationsystem is the process of identifying, measuring, recording and communicatingthe economic events of an organisation to interested users of the information.

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3. Users of accounting information : Accounting plays a significant role in societyby providing information to management at all levels and to those having adirect financial interest in the enterprise, such as present and potentialinvestors and creditors. Accounting information is also important to thosehaving indirect financial interest, such as regulatory agencies, tax authorities,customers, labour unions, trade associations, stock exchanges and others.

4. Qualitative characteristics of Accounting : To make accounting informationdecision useful, it should possess the following qualitative characteristics.

• Reliability • Understandability• Relevance • Comparability

5. Objective of accounting : The primary objectives of accounting are to :

• maintain records of business;• calculate profit or loss;• depict the financial position; and• make information available to various groups and users.

6. Role of accounting : Accounting is not an end in itself. It is a means to an end.It plays the role of a :• Language of a business• Historical record• Current economic reality• Information system• Service to users

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. Define accounting.2. State what is end product of financial accounting.3. Enumerate main objectives of accounting.4. List any five users who have indirect interest in accounting.5. State the nature of accounting information required by long-term lenders.6. Who are the external users of information?7. Enumerate informational needs of management.8. Give any three examples of revenues.9. Distinguish between debtors and creditors.

10. ‘Accounting information should be comparable’. Do you agree with thisstatement. Give two reasons.

11. If the accounting information is not clearly presented, which of the qualitativecharacteristic of the accounting information is violated?

12. “The role of accounting has changed over the period of time”- Do you agree?Explain.

13. Giving examples, explain each of the following accounting terms :• Fixed assets • Gain • Profit• Revenue • Expenses • Short-term liability• Capital

14. How will you define revenues and expenses?

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15. What is the primiary reason for the business students and others tofamiliarise themselves with the accounting discipline?

Long Answers

1. Explain the factors, which necessitated systematic accounting.2. Describe the brief history of accounting.3. Explain the development of and role of accounting.4. Define accounting and state its objectives.5. Describe the informational needs of external users.6. What do you mean by an asset and what are different types of assets?7. Explain the meaning of gain and profit. Distinguish between these two terms.8. Explain the qualitative characteristics of accounting information.9. Describe the role of accounting in the modern world.

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding – I

(a) Economic (b) Management/Employees (c) Creditor(d) Time-gap (e) External (f) Free from bias(g) Identifying the transactions and communicating information(h) Monetory (i) Chronological

Test Your Understanding - II

1. Reliability, i.e. Verifiability, Faithfulness, Nutrality2. Relevance, i.e. Timeliness3. Understandability and Comparibility

Test Your Understanding - III

(a) Government and other regulators(b) Management(c) Social responsibility groups(d) Lenders(e) Suppliers and Creditors(f) Customers

Test Your Understanding - IV

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (d)

Test Your Understanding - V

1. Rs. 5,00,000 2. Rs. 1,00,000, 3. Rs. 2,00,0004. Mr. Reace, Rs. 1,50,000 5. Rs. 5,000 6. Rs. 5,0007. Rs. 30,000 8. Mr. Ravi, Rs. 1,00,000 9. Rs. 35,000

10. Assets : debtors; Liabilities : creditors; drawings; Revenues : sales expenses,discount, salary.

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Let’s Do It

Accountants today can work in exciting new growth areas such as forensicaccounting, budget accounting, cost accounting, environmental accounting,e-commerce and the various agencies within the public sector.The advent ofinformation technology have resulted inthe development of necessary skillsfor today’s accountant include the ability to:

• Develop competence in systems analysis and computer technology;

• Develop facilitation skills, such as persuasion and communicationskills;

• Acquire a broad business knowledge in strategy, operations, humanresources, marketing, finance and economics;

• Develop analytical skills;

• Develop a willingness to embrace change and assume risk;

• Complete an internship in business and/or public accounting;

• Develop proficiency in accounting and tax issues.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter,you will be able to:

• identify the need fortheory base of acco-unting;

• explain the nature ofGenerally AcceptedAccounting Principles(GAAP);

• describe the meaningand purpose of the basicaccounting concepts;

• enumerate the accountingstandards issued byInstitute of CharteredAccountants of India;

• describe the systemsof accounting; and

• describe various basis

of accounting.

As discussed in the previous chapter, accountingis concerned with the recording, classifying and

summarising of financial transactions and eventsand interpreting the results thereof. It aims atproviding information about the financialperformance of a firm to its various users such asowners, managers employees, investors, creditors,suppliers of goods and services and tax authoritiesand help them in taking important decisions. Theinvestors, for example, may be interested inknowing the extent of profit or loss earned by thefirm during a given period and compare it with theperformance of other similar enterprises. Thesuppliers of credit, say a banker, may, in addition,be interested in liquidity position of the enterprise.All these people look forward to accounting forappropriate, useful and reliable information.

For making the accounting informationmeaningful to its internal and external users, it isimportant that such information is reliable as wellas comparable. The comparability of information isrequired both to make inter-firm comparisons, i.e.to see how a firm has performed as compared tothe other firms, as well as to make inter-periodcomparison, i.e. how it has performed as comparedto the previous years. This becomes possible onlyif the information provided by the financialstatements is based on consistent accountingpolicies, principles and practices. Such consistencyis required throughout the process of identifying

Theory Base of Accounting 2

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the events and transactions to be accounted for, measuring them,communicating them in the book of accounts, summarising the results thereofand reporting them to the interested parties. This calls for developing a propertheory base of accounting.

The importance of accounting theory need not be over-emphasised as nodiscipline can develop without a sound theoretical base. The theory base ofaccounting consists of principles, concepts, rules and guidelines developedover a period of time to bring uniformity and consistency to the process ofaccounting and enhance its utility to different users of accounting information.Apart from these, the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, (ICAI), whichis the regulatory body for standardisation of accounting policies in the countryhas issued Accounting Standards which are expected to be uniformly adheredto, in order to bring consistency in the accounting practices. These arediscussed in the sections to follow.

2.1 Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)

In order to maintain uniformity and consistency in accounting records, certainrules or principles have been developed which are generally accepted by theaccounting profession. These rules are called by different names such asprinciples, concepts, conventions, postulates, assumptions and modifyingprinciples.

The term ‘principle’ has been defined by AICPA as ‘A general law or ruleadopted or professed as a guide to action, a settled ground or basis of conductor practice’. The word ‘generally’ means ‘in a general manner’, i.e. pertainingto many persons or cases or occasions. Thus, Generally Accepted AccountingPrinciples (GAAP) refers to the rules or guidelines adopted for recording andreporting of business transactions, in order to bring uniformity in thepreparation and the presentation of financial statements. For example, one ofthe important rule is to record all transactions on the basis of historical cost,which is verifiable from the documents such as cash receipt for the moneypaid. This brings in objectivity in the process of recording and makes theaccounting statements more acceptable to various users.

The Generally Accepted Accounting Principles have evolved over a longperiod of time on the basis of past experiences, usages or customs, statementsby individuals and professional bodies and regulations by government agenciesand have general acceptability among most accounting professionals. However,the principles of accounting are not static in nature. These are constantlyinfluenced by changes in the legal, social and economic environment as wellas the needs of the users.

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These principles are also referred as concepts and conventions. The termconcept refers to the necessary assumptions and ideas which are fundamentalto accounting practice, and the term convention connotes customs or traditionsas a guide to the preparation of accounting statements. In practice, the samerules or guidelines have been described by one author as a concept, by anotheras a postulate and still by another as convention. This at times becomesconfusing to the learners. Instead of going into the semantics of these terms,it is important to concentrate on the practicability of their usage. From thepracticability view point, it is observed that the various terms such asprinciples, postulates, conventions, modifying principles, assumptions, etc.have been used inter-changeably and are referred to as Basic AccountingConcepts in the present chapter.

2.2 Basic Accounting Concepts

The basic accounting concepts are referred to as the fundamental ideas orbasic assumptions underlying the theory and practice of financial accountingand are broad working rules for all accounting activities and developed by theaccounting profession. The important concepts have been listed as below:

• Business entity;• Money measurement;• Going concern;• Accounting period;• Cost• Dual aspect (or Duality);

• Revenue recognition (Realisation);• Matching;• Full disclosure;• Consistency;• Conservatism (Prudence);• Materiality;• Objectivity.

2.2.1 Business Entity Concept

The concept of business entity assumes that business has a distinct andseparate entity from its owners. It means that for the purposes of accounting,the business and its owners are to be treated as two separate entities. Keepingthis in view, when a person brings in some money as capital into his business,in accounting records, it is treated as liability of the business to the owner.Here, one separate entity (owner) is assumed to be giving money to anotherdistinct entity (business unit). Similarly, when the owner withdraws any moneyfrom the business for his personal expenses(drawings), it is treated as reductionof the owner’s capital and consequently a reduction in the liabilities of thebusiness.

The accounting records are made in the book of accounts from the point ofview of the business unit and not that of the owner. The personal assets and

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liabilities of the owner are, therefore, not considered while recording andreporting the assets and liabilities of the business. Similarly, personaltransactions of the owner are not recorded in the books of the business, unlessit involves inflow or outflow of business funds.

2.2.2 Money Measurement Concept

The concept of money measurement states that only those transactions andhappenings in an organisation which can be expressed in terms of moneysuch as sale of goods or payment of expenses or receipt of income, etc. are tobe recorded in the book of accounts. All such transactions or happeningswhich can not be expressed in monetary terms, for example, the appointmentof a manager, capabilities of its human resources or creativity of its researchdepartment or image of the organisation among people in general do not finda place in the accounting records of a firm.

Another important aspect of the concept of money measurement is thatthe records of the transactions are to be kept not in the physical units but inthe monetary unit. For example, an organisation may, on a particular day,have a factory on a piece of land measuring 2 acres, office building containing10 rooms, 30 personal computers, 30 office chairs and tables, a bank balanceof Rs.5 lakh, raw material weighing 20-tons, and 100 cartons of finished goods.These assets are expressed in different units, so can not be added to give anymeaningful information about the total worth of business. For accountingpurposes, therefore, these are shown in money terms and recorded in rupeesand paise. In this case, the cost of factory land may be say Rs. 2 crore; officebuilding Rs. 1 crore; computers Rs.15 lakh; office chairs and tables Rs. 2lakh; raw material Rs. 33 lakh and finished goods Rs. 4 lakh. Thus, the totalassets of the enterprise are valued at Rs. 3 crore and 59 lakh. Similarly, alltransactions are recorded in rupees and paise as and when they take place.

The money measurement assumption is not free from limitations. Due tothe changes in prices, the value of money does not remain the same over aperiod of time. The value of rupee today on account of rise in prices is muchless than what it was, say ten years back. Therefore, in the balance sheet,when we add different assets bought at different points of time, say buildingpurchased in 1995 for Rs. 2 crore, and plant purchased in 2005 for Rs. 1crore, we are in fact adding heterogeneous values, which can not be clubbedtogether. As the change in the value of money is not reflected in the book ofaccounts, the accounting data does not reflect the true and fair view of theaffairs of an enterprise.

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2.2.3 Going Concern Concept

The concept of going concern assumes that a business firm would continue tocarry out its operations indefinitely, i.e. for a fairly long period of time andwould not be liquidated in the foreseeable future. This is an importantassumption of accounting as it provides the very basis for showing the valueof assets in the balance sheet.

An asset may be defined as a bundle of services. When we purchase anasset, for example, a personal computer, for a sum of Rs. 50,000, what we arebuying really is the services of the computer that we shall be getting over itsestimated life span, say 5 years. It will not be fair to charge the whole amountof Rs. 50,000, from the revenue of the year in which the asset is purchased.Instead, that part of the asset which has been consumed or used during aperiod should be charged from the revenue of that period. The assumptionregarding continuity of business allows us to charge from the revenues of aperiod only that part of the asset which has been consumed or used to earnthat revenue in that period and carry forward the remaining amount to thenext years, over the estimated life of the asset. Thus, we may chargeRs. 10,000 every year for 5 years from the profit and loss account. In case thecontinuity assumption is not there, the whole cost (Rs. 50,000 in the presentexample) will need to be charged from the revenue of the year in which theasset was purchased.

2.2.4 Accounting Period Concept

Accounting period refers to the span of time at the end of which the financialstatements of an enterprise are prepared, to know whether it has earned profits orincurred losses during that period and what exactly is the position of its assets andliabilities at the end of that period. Such information is required by different usersat regular interval for various purposes, as no firm can wait for long to know itsfinancial results as various decisions are to be taken at regular intervals on thebasis of such information. The financial statements are, therefore, prepared atregular interval, normally after a period of one year, so that timely information ismade available to the users. This interval of time is called accounting period.

The Companies Act 1956 and the Income Tax Act require that the incomestatements should be prepared annually. However, in case of certainsituations, preparation of interim financial statements become necessary.For example, at the time of retirement of a partner, the accounting periodcan be different from twelve months period. Apart from these companieswhose shares are listed on the stock exchange, are required to publishquarterly results to ascertain the profitability and financial position at theend of every three months period.

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Test Your Understanding - I

Choose the Correct Answer

1. During the life-time of an entity accounting produce financial statements inaccordance with which basic accounting concept:

(a) Conservation(b) Matching(c) Accounting period(d) None of the above

2. When information about two different enterprises have been prepared presentedin a similar manner the information exhibits the characteristic of:

(a) Verifiability(b) Relevance(c) Reliability(d) None of the above

3. A concept that a business enterprise will not be sold or liquidated in the nearfuture is known as :

(a) Going concern(b) Economic entity(c) Monetary unit(d) None of the above

4. The primary qualities that make accounting information useful for decision-makingare :

(a) Relevance and freedom from bias(b) Reliability and comparability(c) Comparability and consistency

(d) None of the above

2.2.5 Cost Concept

The cost concept requires that all assets are recorded in the book of accountsat their purchase price, which includes cost of acquisition, transportation,installation and making the asset ready to use. To illustrate, on June 2005,an old plant was purchased for Rs. 50 lakh by Shiva Enterprise, which is intothe business of manufacturing detergent powder. An amount ofRs. 10,000 was spent on transporting the plant to the factory site. In addition,Rs. 15,000 was spent on repairs for bringing the plant into running positionand Rs. 25,000 on its installation. The total amount at which the plant will berecorded in the books of account would be the sum of all these, i.e.Rs. 50,50,000.

The concept of cost is historical in nature as it is something, which hasbeen paid on the date of acquisition and does not change year after year. Forexample, if a building has been purchased by a firm for Rs. 2.5 crore, the

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purchase price will remain the same for all years to come, though its marketvalue may change. Adoption of historical cost brings in objectivity in recordingas the cost of acquisition is easily verifiable from the purchase documents.The market value basis, on the other hand, is not reliable as the value of anasset may change from time to time, making the comparisons between oneperiod to another rather difficult.

However, an important limitation of the historical cost basis is that it doesnot show the true worth of the business and may lead to hidden profits. Duringthe period of rising prices, the market value or the cost at (which the assetscan be replaced are higher than the value at which these are shown in thebook of accounts) leading to hidden profits.

2.2.6 Dual Aspect Concept

Dual aspect is the foundation or basic principle of accounting. It provides thevery basis for recording business transactions into the book of accounts. Thisconcept states that every transaction has a dual or two-fold effect and shouldtherefore be recorded at two places. In other words, at least two accounts willbe involved in recording a transaction. This can be explained with the help ofan example. Ram started business by investing in a sum of Rs. 50,00,000 Theamount of money brought in by Ram will result in an increase in the assets(cash) of business by Rs. 50,00,000. At the same time, the owner’s equity orcapital will also increase by an equal amount. It may be seen that the twoitems that got affected by this transaction are cash and capital account.

Let us take another example to understand this point further. Supposethe firm purchase goods worth Rs. 10,00,000 on cash. This will increase anasset (stock of goods) on the one hand and reduce another asset (cash) on theother. Similarly, if the firm purchases a machine worth Rs. 30,00,000 oncredit from Reliable Industries. This will increase an asset (machinery) on theone hand and a liability (creditor) on the other. This type of dual effect takesplace in case of all business transactions and is also known as duality principle.

The duality principle is commonly expressed in terms of fundamentalAccounting Equation, which is as follows :

Assets = Liabilities + Capital

In other words, the equation states that the assets of a business are alwaysequal to the claims of owners and the outsiders. The claims also called equityof owners is termed as Capital(owners’ equity) and that of outsiders, as

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Liabilities(creditors equity). The two-fold effect of each transaction affects insuch a manner that the equality of both sides of equation is maintained.

The two-fold effect in respect of all transactions must be duly recorded inthe book of accounts of the business. In fact, this concept forms the core ofDouble Entry System of accounting, which has been dealt in detail, inchapter 3.

2.2.7 Revenue Recognition (Realisation) Concept

The concept of revenue recognition requires that the revenue for a businesstransaction should be included in the accounting records only when it isrealised. Here arises two questions in mind. First, is termed as revenue andthe other, when the revenue is realised. Let us take the first one first. Revenueis the gross inflow of cash arising from (i) the sale of goods and services by anenterprise; and (ii) use by others of the enterprise’s resources yielding interest,royalties and dividends. Secondly, revenue is assumed to be realised when alegal right to receive it arises, i.e. the point of time when goods have been soldor service has been rendered. Thus, credit sales are treated as revenue on theday sales are made and not when money is received from the buyer. As for theincome such as rent, commission, interest, etc. these are recongnised on atime basis. For example, rent for the month of March 2005, even if received inApril 2005, will be taken into the profit and loss account of the financial yearending March 31, 2005 and not into financial year beginning with April 2005.Similarly, if interest for April 2005 is received in advance in March 2005, itwill be taken to the profit and loss account of the financial year endingMarch 2006.

There are some exceptions to this general rule of revenue recognition. Incase of contracts like construction work, which take long time, say 2-3 yearsto complete, proportionate amount of revenue, based on the part of contractcompleted by the end of the period is treated as realised. Similarly, whengoods are sold on hire purchase, the amount collected in installments is treatedas realised.

2.2.8 Matching Concept

The process of ascertaining the amount of profit earned or the loss incurredduring a particular period involves deduction of related expenses from therevenue earned during that period. The matching concept emphasises exactlyon this aspect. It states that expenses incurred in an accounting period shouldbe matched with revenues during that period. It follows from this that the

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revenue and expenses incurred to earn these revenues must belong to thesame accounting period.

As already stated, revenue is recognised when a sale is complete or serviceis rendered rather when cash is received. Similarly, an expense is recognisednot when cash is paid but when an asset or service has been used to generaterevenue. For example, expenses such as salaries, rent, insurance arerecognised on the basis of period to which they relate and not when these arepaid. Similarly, costs like depreciation of fixed asset is divided over the periodsduring which the asset is used.

Let us also understand how cost of goods are matched with their salesrevenue. While ascertaining the profit or loss of an accounting year, we shouldnot take the cost of all the goods produced or purchased during that periodbut consider only the cost of goods that have been sold during that year. Forthis purpose, the cost of unsold goods should be deducted from the cost ofthe goods produced or purchased. You will learn about this aspect in detail inthe chapter on financial statement.

The matching concept, thus, implies that all revenues earned during anaccounting year, whether received during that year, or not and all costsincurred, whether paid during the year, or not should be taken into accountwhile ascertaining profit or loss for that year.

2.2.9 Full Disclosure Concept

Information provided by financial statements are used by different groups ofpeople such as investors, lenders, suppliers and others in taking variousfinancial decisions. In the corporate form of organisation, there is a distinctionbetween those managing the affairs of the enterprise and those owning it.Financial statements, however, are the only or basic means of communicatingfinancial information to all interested parties. It becomes all the more important,therefore, that the financial statements makes a full, fair and adequatedisclosure of all information which is relevant for taking financial decisions.

The principle of full disclosure requires that all material and relevant factsconcerning financial performance of an enterprise must be fully and completelydisclosed in the financial statements and their accompanying footnotes. Thisis to enable the users to make correct assessment about the profitability andfinancial soundness of the enterprise and help them to take informed decisions.

To ensure proper disclosure of material accounting information, the IndianCompanies Act 1956 has provided a format for the preparation of profit andloss account and balance sheet of a company, which needs to be compulsorilyadhered to, for the preparation of these statements. The regulatory bodies

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like SEBI, also mandates complete disclosures to be made by the companies,to give a true and fair view of profitability and the state of affairs.

2.2.10 Consistency Concept

The accounting information provided by the financial statements would beuseful in drawing conclusions regarding the working of an enterprise onlywhen it allows comparisons over a period of time as well as with the workingof other enterprises. Thus, both inter-firm and inter-period comparisons arerequired to be made. This can be possible only when accounting policies andpractices followed by enterprises are uniform and are consistent over theperiod of time.

To illustrate, an investor wants to know the financial performance of anenterprise in the current year as compared to that in the previous year. Hemay compare this year’s net profit with that in the last year. But, if theaccounting policies adopted, say with respect to depreciation in the two yearsare different, the profit figures will not be comparable. Because the methodadopted for the valuation of stock in the past two years is inconsistent. It is,therefore, important that the concept of consistency is followed in preparationof financial statements so that the results of two accounting periods arecomparable. Consistency eliminates personal bias and helps in achievingresults that are comparable.

Also the comparison between the financial results of two enterprises wouldbe meaningful only if same kind of accounting methods and policies are adoptedin the preparation of financial statements.

However, consistency does not prohibit change in accounting policies.Necessary required changes are fully disclosed by presenting them in thefinancial statements indicating their probable effects on the financial resultsof business.

2.2.11 Conservatism Concept

The concept of conservatism (also called ‘prudence’) provides guidance forrecording transactions in the book of accounts and is based on the policy ofplaying safe. The concept states that a conscious approach should be adoptedin ascertaining income so that profits of the enterprise are not overstated. If theprofits ascertained are more than the actual, it may lead to distribution ofdividend out of capital, which is not fair as it will lead to reduction in the capitalof the enterprise.

The concept of conservatism requires that profits should not to be recordeduntil realised but all losses, even those which may have a remote possibility,

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are to be provided for in the books of account. To illustrate, valuing closingstock at cost or market value whichever is lower; creating provision for doubtfuldebts, discount on debtors; writing of intangible assets like goodwill, patents,etc. from the book of accounts are some of the examples of the application ofthe principle of conservatism. Thus, if market value of the goods purchasedhas fallen down, the stock will be shown at cost price in the books but if themarket value has gone up, the gain is not to be recorded until the stock issold. This approach of providing for the losses but not recognising the gainsuntil realised is called conservatism approach. This may be reflecting agenerally pessimist attitude adopted by the accountants but is an importantway of dealing with uncertainty and protecting the interests of creditors againstan unwanted distribution of firm’s assets. However, deliberate attempt tounderestimate the value of assets should be discouraged as it will lead tohidden profits, called secret reserves.

2.2.12 Materiality Concept

The concept of materiality requires that accounting should focus on materialfacts. Efforts should not be wasted in recording and presenting facts, whichare immaterial in the determination of income. The question that arises hereis what is a material fact. The materiality of a fact depends on its nature andthe amount involved. Any fact would be considered as material if it is reasonablybelieved that its knowledge would influence the decision of informed user offinancial statements. For example, money spent on creation of additionalcapacity of a theatre would be a material fact as it is going to increase thefuture earning capacity of the enterprise. Similarly, information about anychange in the method of depreciation adopted or any liability which is likely toarise in the near future would be significant information. All such informationabout material facts should be disclosed through the financial statementsand the accompanying notes so that users can take informed decisions. Incertain cases, when the amount involved is very small, strict adherence toaccounting principles is not required. For example, stock of erasers, pencils,scales, etc. are not shown as assets, whatever amount of stationery is boughtin an accounting period is treated as the expense of that period, whetherconsumed or not. The amount spent is treated as revenue expenditure andtaken to the profit and loss account of the year in which the expenditureis incurred.

2.2.13 Objectivity Concept

The concept of objectivity requires that accounting transaction should berecorded in an objective manner, free from the bias of accountants and others.

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This can be possible when each of the transaction is supported by verifiabledocuments or vouchers. For example, the transaction for the purchase ofmaterials may be supported by the cash receipt for the money paid, if thesame is purchased on cash or copy of invoice and delivery challan, if the sameis purchased on credit. Similarly, receipt for the amount paid for purchase ofa machine becomes the documentary evidence for the cost of machine andprovides an objective basis for verifying this transaction. One of the reasonsfor the adoption of ‘Historical Cost’ as the basis of recording accountingtransaction is that adherence to the principle of objectivity is made possibleby it. As stated above, the cost actually paid for an asset can be verified fromthe documents but it is very difficult to ascertain the market value of an assetuntil it is actually sold. Not only that, the market value may vary from personto person and from place to place, and so ‘objectivity’ cannot be maintained ifsuch value is adopted for accounting purposes.

Test Your Understanding - II

Fill in the correct word:

1. Recognition of expenses in the same period as associated revenues is called_______________concept.

2. The accounting concept that refers to the tendency of accountants to resolveuncertainty and doubt in favour of understating assets and revenues andoverstating liabilities and expenses is known as _______________.

3. Revenue is generally recongnised at the point of sale denotes the conceptof _______________.

4. The _______________concept requires that the same accounting method shouldbe used from one accounting period to the next.

5. The_______________concept requires that accounting transaction should be freefrom the bias of accountants and others.

2.3 Systems of Accounting

The systems of recording transactions in the book of accounts are generallyclassified into two types, viz. Double entry system and Single entry system.Double entry system is based on the principle of “Dual Aspect” which statesthat every transaction has two effects, viz. receiving of a benefit and giving ofa benefit. Each transaction, therefore, involves two or more accounts and isrecorded at different places in the ledger. The basic principle followed is thatevery debit must have a corresponding credit. Thus, one account is debitedand the other is credited.

Double entry system is a complete system as both the aspects of a transactionare recorded in the book of accounts. The system is accurate and

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more reliable as the possibilities of frauds and mis-appropriations are minimised.The arithmetic inaccuracies in records can mostly be checked by preparing thetrial balance. The system of double entry can be implemented by big as well assmall organisations.

Single entry system is not a complete system of maintaining records offinancial transactions. It does not record two-fold effect of each and everytransaction. Instead of maintaining all the accounts, only personal accountsand cash book are maintained under this system. In fact, this is not a systembut a lack of system as no uniformity is maintained in the recording oftransactions. For some transactions, only one aspect is recorded, for others,both the aspects are recorded. The accounts maintained under this systemare incomplete and unsystematic and therefore, not reliable. The system is,however, followed by small business firms as it is very simple and flexible (youwill study about them in detail later in this book).

2.4 Basis of Accounting

From the point of view the timing of recognition of revenue and costs, therecan be two broad approaches to accounting. These are:

(i) Cash basis; and(ii) Accrual basis.

Under the cash basis, entries in the book of accounts are made when cash isreceived or paid and not when the receipt or payment becomes due. Let us say,for example, if office rent for the month of December 2005, is paid in January2006, it would be recorded in the book of account only in January 2006.

Similarly sale of goods on credit in the month of January 2006 would notbe recorded in January but say in April, when the payment for the same isreceived. Thus this system is incompatible with the matching principle, whichstates that the revenue of a period is matched with the cost of the same period.Though simple, this method is inappropriate for most organisations as profitis calculated as a difference between the receipts and disbursement of moneyfor the given period rather than on happening of the transactions.

Under the accrual basis, however, revenues and costs are recognised inthe period in which they occur rather when they are paid. A distinction ismade between the receipt of cash and the right to receive cash and paymentof cash and legal obligation to pay cash. Thus, under this system, the monitoryeffect of a transaction is taken into account in the period in which they areearned rather than in the period in which cash is actually received or paid bythe enterprise. This is a more appropriate basis for the calculation of profitsas expenses are matched against revenue earned in relation thereto. Forexample, raw material consumed are matched against the cost of goods sold.

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2.5 Accounting Standards

As discussed in the preceding section, the Generally Accepted AccountingPrinciples in the form of Basic Accounting Concept have been accepted by theaccounting profession to achieve uniformity and comparability in the financialstatement. This is aimed at increasing the utility of these statement to varioususers of the accounting information. But the difficulty is that GAAP permit avariety of alternative treatments for the same item. For example, variousmethods of calculation of cost of inventory are permissible which may befollowed by different enterprises. This may cause problem to the externalusers of information, which becomes inconsistent and incomparable. Thisnecessitates brining in uniformity and consistency in the reporting ofaccounting information.

Recognising this need, the Institute of Charted Accountants of India (ICAI)constituted an Accounting Standards Board (ASB) in April, 1977 for developingAccounting Standards. The main function of ASB is to identify areas in whichuniformity in standards is required and develop draft standards after widediscussion with representative of the Government, public sector undertakings,industry and other organisations. ASB gives due consideration to theInternational Accounting Standards as India is a member of InternationalAccount Setting Body. ASB submits the draft of the standards to the Councilof the ICAI, which finalises them and notifies them for use in the presentationof the financial statements. ASB also makes a periodic review of the accountingstandards.

Accounting standards are written statements of uniform accounting rulesand guidelines or practices for preparing the uniform and consistent financialstatements and for other disclosures affecting the user of accountinginformation. However, the accounting standards cannot override the provisionof applicable laws, customs, usages and business environment in the country.

The Institute tries to persuade the accounting profession for adopting theaccounting standards, so that uniformity can be achieved in the presentationof financial statements. In the initial years the standards are of recommendatoryin nature. Once an awareness is created about the requirements of a standard,steps are taken to enforce its compliance by making them mandatory for allcompanies to comply with. In case of non-compliance, the companies arerequired to disclose the reasons for deviations and the financial effect, if any,arising due to such deviation.

The list of accounting standards is given in the appendix to this chapter.

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Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Cost • Full discloser• Matching • Generally accepted• Materiality • Revenue Relisation• Objectivity • Operating guidelines• Consistency • Accounting period• Dual aspect • Money measurement• Conservatism(Prudence) • Accounting concept• Going concern • Accounting Principles (GAAP)• Comparibility

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) : Generally AcceptedAccounting principles refer to the rules or guidelines adopted for recordingand reporting of business transactions in order to bring uniformity in thepreparation and presentation of financial statements. These principles arealso referred to as concepts and conventions. From the practicality view point,the various terms such as principles, postulates, conventions modifyingprinciples, assumptions, etc. have been used interchangeably and are referredto as basic accounting concepts, in the present book.

2. Basic Accounting Concepts : The basic accounting concepts are referred to asthe fundamental ideas or basic assumptions underlying the theory and practiceof financial accounting and are broad working rules of accounting activities.

3. Business Entity : This concept assumes that business has distinct andseparate entity from its owners. Thus, for the purpose of accounting, businessand its owners are to be treated as two separate entities.

4. Money Measurement : The concept of money measurement states that only thosetransactions and happenings in an organisation, which can be expressed in termsof money are to be recorded in the book of accounts. Also, the records of thetransactions are to be kept not in the physical units but in the monetary units.

5. Going Concern : The concept of going concern assumes that a business firmwould continue to carry out its operations indefinitely (for a fairly long periodof time) and would not be liquidated in the near future.

6. Accounting Period : Accounting period refers to the span of time at the end ofwhich the financial statements of an enterprise are prepared to know whetherit has earned profits or incurred losses during that period and what exactlyis the position of its assets and liabilities, at the end of that period.

7. Cost Concept : The cost concept requires that all assets are recorded in thebook of accounts at their cost price, which includes cost of acquisition,transportation, installation and making the asset ready for the use.

8. Dual Aspect : This concept states that every transaction has a dual or two-fold effect on various accounts and should therefore be recorded at two places.The duality principle is commonly expressed in terms of fundamentalaccounting equation, which is :

Assets = Liabilities + Capital

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9. Revenue Recognition : Revenue is the gross in-flow of cash arising from thesale of goods and services by an enterprise and use by others of the enterpriseresources yielding interest royalities and divididends. The concept of revenuerecognition requires that the revenue for a business transaction should beconsidered realised when a legal right to receive it arises.

10. Matching : The concept of matching emphasises that expenses incurred inan accounting period should be matched with revenues during that period.It follows from this that the revenue and expenses incurred to earn theserevenue must belong to the same accounting period.

11. Full Disclosure : This concept requires that all material and relevant factsconcerning financial performance of an enterprise must be fully and completelydisclosed in the financial statements and their accompanying footnotes.

12. Consistency : This concepts states that accounting policies and practicesfollowed by enterprises should be uniform and consistent one the period oftime so that results are composable. Comparability results when the sameaccounting principles are consistently being applied by different enterprisesfor the period under comparison, or the same firm for a number of periods.

13. Conservatism : This concept requires that business transactions should berecorded in such a manner that profits are not overstated. All anticipatedlosses should be accounted for but all unrealised gains should be ignored.

14. Materiality : This concept states that accounting should focus on materialfacts. If the item is likely to influence the decision of a reasonably prudentinvestor or creditor, it should be regarded as material, and shown in thefinancial statements.

15. Objectivity : According to this concept, accounting transactions should berecorded in the manner so that it is free from the bias of accountants andothers.

16. Systems of Accounting : There are two systems of recording businesstransactions, viz. double entry system and single entry system. Under doubleentry system every transaction has two-fold effects where as single entrysystem is known as incomplete records.

17. Basis of Accounting : The two broad approach of accounting are cash basisand accrual basis. Under cash basis transactions are recorded only whencash are received or paid. Whereas under accrual basis, revenues or costsare recognises when they occur rather than when they are paid.

18. Accounting Standards : Accounting standards are written statements ofuniform accounting rules and guidelines in practice for preparing the uniformand consistent financial statements. These standards cannot over ride theprovisions of applicable laws, customs, usages and business environment inthe country.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. Why is it necessary for accountants to assume that business entity will remaina going concern?

2. When should revenue be recognised? Are there exceptions to the general rule?

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3. What is the basic accounting equation?

4. The realisation concept determines when goods sent on credit to customersare to be included in the sales figure for the purpose of computing the profitor loss for the accounting period. Which of the following tends to be used inpractice to determine when to include a transaction in the sales figure forthe period. When the goods have been:

a. dispatched b. invoicedc. delivered d. paid for

Give reasons for your answer.

5. Complete the following work sheet:

(i) If a firm believes that some of its debtors may ‘default’, it should act onthis by making sure that all possible losses are recorded in the books.This is an example of the ___________ concept.

(ii) The fact that a business is separate and distinguishable from its owneris best exemplified by the ___________ concept.

(iii) Everything a firm owns, it also owns out to somebody. This co-incidenceis explained by the ___________ concept.

(iv) The ___________ concept states that if straight line method of depreciationis used in one year, then it should also be used in the next year.

(v) A firm may hold stock which is heavily in demand. Consequently, themarket value of this stock may be increased. Normal accountingprocedure is to ignore this because of the ___________.

(vi) If a firm receives an order for goods, it would not be included in thesales figure owing to the ___________.

(vii) The management of a firm is remarkably incompetent, but the firmsaccountants can not take this into account while preparing book ofaccounts because of ___________ concept.

Long Answers

1. ‘The accounting concepts and accounting standards are generally referredto as the essence of financial accounting’. Comment.

2. Why is it important to adopt a consistent basis for the preparation of financialstatements? Explain.

3. Discuss the concept-based on the premise ‘do not anticipate profits butprovide for all losses’.

4. What is matching concept? Why should a business concern follow thisconcept? Discuss.

5. What is the money measurement concept? Which one factor can make itdifficult to compare the monetary values of one year with the monetary valuesof another year?

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Project Work

Activity 1

Ruchica’s father is the sole proprietor of ‘Friends Gifts’, a firm engaged in the saleof gift items. In the process of preparing financial statements, the accountant ofthe firm Mr. Goyal fell ill and had to proceed on leave. Ruchica’s father was urgentlyin need of the statements as these had to be submitted to the bank, in pursuanceof a loan of Rs. 5 lakh applied for the expansion of the business of the firm.Ruchica who is studying Accounting in her school, volunteered to complete thework. On scrutinising the accounts, the banker found that the value of buildingbought a few years back for Rs. 7 lakh has been shown in the books at Rs. 20lakh, which is its present market value. Similarly, as compared to the last year,the method of valuation of stock was changed, resulting in value of goods to beabout 15 per cent higher. Also, the whole amount of Rs. 70,000 spent on purchaseof personal computer (expected life 5 years) during the year had been charged tothe profits of the current year. The banker did not rely on the financial dataprovided by Ruchica. Advise Ruchica for the mistakes committed by her in thepreparation of financial statements in the context of basic concepts in accounting.

Activity 2

A customer has filed a suit against a trader who has supplied poor quality goodsto him. It is known that the court judgment will be in favour of the customer andthe trader will be required to pay the damages. However, the amount of legaldamages is not known with certainity. The accounting year has already beenended and the books are now finalised to ascertain true profit or loss. Theaccountant of the trader has advised him not to consider the expected loss onaccount of payment of legal damages because the amount is not certain and thefinal judgment of the court is not yet out. Do you think the accountant is right inhis approach.

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding - I

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b)

Test Your Understanding - II

1. Matching 2. Conservatism3. Revenue Realisation 4. Consistency5. Objectivity

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APPENDIX

Accounting Standards (AS)

The ICAI has issued the following standards:

AS 1 Disclosure of Accounting PoliciesAS 2 Valuation of InventoriesAS 3 Cash Flow StatementsAS 4 Contingencies and Events Occurring after the Balance Sheet DateAS 5 Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Prior Period items and Changes in

Accounting PoliciesAS 6 Depreciation AccountingAS 7 Construction ContractsAS 8 Accounting for Research and DevelopmentAS 9 Revenue RecognitionAS 10 Accounting for Fixed AssetsAS 11 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange RatesAS 12 Accounting for Government GrantsAS 13 Accounting for InvestmentsAS 14 Accounting for AmalgamationsAS 15 Accounting for Retirement Benefits in the Financial Statements of

Employers (recently revised and titled as ‘Employee Benefits’)AS 16 Borrowing CostsAS 17 Segment ReportingAS 18 Related Party DisclosuresAS 19 LeasesAS 20 Earnings Per ShareAS 21 Consolidated Financial StatementsAS 22 Accounting for Taxes on IncomeAS 23 Accounting for Investments in associates in Consolidated Financial

StatementsAS 24 Discontinuing OperationsAS 25 Interim Financial ReportingAS 26 Intangible AssetsAS 27 Financial Reporting of Interests in Join VenturesAS 28 Impairment of AssetsAS 29 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter,you will be able to:

• describe the nature oftransaction and sourcedocuments;

• explain the prepa-ration of accountingvouchers;

• apply accountingequation to explain theeffect of transactions;

• record transactionsusing rules of debitand credit;

• explain the concept ofbook of original entryand recording oftransactions in journal;

• explain the concept ofledger and posting ofjournal entries to theledger accounts.

In chapter 1 and 2, while explaining thedevelopment and importance of accounting as a

source of disseminating the financial informationalong with the discussion on basic accountingconcepts that guide the recording of businesstransactions, it has been indicated that accountinginvolves a process of identifying and analysing thebusiness transactions, recording them, classifyingand summarising their effects and finallycommunicating it to the interested users ofaccounting information.In this chapter, we will discuss the details of eachstep involved in the accounting process. The firststep involves identifying the transactions to berecorded and preparing the source documentswhich are in turn recorded in the basic book oforiginal entry called journal and are then posted toindividual accounts in the principal book calledledger.

3.1 Business Transactions and Source Document

After securing good percentage in your previousexamination, as promised, your father wishes tobuy you a computer. You go to the market alongwith your father to buy a computer. The dealer givesa cash memo along with the computer and inexchange your father makes cash payment ofRs. 35,000. Purchase of computer for cash is anexample of a transaction, which involves reciprocalexchange of two things: (i) payment of cash,(ii) delivery of a computer. Hence, the transaction

Recording of Transactions-I 3

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involves this aspect, i.e. Give and Take. Payment of cash involves give aspectand delivery of computer is a take aspect. Thus, business transactions areexchanges of economic consideration between parties and have two-fold effectsthat are recorded in at least two accounts.

Business transactions are usually evidenced by an appropriate documentssuch as Cash memo, Invoice, Sales bill, Pay-in-slip, Cheque, Salary slip, etc. Adocument which provides evidence of the transactions is called the SourceDocument or a Voucher. At times, there may be no documentary for certain itemsas in case of petty expenses. In such case voucher may be prepared showing thenecessary details and got approved by appropriate authority within the firm. Allsuch documents (vouchers) are arranged in chronological order and are seriallynumbered and kept in a separate file. All recording in books of account is doneon the basis of vouchers.

Transaction VoucherName of Firm :

Voucher No :Date :Debit account :Credit account:Amount (Rs.) :Narration :

Authorised By : Prepared By :

Fig. 3.1 : Showing specimen transaction voucher

3.1.1 Preparation of Accounting Vouchers

Accounting vouchers may be classified as cash vouchers, debit vouchers, creditvouchers, journal vouchers, etc. There is no set format of accounting vouchers.A specimen of a simple transaction voucher is used in practice is shown infigure 3.1.

These must be preserved in any case till the audit of the accounts and taxassessments for the relevant period are completed. Now a days, accounting iscomputerised and the necessary accounting vouchers showing the codenumber and name of the accounts to be debited and credited are prepared forthe purpose of necessary recording of transactions. A transaction with onedebit and one credit is a simple transaction and the accounting vouchersprepared for such transaction is known as Transaction Voucher, the format of

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which is shown in figure 3.1. Voucher which records a transaction that entailsmultiple debits/credits and one credit/debit is called compound voucher.Compound voucher may be: (a) Debit Voucher or (b) Credit Voucher; the specimenis shown in figure 3.2.

Debit VoucherName of Firm :

Voucher No : Date :Credit Account :Amount :

Debit Accounts

S. No. Code Account Name Amount Narration (i.e. Explanation)Rs.

Authorised By : Prepared By :

CreditVoucherName of Firm :

Voucher No : Date :Debit Account :Amount :

Credit Accounts

S. No. Code Account Name Amount Narration (i.e. Explanation)Rs.

Authorised By : Prepared By :

Fig. 3.2 : Showing debit and credit vouchers

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Transactions with multiple debits and multiple credits are called complextransactions and the accounting voucher prepared for such transaction isknown as Complex Voucher/ Journal Voucher. The format of a complextransaction voucher is shown in figure 3.3.

Journal Voucher

Name of Firm :Voucher No : Date :

Debit Entries

S. No. Code Account Name Amount Narration (i.e. Explanation)Rs.

Credit Entries

S. No. Code Account Name Amount Narration (i.e. Explanation)Rs.

Authorised By : Prepared By :

Fig. 3.3 : Showing specimen of complex transaction voucher

The design of the accounting vouchers depends upon the nature, requirementand convenience of the business. There is no set format of an accountingvoucher. To distinguish various vouchers, different colour papers and differentfonts of printing are used. Some of the specimen of the accounting vouchersare given in the earlier pages. A accounting voucher must contain the followingessential elements :

• It is written on a good quality paper;

• Name of the firm must be printed on the top;• Date of transaction is filled up against the date and not the date of recording

of transaction is to be mentioned;• The number of the voucher is to be in a serial order;• Name of the account to be debited or credited is mentioned;

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• Debit and credit amount is to be written in figures against the amount;• Description of the transaction is to be given account wise;• The person who prepares the voucher must mention his name along with

signature; and• The name and signature of the authorised person are mentioned on the

voucher.

3.2 Accounting Equation

Accounting equation signifies that the assets of a business are always equalto the total of its liabilities and capital (owner’s equity). The equations readsas follows:

A = L + CWhere,A = AssetsL = LiabilitiesC = Capital

The above equation can also be presented in the following forms as itsderivatives to enable the determination of missing figures of Capital(C) orLiabilities(L).

(i) A – L = C(ii) A – C = L

Since, the accounting equation depicts the fundamental relationship amongthe components of the balance sheet, it is also called the Balance SheetEquation. As the name suggests, the balance sheet is a statement of assets,liabilities and capital.

At any point of time resources of the business entity must be equal to theclaims of those who have financed these resources. The proprietors andoutsiders provide the resources of the business. The claim of the proprietorsis called capital and that of the outsides is known as liabilities. Each elementof the equation is the part of balance sheet, which states the financial positionof the business on a particular date. When we analyse the transactions, weactually try to know that how balance sheet of a business entity gets affected.

Asset side of the balance sheet is the list of assets, which the businessentity owns. The liabilities side of the balance sheet is the list of owner’sclaims and outsider’s claims, i.e., what the business entity owes. The equalityof the assets side and the liabilities side of the balance sheet is an undeniablefact and this justifies the name of accounting equation as balance sheetequation also.

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For example, Rohit started business with a capital of Rs. 5,00,000. Fromthe accounting point of view, the resources of this business entity is in theform of cash, i.e., Rs. 5,00,000. Sources of this business entity is thecontribution by Rohit (Proprietor) Rs. 5,00,000 as Capital .

(For the purpose of understanding we will refer this example as example 1,throughout the chapter) .

If we put this information in the form of equality of resources and sources,the picture would emerge somewhat as follows:

Books of RohitBalance Sheet as at ..........

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Capital 5,00,000 Cash in hand 5,00,000

5,00,000 5,00,000

In the above balance sheet, the total assets are equal to the liabilities ofthe business. Since, the business has not yet started its activities and has notearned any profits; the amount invested in business is still Rs. 5,00,000. Incase any profits are earned, it will increase the invested amount in business.On the other hand, if business suffers any losses, it will decrease the investedamount in business.

We will now analyse the transactions listed in example 1 and its effect ondifferent elements and you will observe that the accounting equation alwaysremain balanced:

Example 1.

1. Opened a bank account in State Bank of India with an amount ofRs. 4,80,000.

Analysis of transaction: This transaction increases the cash in hand(assets) and decreases cash (asset) by Rs. 4,80,000.

2. Bought furniture for Rs. 60,000 and cheque was issued on the same day.

Analysis of transaction: This transaction increases furniture (assets) anddecreases bank (assets) by Rs. 60,000.

3. Bought plant and machinery for the business for Rs. 1,25,000 and anadvance of Rs. 10,000 in cash is paid to M/s Ramjee Lal.

Analysis of transaction: This transaction increases plant and machinery(assets) by Rs. 1,25,000, decreases cash by Rs. 10,000 and increasesliabilities (M/s Ramjee lal as creditor)by Rs. 1,15,000.

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4. Goods purchased from M/s Sumit Traders for Rs. 55,000.Analysis of transaction: This transaction increases goods (assets) andincreases liabilities (M/s Sumit Traders as creditors) by Rs. 55,000.

5. Goods costing Rs. 25,000 sold to Rajani Enterprises for Rs. 35,000.Analysis of transaction: This transaction decreases stock of goods (assets)by Rs. 25,000 and increases assets (Rajani Enterprises as debtorsRs. 35,000) and capital (with the profit of Rs. 10,000)

The final equation as per the above analysis table can be summarised inthe form of a balance sheet as under:

Balance Sheet as at.....2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Outsider’s Claims (Creditors) 1,70,000 Cash 10,000Capital 5,10,000 Bank 4,20,000

Debtors 35,000Stock 30,000Furniture 60,000Plant & Machinery 1,25,000

6,80,000 6,80,000

In terms of accounting equationA = L + CRs. 6,80,000 = Rs. 1,70,000 + Rs. 5,10,000

3.3 Using Debit and Credit

As already stated every transaction involves give and take aspect. In doubleentry accounting, every transaction affects and is recorded in at least twoaccounts. When recording each transaction, the total amount debited mustequal to the total amount credited. In accounting, the terms — debit and creditindicate whether the transactions are to be recorded on the left hand side orright hand side of the account. In its simplest form, an account looks like theletter T. Because of its shape, this simple form called a T-account (referfigure 3.4). Notice that the T format has a left side and a right side for recordingincreases and decreases in the item. This helps in ascertaining the ultimateposition of each item at the end of an accounting period. For example, if it isan account of a customer all goods sold shall appear on the left (debit) side ofcustomer’s account and all payments received on the right side. The differencebetween the totals of the two sides called balance shall reflect the amount dueto the customer. In a T account, the left side is called debit (often abbreviatedas Dr.) and the right side is known as credit (often abbreviated as Cr.). To

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Page 55: 11th Accountancy

49Recording of Transactions - I

enter amount on the left side of an account is to debit the account. To enteramount on the right side is to credit the account.

Account Title

(Left Side) (Right Side)

Fig. 3.4 : Showing T-account

3.3.1 Rules of Debit and Credit

All accounts are divided into five categories for the purposes of recording thetransactions: (a) Asset (b) Liability (c) Capital (d) Expenses/Losses, and (e)Revenues/Gains.

Two fundamental rules are followed to record the changes in these accounts:(1) For recording changes in Assets/Expenses (Losses):

(i) “Increase in asset is debited, and decrease in asset is credited.”(ii) “Increase in expenses/losses is debited, and decrease in expenses/

losses is credited.”(2) For recording changes in Liabilities and Capital/Revenues (Gains):

(i) “Increase in liabilities is credited and decrease in liabilities is debited.”(ii) “Increase in capital is credited and decrease in capital is debited.”(iii) “Increase in revenue/gain is credited and decrease in revenue/gain

is debited.”The rules applicable to the different kinds of accounts have been

summarised in the following chart:

Rules of Debit and Credit

Asset

(Increase) (Decrease)+ –

Debit CreditCapital

(Decrease) (Increase)– +

Debit CreditRevenues/Gains

(Decrease) (Increase)– +

Debit Credit

Liabilities

(Decrease) (Increase)– +

Debit Credit

Expenses/Losses

(Increase) (Decrease)+ –

Debit Credit

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50 Accountancy

The transactions in Example 1 on page 47 will help you to learn how toapply these debit and credit rules. Observe the analysis table given on page48 carefully to be sure that you understand before you go on to the next one.To illustrate different kinds of events, three more transactions have been added(transactions 7 to 9).

1. Rohit started business with cash Rs. 5,00,000

Analysis of Transaction : The transaction increases cash on one hand and increasescapital on the other hand. Increases in assets are debited and increases in capitalare credited. Therefore record the transaction with debit to Cash and credit to Rohit’sCapital.

2. Opened a bank account with an amount of Rs. 4,80,000

Analysis of Transaction: The transaction increases the cash at bank on one handand decreases cash in hand on the other hand. Increases in assets are debited anda decreases in assets are credited. Therefore, record the transactions with debit toBank account and credit to Cash account.

3. Bought furniture for Rs. 60,000 and issued cheque for the same

Analysis of Transaction : This transaction increases furniture (assets) on one handand decreases bank (assets) on the other hand by Rs. 60,000. Increases in assetsare debited and decreases are credited. Therefore record the transactions with debitto Furniture account and credit to Bank account.

4. Bought Plant and Machinery from Ramjee lal for the business for Rs. 1,25,000and an advance of Rs. 10,000 in cash is given.

Analysis of Transaction : This transaction increases plant and machinery (assets) byRs. 1,25,000, decreases cash by Rs. 10,000 and increases liabilities (M/s RamjeeLal as creditor) by Rs. 1,15,000. Increases in assets are debited whereas decreasesin assets are credited. On the other hand increases in liabilities are credited. Therefore,record the transaction with debit to furniture account and with credit to Cash andRamjee Lal’s account.

Cash Account

(1) 5,00,000

Capital Account

(1) 5,00,000

(6) 10,000

Cash Account

(1) 5,00,000 (2) 4,80,000

Bank Account

(2) 4,80,000

Furniture Account

(1) 60,000

Bank Account

(2) 4,80,000 (3) 60,000

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51Recording of Transactions - I

5. Goods purchased from Sumit Traders for Rs. 55,000

Analysis of transaction : This transaction increases purchases (expenses) andincreases liabilities (M/s Sumit Traders as creditors) by Rs. 55,000. Increases inexpenses are debited and increases in liabilities are credited. Therefore record thetransaction with debit to Purchases account and credit to Sumit Traders account.

6. Goods costing Rs. 25,000 sold to Rajani Enterprises for Rs. 35,000

Analysis of transaction : This transaction increases sales (Revenue) and increasesassets (Rajani Enterprises as debtors). Increases in assets are debited and increasesin revenue are credited. Therefore record the entry with credit to Sales account anddebit to Rajani Enterprises account.

7. Paid the monthly store rent Rs. 2,500 in cash

Analysis of transaction : The payment of rent is an expense which decreases capitalthus, are recorded as debits. Credit cash to record decrease in assets.

8. Paid Rs. 5,000 as salary to the office employees

Analysis of transaction : The payment of salary is an expense which decreases capitalthus, are recorded as debits. Credit Cash to record decrease in assets.

Cash Account

(1) 5,00,000 (2) 4,80,000(4) 10,000

Plant and Machinery Account

(4) 1,25,000

Ramjee Lal’s Account

(4) 1,15,000

Purchases Account

(5) 55,000

Sumit Traders Account

(5) 55,000

Sales Account

(6) 35,000

Rajani Enterprises Account

(6) 35,000

Rent Account

(7) 2,500

Cash Account

(7) 5,00,000 (2) 4,80,000(4) 10,000(7) 2,500

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52 Accountancy

9. Received cheque as full payment from Rajani Enterprises and deposited sameday into bank

Analysis of transaction : This transaction increase assets( Bank) on the one handand decreases assets(Rajani Enterprises as debtors) on the other hand. Increase inassets is debited whereas decrease in assets is credited. Therefore record the entrywith debit to Bank account and credit to Rajani Enterprises account.

Test Your Understanding - I

1. Double entry accounting requires that :(i) All transactions that create debits to asset accounts must create credits to

liability or capital accounts;(ii) A transaction that requires a debit to a liability account require a credit to an

asset account;

(iii) Every transaction must be recorded with equal debits equal total credits.

2. State different kinds of transactions that increase and decrease capital.3. Does debit always mean increase and credit always mean decrease?4. Which of the following answers properly classifies these commonly used accounts:

(1) Building (2) Wages (3) Credit sales (4) Credit purchases (5) Electricity chargesdue but not yet paid(outstanding electricity bills) (6) Godown rent paid inadvance(prepaid godown rent) (7) Sales (8) Fresh capital introduced (9) Drawings(10) Discount paid

Assets Liabilities Capital Revenue Expense

(i) 5,4, 3, 9,6 2,10 8,7(ii) 1, 6 4, 5 8 7, 3 2,9,10(iii) 2,10,4 4,6 8 7,5 1,3,9

Illustration 1

Analyse the effect of each transaction on assets and liabilities and show that the bothsides of Accounting Equation (A = L + C) remains equal :

(i) Introduced Rs. 8,00,000 as cash and Rs. 50,000 by stock.

Salary Account

(8) 5,000

Cash Account

(1) 5,00,000 (2) 4,80,000(4) 10,000(7) 2,500(8) 5,000

Rajani Enterprises Account

(6) 35,000 (9) 35,000

Bank’s Account

(2) 4,80,000 (3) 60,000(9) 35,000

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53Recording of Transactions - I

(ii) Purchased plant for Rs. 3,00,000 by paying Rs. 15,000 in cash and balance at alater date.

(iii) Deposited Rs. 6,00,000 into the bank.(iv) Purchased office furniture for Rs. 1,00,000 and made payment by cheque.(v) Purchased goods worth Rs. 80,000 for cash and for Rs. 35,000 in credit.(vi) Goods amounting to Rs. 45,000 was sold for Rs. 60,000 on cash basis.(vii) Goods costing to Rs. 80,000 was sold for Rs. 1,25,000 on credit.(viii) Cheque issued to the supplier of goods worth Rs. 35,000.(ix) Cheque received from customer amounting to Rs. 75,000.(x) Withdrawn by owner for personal use Rs. 25,000.

Solution

Transaction (i) It affects Cash and Inventory on the assets side and Capital on the otherhand. There is increase in cash by Rs. 8, 00,000 and Inventory of goods by Rs. 50,000 onassets side of the equation. Capital is increased by Rs. 8, 50,000.

Rs.

Assets = Liabilities + CapitalCash + Inventory(Stock)8,00,000 + 50,000 = 8,50,000

Total 8,50,000 = 8,50,000

Transaction (ii) It affects Cash and Plant and Machinery on the assets side and liabilitieson the other side of the equation. There is an increase in plant and machinery by Rs. 3,00,000 and decrease in cash by Rs. 15,000. Liability to pay to the supplier of plant andmachinery increases by Rs. 2,85,000.

Rs.

Assets = Liabilities + CapitalCash +Inventory + Plant and Machinery8,00,000 + 50,000 = 8,50,000(15,000) 3,00,000 = 2,85,0007,85,000 + 50,000 +3,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000

Total 11,35,000 = 11,35,000

Transaction (iii) It affects assets side only. The composition of the asset side changes.Cash decreases by Rs. 6,00,000 and by the same amount bank increases.

Rs.

Assets = Liabilities + CapitalCash + Inventory + Plant and+ Bank =

Machinery7,85,000 + 5,0000 + 3,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000(6,00,000) + 6,00,0001,85,000 + 50,000 + 3,00,000 + 6,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000

Total 11,35,000 = 11,35,000

Transaction (iv) It affects assets side only. The composition of the asset side changes.Furniture increases by Rs. 1,00,000 and by the same amount bank decreases.

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54 Accountancy

Rs.

Assets = Liabilities + CapitalCash + Inventory + Plant and + Bank +Furniture

Machinery1,85,000 + 50,000 + 3,00,000 + 6,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000

(1,00,000) + 1,00,0001,85,000 + 50,000 +3,00,000 +5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000

Total 11,35,000 = 11,35,000

Transaction (v) It affects Cash and Inventory on the assets side and liability on the otherside. There is decrease in cash by Rs. 80,000 and increase of inventory of goods byRs. 1,15,000 on the assts side of the equation. Liabilities increases by Rs. 35,000.

Rs.

Assets = Liabilities + CapitalCash + Inventory +Plant and + Bank +Furniture

Machinery1,85,000 + 50,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,50,000(80,000) + 1,15,000 = 35,0001,05,000 + 1,65,000 +3,00,000 +5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 3,20,000 + 8,50,000

Total 11,70,000 = 11,70,000

Transaction (vi) It affects Cash and Inventory on the assets side and capital on the otherside. There is an increase in cash by Rs. 60,000 and decrease in inventory of goods byRs. 45,000 on the assets side of the equation. Capital increases by Rs. 15,000.

Rs.

Assets = Liabilitie + CapitalCash + Inventory + Plant and + Bank +Furniture

Machinery1,05,000 + 1,65,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 3,20,000 + 8,50,00060,000 + (45,000) + 15,0001,65,000 + 1,20,000 +3,00,000 +5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 3,20,000 + 8,65,000

Total 11,85,000 = 11,85,000

Transaction (vii) It affects Debtors and Inventory on the assets side and capital on theother side. There is increase in debtors by Rs. 1, 25,000 and decrease in Inventory ofgoods by Rs. 80,000 on the assets side of the equation. Capital increases by Rs.45, 000.

Rs.

Assets = Liabilities + CapitalCash + Inventory +Plant and + Bank +Furniture + Debtors

Machinery1,65,000 + 1,20,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,00,000 + 1,00,000 = 3,20,000 + 8,65,000

(80,000) + 1,25,000 = + 45,0001,65,000+ 40,000 +3,00,000 +5,00,000 + 1,00,000 + 1,25,000 = 3,20,000 + 9,10,000

Total 12,30,000 = 12,30,000

Transaction (viii) It affects Bank on the assets side on one side and liability on the otherside. There is decrease in bank by Rs. 35,000 on the assets side and liability also decreasesby Rs. 35,000.

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55Recording of Transactions - I

Rs.

Assets = Liabilities + CapitalCash + Inventory +Plant and + Bank +Furniture + Debtors

Machinery1,65,000 + 40,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,00,000 + 1,00,000 + 1,25,000 = 3,20,000 + 9,10,000

(35,000) = (35,000)1,65,000 + 40,000 + 3,00,000 +4,65,000 + 1,00,000 + 1,25,000= 2,85,000 + 9,10,000

Total 11,95,000 = 11,95,000

Transaction (ix) It affects assets side only. The composition of the assets side changes.Bank increases by R. 75,000 and by the same amount Debtors decreases.

Rs.

Assets = Liabilities + CapitalCash + Inventory +Plant and + Bank +Furniture + Debtors

Machinary1,65,000 + 40,000 + 3,00,000 + 4,65,000 + 1,00,000 + 1,25,000 = 2,85,000 + 9,10,000

+ 75,000 (75,000)1,65,000 + 40,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,40,000 + 1,00,000 + 50,000 = 2,85,000 + 9,10,000

Total 11,95,000 = 11,95,000

Transaction (x) It affects Cash on the asset side and Capital on the other hand. Thereis decrease in Cash by Rs. 25,000 on the assets side whereas capital decreasesby Rs. 25,000.

Rs.

Assets = Liabilities + CapitalCash + Inventory +Plant and + Bank +Furniture + Debtors

Machinery1,65,000 + 40,000 + 3,00,000 + 5,40,000 + 1,00,000 + 50,000 = 2,85,000 + 9,10,000(25,000) + (25,000)1,40,000+ 40,000 +3,00,000 +5,40,000 + 1,00,000 + 50,000 = 2,85,000 + 8,85,000

Total 11,95,000 = 11,95,000

3.4 Books of Original Entry

In the preceding pages, you learnt about debits and credits and observed howtransactions affect accounts. This process of analysing transactions and recordingtheir effects directly in the accounts is helpful as a learning exercise. However, realaccounting systems do not record transactions directly in the accounts. The book inwhich the transaction is recorded for the first time is called journal or book of originalentry. The source document, as discussed earlier, is required to record the transactionin the journal. This practice provides a complete record of each transaction in oneplace and links the debits and credits for each transaction. After the debits andcredits for each transaction are entered in the journal, they are transferred to theindividual accounts. The process of recording transactions in journal is calledjournalising. Once the journalising process is completed, the journal entry provides

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56 Accountancy

a complete and useful description of the event’s effect on the organisation. The processof transferring journal entry to individual accounts is called posting .This sequence causes the journal to be called the Book of Original Entry andthe ledger account as the Principal Book of entry. In this context, it should benoted that on account of the number and commonality of most transactions,the journal is subdivided into a number of books of original entry as follows:(a) Journal Proper

(b) Cash book

(c) Other day books:

(i) Purchases (journal) book(ii) Sales (journal) book(iii) Purchase Returns (journal) book(iv) Sale Returns (journal) book(v) Bills Receivable (journal) book(vi) Bills Payable (journal) book

In this chapter you will learn about the process of journalising and theirposting into ledger. The cash book and other day books are dealt in detail inchapter 4.

3.4.1 Journal

This is the basic book of original entry. In this book, transactions are recordedin the chronological order, as and when they take place. Afterwards,transactions from this book are posted to the respective accounts. Eachtransaction is separately recorded after determining the particular account tobe debited or credited. The format of Journal is shown is figure 3.5

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Fig. 3.5 : Showing the format of journal

The first column in a journal is Date on which the transaction took place.In the Particulars column, the account title to be debited is written on the firstline beginning from the left hand corner and the word ‘Dr.’ is written at theend of the column. The account title to be credited is written on the secondline leaving sufficient margin on the left side with a prefix ‘To’. Below the

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57Recording of Transactions - I

account titles, a brief description of the transaction is given which is calledNarration. Having written the Narration a line is drawn in the Particularscolumn, which indicates the end of recording the specific journal entry. Thecolumn relating to Ledger Folio records the page number of the ledger book onwhich relevant account is appears. This column is filled up at the time ofposting and not at the time of making journal entry.

The Debit amount column records the amount against the account to bedebited and similarly the Credit Amount column records the amount againstthe account to be credited. It may be noted that, the number of transactionsis very large and these are recorded in number of pages in the journal book.Hence, at the end of each page of the journal book, the amount columns aretotaled and carried forward (c/f) to the next page where such amounts arerecorded as brought forward (b/f) balances.

The journal entry is the basic record of a business transaction. It may besimple or compound. When only two accounts are involved to record atransaction, it is called a simple journal entry.

For Example, Goods Purchased on credit for Rs.30,000 from M/s GovindTraders on December 24, 2005, involves only two accounts: (a) Purchases A/c(Goods), (b) Govind Traders A/c (Creditors). This transaction is recorded inthe journal as follows :

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005

Dec.24 Purchases A/c Dr. 30,000To Govind Traders A/c 30,000

(Purchase of goods- in-trade fromGovind Traders)

It will be noticed that although the transaction results in an increase instock of goods, the account debited is purchases, not goods. In fact, asexplained in chater 7 the goods account is divided into five accounts, viz.purchases account, sales account, purchases returns account, sales returnsaccount, and stock account. When the number of accounts to be debited orcredited is more than one, entry made for recording the transaction is calledcompound journal entry. That means compound journal entry involves multipleaccounts. For example, For Rs. 25,000 Office furniture is purchased fromModern Furniture’s on July 4, 2005 and Rs. 5,000 is paid by cash immediatelyand balance of Rs. 20,000 is still payable. It increases furniture (assets) byRs. 25,000, decreases cash (assets) by Rs. 5,000 and increases liability by Rs.20,000. The entry made in the journal on July 4, 2005 is :

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58 Accountancy

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005July 4 Office Furniture A/c Dr. 25,000

To Cash A/c 5,000To Modern Furniture A/c 20,000

(Purchase of office furniture fromModern Furnitures)

Now refer to example 1(on page 47 again and observe how the transactionslisted are recorded in the journal:

Books of Rohit Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Cash A/c Dr. 5,00,000To Capital A/c 5,00,000

(Business started with cash)

Bank A/c Dr. 4,80,000To Cash A/c 4,80,000

(Opened bank account with StateBank of India)

Furniture A/c Dr. 60,000To Bank A/c 60,000

( Purchased furniture and madepayment through bank))

Plant and Machinery A/c Dr. 1,25,000To Cash A/c 10,000To Ramjee Lal 1,15,000

(Bought Plant and Machinery fromM/s Ramjee Lal, made an advancepayment by cash for Rs. 10,000 andbalance at the later date )

Purchases A/c Dr. 55,000To M/s Sumit Traders A/c 55,000

(Goods bought on credit)

Rajani Enterprises A/c Dr. 35,000To Sales A/c 35,000

(Goods sold on profit)Total 12,55,000 12,55,000

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59Recording of Transactions - I

Illustration 2.

Soraj Mart furnishes the following information :

Transactions during the month of April, 2005 are as under :

Date Details

1.4.2005 Business started with cash Rs. 1,50,000.1.4.2005 Goods purchased form Manisha Rs. 36,000.1.4.2005 Stationery purchased for cash Rs. 2,200.2.4.2005 Open a bank account with SBI for Rs. 35,000.2.4.2005 Goods sold to Priya for Rs. 16,000.3.4.2005 Received a cheque of Rs. 16,000 from Priya.5.4.2005 Sold goods to Nidhi Rs. 14,000.08.4.2005 Nidhi pays Rs. 14,000 cash.10.4.2005 Purchased goods for Rs. 20,000 on credit from Ritu.14.4.2005 Insurance paid by cheque Rs. 6,000.18.4.2005 Paid rent Rs. 2,000.20.4.2005 Goods costing Rs. 1,500 given as charity.24.4.2005 Purchased office furniture for Rs. 11,200. 29.4.2005 Cash withdrawn for household purposes Rs. 5000.30.4.2005 Interest received cash Rs.1,200.30.4.2005 Cash sales Rs.2,300.30.4.2005 Commission paid Rs. 3,000 by cehque.30.4.2005 Telephone bill paid by cheque Rs. 2,000.30.4.2005 Payment of salaries in cash Rs. 12,000.

Journalise the transactions.

Solution

Books of Saroj MartJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Apr.01 Cash A/c Dr. 1,50,000

To Capital A/c 1,50,000(Business started with cash)

Apr.01 Purchases A/c Dr. 36,000To Manisha A/c 36,000

(Goods purchase on credit)

Apr.01 Stationery A/c Dr. 2,200To Cash A/c 2,200

( Purchase of stationery for cash)

Total c/f 1,88,200 1,88,200

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60 Accountancy

Total b/f 1,88,200 1,88,200

Apr.02 Bank A/c Dr. 35,000To Cash A/c 35,000

(Opened a bank account with SBI)

Apr.02 Priya A/c Dr. 16,000To Sales A/c 16,000

(Goods sold to Priya On Credit)

Apr.03 Bank A/c Dr. 16,000To Priya A/c 16,000

(Cheque Received from Priya)

Apr.05 Nidhi A/c Dr. 14,000To Sales A/c 14,000

(Sale of goods to Nidhi on credit)

Apr.08 Cash A/c Dr. 14,000To Nidhi A/c 14,000

(Cash received from Nidhi)

Apr.10 Purchases A/c Dr. 20,000To Ritu A/c 20,000

(Purchase of goods on credit)

Apr.14 Insurance Premium A/c Dr. 6,000To Bank A/c 6,000

(Payment of Insurance premium bycheque)

Apr.18 Rent A/c Dr. 2,000To Cash A/c 2,000

(Rent paid)

Apr.20 Charity A/c Dr. 1,500To Purchases A/c 1,500

(Goods given as charity)

Apr.24 Furniture A/c Dr. 11,200

To Cash A/c 11,200(Purchase of office furniture)

Apr.29 Drawings A/c Dr. 5,000To Cash A/c 5,000

(With drawl of cash from the businessfor personal use of the proprietor)

Apr.30 Cash A/c Dr. 1,200To Interest received A/c 1,200

(Interest received)Apr.30 Cash A/c Dr. 2,300

To Sales A/c 2,300(Sale of goods for cash)

Total c/f 3,32,400 3,32,400

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61Recording of Transactions - I

Total c/f 3,32,400 3,32,400

Apr.30 Commission A/c Dr. 3,000To Bank A/c 3,000

(Commission paid by cheque)

Apr.30 Telephone expenses A/c Dr. 2,000To Cash A/c 2,000

(Payment of telephone bill)

Apr.30 Salaries A/c Dr. 12,000To Cash A/c 12,000

(Payment of salary to the office persons)

Total 3,49,400 3,49,400

Illustration 3

Prove that the accounting equation is satisfied in all the following transactions of SitaRam house by preparing the analysis table. Also record the transactions in Journal.

(i) Business commenced with a capital of Rs. 6,00,000.

(ii) Rs. 4,50,000 deposited in a bank account.

(iii) Rs. 2,30,000 Plant and Machinery Purchased by paying Rs. 30,000 cashimmediately.

(iv) Purchased goods worth Rs. 40,000 for cash and Rs. 45,000 on account.

(v) Paid a cheque of Rs. 2, 00,000 to the supplier for Plant and Machinery.

(vi) Rs. 70,000 cash sales (of goods costing Rs. 50,000).

(vii) Withdrawn by the proprietor Rs. 35,000 cash for personal use.

(viii) Insurance paid by cheque of Rs. 2,500.

(ix) Salary of Rs. 5,500 outstanding.

(x) Furniture of Rs. 30,000 purchased in cash.

Solution

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

(i) Cash A/c Dr. 6,00,000To Capital A/c 6,00,000

(Business started with cash)

(ii) Bank A/c Dr. 4,50,000To Cash A/c 4,50,000

(Cash deposited into the bank)

Total c/f 10,50,000 10,50,000

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62 Accountancy

Total c/f 10,50,000 10,50,000

(iii) Plant and Machinery A/c Dr. 2.30,000To Cash A/c 30,000To Creditors A/c 2,00,000

(Purchase of plant and machinery bypaying Rs. 30,000 cash and balanceon a later date)

(iv) Purchases A/c Dr. 85,000To Cash A/c 40,000To Creditors A/c 45,000

(Bought goods for cash as well as oncredit)

(v) Creditor’s A/c Dr. 2,00,000To Bank A/c 2,00,000

(Payment made to the supplier of plantand machinery)

(vi) Cash A/c Dr. 70,000 To Sales A/c 70,000

(Sold goods on profit)

(vii) Drawings A/c Dr. 35,000To Cash A/c 35,000

(Withdrew cash for personal use)

(viii) Insurance A/c Dr. 2,500To Bank A/c 2,500

(Paid insurance by cheque)

(ix) Outstanding salary A/c Dr. 5,500To Salary A/c 5,500

(Salary outstanding )

(x) Furniture A/c Dr. 30,000To Cash A/c 30,000

(Furniture purchased for cash)

Total 17,08,000 17,08,000

Test Your Understanding - II

State the title of the accounts affected, type of account and the account to be debitedand account to be credited :

Rs1. Bhanu commenced business with cash 1,00,0002. Purchased goods on credit from Ramesh 40,0003. Sold goods for cash 30,0004. Paid salaries 3,0005. Furniture purchased for cash 10,000

Page 69: 11th Accountancy

63Recording of Transactions - ISta

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Page 70: 11th Accountancy

64 Accountancy

6. Borrowed from bank 50,0007. Sold goods to Sarita 10,0008. Cash paid to Ramesh on account 20,0009. Rent paid 1,500

Transaction Name of Accounts Type of Accounts Affected AccountsNo. Affected (Assets, Liabilities Capital, Increase/Decrease

Revenues and Expenses)

1 2 1 2 1 21.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.

9.

3.5 The Ledger

The ledger is the principal book of accounting system. It contains different accountswhere transactions relating to that account are recorded. A ledger is the collection ofall the accounts, debited or credited, in the journal proper and various specialjournal (about which you will learn in chapter 4). A ledger may be in the form ofbound register, or cards, or separate sheets may be maintained in a loose leaf binder.In the ledger, each account is opened preferably on separate page or card.

Utility

A ledger is very useful and is of utmost importance in the organisation. Thenet result of all transactions in respect of a particular account on a given datecan be ascertained only from the ledger. For example, the management on aparticular date wants to know the amount due from a certain customer or theamount the firm has to pay to a particular supplier, such information can befound only in the ledger. Such information is very difficult to ascertain fromthe journal because the transactions are recorded in the chronological orderand defies classification. For easy posting and location, accounts are openedin the ledger in some definite order. For example, they may be opened in thesame order as they appear in the profit and loss account and in balancesheet. In the beginning, an index is also provided. For easy identification, inbig organisations, each account is also allotted a code number.Format of the account is shown in figure 3.6.

Page 71: 11th Accountancy

65Recording of Transactions - I

Name of the Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Fig. 3.6 : Showing format of a ledger

According to this format the columns will contain the information as given below:An account is debited or credited according to the rules of debit and credit

already explained in respect of each category of account.Title of the account : The Name of the item is written at the top of the format asthe title of the account. The title of the account ends with suffix ‘Account’.Dr./Cr. : Dr. means Debit side of the account that is left side and Cr. meansCredit side of the account, i.e. right side.Date : Year, Month and Date of transactions are posted in chronological orderin this column.Particulars : Name of the item with reference to the original book of entry iswritten on debit/credit side of the account.Journal Folio : It records the page number of the original book of entry onwhich relevant transaction is recorded. This column is filled up at the time ofposting.Amount : This column records the amount in numerical figure, correspondingto what has been entered in the amount column of the original book of entry.

Test Your Understanding - III

Choose the Correct Answer :

1. The ledger folio column of journal is used to:(a) Record the date on which amount posted to a ledger account.(b) Record the number of ledger account to which information is posted.(c) Record the number of amounts posted to the ledger account.(d) Record the page number of the ledger account.

2. The journal entry to record the sale of services on credit should include:(a) Debit to debtors and credit to capital.(b) Debit to cash and Credit to debtors.(c) Debit to fees income and Credit to debtors.(d) Debit to debtors and Credit to fees income.

3. The journal entry to record purchase of equipment for Rs. 2,00,000 cash and abalance of Rs. 8,00,000 due in 30 days include:(a) Debit equipment for Rs. 2,00,000 and Credit cash 2,00,000.

Page 72: 11th Accountancy

66 Accountancy

(b) Debit equipment for Rs. 10,00,000 and Credit cash Rs. 2,00,000 and creditorsRs. 8,00,000.

(c) Debit equipment Rs. 2,00,000 and Credit debtors Rs. 8,00,000.(d) Debit equipment Rs. 10,00,000 and Credit cash Rs. 10,00,000.

4. When a entry is made in journal:(a) Assets are listed first.(b) Accounts to be debited listed first.(c) Accounts to be credited listed first.(d) Accounts may be listed in any order.

5. If a transaction is properly analysed and recorded:(a) Only two accounts will be used to record the transaction.(b) One account will be used to record transaction.(c) One account balance will increase and another will decrease.(d) Total amount debited will equals total amount credited.

6. The journal entry to record payment of monthly bill will include:(a) Debit monthly bill and Credit capital.(b) Debit capital and Credit cash.(c) Debit monthly bill and Credit cash.(d) Debit monthly bill and Credit creditors.

7. Journal entry to record salaries will include:(a) Debit salaries Credit cash.(b) Debit capital Credit cash.(c) Debit cash Credit salary.(d) Debit salary Credit creditors.

Distinction between Journal and Ledger

The Journal and the Ledger are the most important books of the double entrymechanism of accounting and are indispensable for an accounting system.Following points of comparison are worth noting :

1. The Journal is the book of first entry (original entry); the ledger is thebook of second entry.

2. The Journal is the book for chronological record; the ledger is the bookfor analytical record.

3. The Journal, as a book of source entry, gets greater importance aslegal evidence than the ledger.

4. Transaction is the basis of classification of data within the Journal;Account is the basis of classification of data within the ledger.

5. Process of recording in the Journal is called Journalising; the processof recording in the ledger is known as Posting.

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67Recording of Transactions - I

3.5.1 Classification of Ledger Accounts

We have seen earlier that all ledger accounts are put into five categories namely,assets, liabilities, capital, revenues/gains and expense losses. All theseaccounts may further be put into two groups, i.e. permanent accounts andtemporary accounts. All permanent accounts are balanced and carried forwardto the next accounting period. The temporary accounts are closed at the endof the accounting period by transferring them to the trading and profit andloss account. All permanent accounts appears in the balance sheet. Thus, allassets, liabilities and capital accounts are permanent accounts and all revenueand expense accounts are temporary accounts. This classification is alsorelevant for preparing the financial statements.

3.6 Posting from Journal

Posting is the process of transferring the entries from the books of originalentry (journal) to the ledger. In other words, posting means grouping of all thetransactions in respect to a particular account at one place for meaningfulconclusion and to further the accounting process. Posting from the journal isdone periodically, may be, weekly or fortnightly or monthly as per therequirements and convenience of the business.

The complete process of posting from journal to ledger has been discussed below:

Step 1 : Locate in the ledger, the account to be debited as entered in the journal.Step 2 : Enter the date of transaction in the date column on the debit side.Step 3 : In the ‘Particulars’ column write the name of the account throughwhich it has been debited in the journal. For example, furniture sold for cashRs. 34,000. Now, in cash account on the debit side in the particulars column‘Furniture’ will be entered signifying that cash is received from the sale offurniture. In Furniture account, in the ledger on the credit side is theparticulars column, the word, cash will be recorded. The same procedure isfollowed in respect of all the entries recorded in the journal.Step 4 : Enter the page number of the journal in the folio column and in thejournal write the page number of the ledger on which a particular account appears.Step 5 : Enter the relevant amount in the amount column on the debit side.It may be noted that the same procedure is followed for making the entry onthe credit side of that account to be credited. An account is opened only oncein the ledger and all entries relating to a particular account is posted on thedebit or credit side, as the case may be.

We will now see how the transactions listed in example on page 47 areposted to different accounts from the journal.

Page 74: 11th Accountancy

68 Accountancy

Cash AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

Capital 5,00,000 Bank 4,80,000Plant and 10,000Machinery

Capital AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Cash 5,00,000

Bank AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Cash 4,80,000 Furniture 60,000

Furniture AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountR s. Rs.

Bank 60,000

Plant and Machinery Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Cash 10,000

Ramjee lal 1,15,000

Ramjee Lal’s AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Plant and 1,15,000Machinery

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69Recording of Transactions - I

Purchases AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Sumit 55,000Traders

Sumit Traders AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 55,000

Rajani Enterprises AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Sales 35,000

Sales AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Rajani Enter 35,000prises

Test Your Understanding - IV

Fill in the blanks:1. Issued a cheque for Rs.8,000 to pay rent. The account to be debited is ............

2. Collected Rs. 35,000 from debtors. The account to be credited is ............

3. Purchased office stationary for Rs. 18,000. The account to be credited is ...........

4. Purchased new machine for Rs. 1,70,000 and issued cheque for the same.The account to be debited is ............

5. Issued cheque for Rs. 70,000 to pay off on of the creditors. The account to

be debited is ............

6. Returned damaged office stationary and received Rs. 50,000. The accountto be credited is ............

7. Provided services for Rs. 65,000 on credit. The account to be debited is ...........

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70 Accountancy

Illustration 4

Journalise the following transactions of M/s Mallika Fashion House and post the entriesto the Ledger:

Date Details Amount

2005 Rs.June 05 Business started with cash 2,00,000June 08 Opened a bank account with Syndicate Bank 80,000June 12 Goods purchased on credit from M/s Gulmohar Fashion House 30,000June 12 Purchase office machines, paid by cheque 20,000June 18 Rent paid by cheque 5,000June 20 Sale of goods on credit to M/s Mohit Bros 10,000June 22 Cash sales 15,000June 25 Cash paid to M/s Gulmohar Fashion House 30,000June 28 Received a cheque from M/s Mohit Bros 10,000June 30 Salary paid in cash 6,000

Solution

(i) Recording the transactions

Books of Mallika Fashion HouseJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs .2005June 05 Cash A/c Dr. 2,00,000

To Capital A/c 2,00,000(Business started with cash)

June 08 Bank A/c Dr. 80,000To Cash A/c 80,000

(Opened a current account with syndicate bank)

June 12 Purchases A/c Dr. 30,000To Gulmohar Fashion House A/c 30,000

(Goods purchased on credit)

June 12 Office Machines A/c Dr. 20,000To Bank A/c 20,000

(Office machine purchased)

June 18 Rent A/c Dr. 5,000To Bank A/c 5,000

(Rent paid)

June 20 Mohit Bros A/c Dr. 10,000To Sales A/c 10,000

(Goods sold on credit)

Total c/f 3,45,000 3,45,000

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71Recording of Transactions - I

Total b/f 3,45,000 3,45,000

June 22 Cash A/c Dr. 15,000To Sales A/c 15,000

(Goods sold for cash)

June 25 Gulmohar Fashion House A/c Dr. 30,000

To Cash A/c 30,000 (Cash paid to GulmoharFashion House)

June 28 Bank A/c Dr. 10,000To Mohit Bros A/c 10,000

(Payment received in full andfinal settlement)

June 30 Salary A/c Dr. 6,000To Cash A/c 6,000

(Monthly salary paid)

Total 4,06,000 4,06,000

(ii) Posting in the Ledger Book

Cash AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005 2005June 5 Capital 2,00,000 June 8 Bank 80,000June 22 Sales 15,000 June 25 Gulmohar 30,000

Fashion HouseJune 30 Salary 6,000

Capital AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005June 5 Cash 2,00,000

Bank AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005

June 08 Cash 80,000 June 12 Office Machines 30,000June 28 Mohit Bros. 10,000 June 18 Rent 5,000

Page 78: 11th Accountancy

72 Accountancy

Purchases AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005

June 12 Gulmohar 30,000Fashion House

Gulmohar Fashion House AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005June 25 Cash 30,000 June 12 Purchases 30,000

Office Machines AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005June 12 Bank 20,000

Rent AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005June 18 Bank 5,000

Mohit Bros. AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005June 20 Sales 10,000 June 28 Cash 10,000

Sales AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005June 20 June 20 Mohit Bros. 10,000

June 22 Cash 15,000

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73Recording of Transactions - I

Salary AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005June 30 Cash 6,000

Illustrtion 5

Journalise the following transactions of M/s Time Zone and post them to the ledger accounts :

Date Details Amount2005 Rs.

Dec. 01 Business started with cash 1,20,000Dec. 02 Opened a bank account with ICICI 4,00,00Dec. 04 Goods purchased for cash 12,000Dec. 10 Paid cartage 500Dec. 12 Goods sold on credit to M/s Lara India 25,000Dec. 14 Cash received from M/s Lara India 10,000Dec. 16 Goods returned from Lara India 3,000Dec. 18 Paid trade expenses 700Dec. 19 Goods purchased on credit from Taranum 32,000Dec. 20 Cheque received from M/s Lara India for final settlement 11,500

and deposited sameday into bankDec. 22 Goods returned to Taranum 1,500Dec. 24 Paid for stationery 1,200Dec. 26 Cheque given to Taranum on account 20,000Dec. 28 Paid rent by cheque 4,000Dec. 29 Drew cash for personal use 10,000Dec. 30 Cash sales 12,000Dec. 31 Goods sold to M/s Rupak Traders 11,000

SolutionBooks of Time Zone

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Dec. 01 Cash A/c Dr. 1,20,000

To Capital A/c 1,20,000( Business started with cash)

02 Bank A/c Dr. 40,000To Cash A/c 40,000

(Opened a current account withICICI bank)

04 Purchases A/c Dr. 12,000To Cash A/c 12,000

(Goods purchased for cash)

Total c/f 1,72,000 1,72,000

Page 80: 11th Accountancy

74 Accountancy

Total b/f 1,72,000 1,72,000

10 Cartage A/c Dr. 500To Cash A/c 500

(Cartage paid)

12 Lara India A/c Dr. 25,000To Sales A/c 25,000

(Goods sold on credit)

14 Cash A/c Dr. 10,000To Lara India A/c 10,000

(Cash received from Lara India)

16 Sales Return A/c Dr. 3,000To Lara India A/c 3,000

(Goods returned from Lara India)

18 Trade Expenses A/c Dr. 700To Cash A/c 700

(Trade expenses paid)

19 Purchases A/c Dr. 32,000To Tranum’s A/c 32,000

(Goods purchased on credit)

20 Bank A/c Dr. 11,500Discount A/c Dr. 500

To Lara India A/c 12,000(Cheque received for final settlement)

22 Taranum’s A/c Dr. 1,500To Purchase Return’s A/c 1,500

(Goods returned to Tranum)

24 Stationery A/c Dr. 1,200To Cash A/c 1,200

(Cash paid for stationery)

26 Taranum’s A/c Dr. 20,000To Bank A/c 20,000

(Cheque given to Tranum)

28 Rent A/c Dr. 4,000To Bank A/c 4,000

(Rent paid by cheque)

29 Drawings A/c Dr. 10,000To Cash A/c 10,000

(Cash withdrawn for personal use)

30 Cash A/c Dr. 12,000To Sales A/c 12,000

(Goods sold for cash)

31 Rupak Trader A/c Dr. 11,000To Sales A/c 11,000

(Goods sold on credit)

Total 3,14,900 3,14, 900

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75Recording of Transactions - I

Posting in the Ledger Book :

Cash AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Dec. 01 Capital 1,20,000 Dec. 02 Bank 40,000Dec. 14 Lara India 10,000 Dec. 04 Purchase 12,000Dec. 30 Sales 12,000 Dec. 10 Cartage 500

Dec. 18 Trade 700Expenses

Dec. 24. Stationery 1,200Dec. 29 Drawings 1,000

Capital AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.01 Cash 1,20,000

Bank AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Dec.02 Cash 40,000 Dec.26 Taranum’s 20,000Dec.20 Lara India 11,500 Dec.28 Rent 4,000

Purchases AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.04 Cash 12,000Dec.19 Taranum 32,000

Cartage AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.10 Cash 500

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76 Accountancy

Lara India AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Dec.12 Sales 25,000 Dec. 14 Cash 10,000

Dec. 16 Sales return 3,000Dec. 20 Bank 11,500

Discount 500

Sales AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.12 Lara India 25,000Dec.30 Cash 12,000Dec.31 Rupak Traders 11,000

Sales Return AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.16 Lara India 3,000

Trade Expenses AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Dec.18 Cash 700

Taranum AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005 2005Dec.22 Purchase 1,500 Dec.19 Purchase 32,000

ReturnDec.26 Bank 20,000

Page 83: 11th Accountancy

77Recording of Transactions - I

Discount Received AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.20 Lara India 500

Purchases Return AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.22 Taranum 1,500

Stationery AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. Cash 1,200

Rent AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 28 Bank 4,000

Drawings AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 29 Cash 10,000

Rupak Traders AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 31 Sales 11,000

Page 84: 11th Accountancy

78 Accountancy

Test Your Understanding - V

Select Right Answer:1. Voucher is prepared for:

(i) Cash received and paid(ii) Cash/Credit sales(iii) Cash/Credit purchase(iv) All of the above

2. Voucher is prepared from:(i) Documentary evidence(ii) Journal entry(iii) Ledger account(iv) All of the above

3. How many sides does an account have?(i) Two(ii) Three(iii) one(iv) None of These

4. A purchase of machine for cash should be debited to:(i) Cash account(ii) Machine account(iii) Purchase account(iv) None of these

5. Which of the following is correct?(i) Liabilities = Assets + Capital(ii) Assets = Liabilities – Capital(iii) Capital = Assets – Liabilities(iv) Capital = Assets + Liabilities.

6. Cash withdrawn by the Proprietor should be credited to:(i) Drawings account(ii) Capital account(iii) Profit and loss account(iv) Cash account

7. Find the correct statement:(i) Credit a decrease in assets(ii) Credit the increase in expenses(iii) Debit the increase in revenue(iv) Credit the increase in capital

8. The book in which all accounts are maintained is known as:(i) Cash Book(ii) Journal(iii) Purchases Book(iv) Ledger

9. Recording of transaction in the Journal is called:(i) Casting(ii) Posting(iii) Journalising(iv) Recording

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79Recording of Transactions - I

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Source Documents • Credit• Accounting Equation • Debit• Books of Original Entry • Account• Journalising and Posting • Ledger• Double Entry Book Keeping· • Journal

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Meaning of source documents : Various business documents such as invoice,bills, cash memos, vouchers, which form the basis and evidence of a businesstransaction recorded in the books of account, are called source documents.

2. Meaning of accounting equation : A statement of equality between debits andcredits signifying that the assets of a business are always equal to the totalliabilities and capital.

3. Rules of debit and credit : An account is divided into two sides. The left side ofan account is known as debit and the credit. The rules of debit and creditdepend on the nature of an account. Debit and Credit both represent eitherincrease or decrease, depending on the nature of an account. These rules aresummarised as follows :

Name of an account Debit CreditAssets Increase DecreaseLiabilities Decrease IncreaseCapital Decrease IncreaseRevenues Decrease IncreaseExpenses increase Decrease

4. Books of Original entry : The transactions are first recorded in these books ina chronological order. Journal is one of the books of original entry. The processof recording entries in the journal is called journalising.

5. Ledger : A book containing all accounts to which entries are transferred fromthe books of original entry. Posting is process of transferring entries frombooks of original entry to the ledger.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. States the three fundamental steps in the accounting process.

2. Why is the evidence provided by source documents important to accounting?

3. Should a transaction be first recorded in a journal or ledger? Why?

4. Are debits or credits listed first in journal entries? Are debits or creditsindented?

5. Why are some accounting systems called double accounting systems?

6. Give a specimen of an account.

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80 Accountancy

7. Why are the rules of debit and credit same for both liability and capital?

8. What is the purpose of posting J.F numbers that are entered in the journal atthe time entries are posted to the accounts.

9. What entry (debit or credit) would you make to: (a) increase revenue (b) decreasein expense, (c) record drawings (d) record the fresh capital introduced by theowner.

10. If a transaction has the effect of decreasing an asset, is the decrease recordedas a debit or as a credit? If the transaction has the effect of decreasing aliability, is the decrease recorded as a debit or as a credit?

Long Answers

1. Describe the events recorded in accounting systems and the importance ofsource documents in those systems?

2. Describe how debits and credits are used to analyse transactions.

3. Describe how accounts are used to record information about the effects oftransactions?

4. What is a journal? Give a specimen of journal showing at least five entries.

5. Differentiate between source documents and vouchers.

6. Accounting equation remains intact under all circumstances. Justify thestatement with the help of an example.

7. Explain the double entry mechanism with an illustrative example.

Numerical Questions

Analysis of Transactions

1. Prepare accounting equation on the basis of the following :(a) Harsha started business with cash

Rs.2,00,000(b) Purchased goods from Naman for cash

Rs. 40,000(c) Sold goods to Bhanu costing Rs.10,000/-

Rs. 12,000(d) Bought furniture on credit

Rs. 7,000(Ans: Asset = cash Rs. 1,60,000 + Goods Rs. 30,000 + Debtors Rs. 12,000+ Furniture Rs. 7,000 = Rs. 2,09,000; Liabilities = Creditors Rs. 7,000 +Capital Rs. 2,02,000 = Rs. 2,09,000)

2. Prepare accounting equation from the following:

(a) Kunal started business with cashRs.2,50000

(b) He purchased furniture for cashRs. 35,000

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81Recording of Transactions - I

(c) He paid commission Rs. 2,000

(d) He purchases goods on credit Rs. 40,000

(e) He sold goods (Costing Rs.20,000) for cash Rs. 26,000

(Ans: Asset = Cash Rs. 2,39,000 + Furniture Rs. 35,000 + Goods Rs. 20,000= Rs. 2,94,000; Liabilities = Creditors Rs. 40,000 + Capital Rs. 2,54,000=Rs. 2,94,000)

3. Mohit has the following transactions, prepare accounting equation:

(a) Business started with cash Rs. 1,75,000

(b) Purchased goods from Rohit Rs. 50,000

(c) Sales goods on credit to Manish (Costing Rs. 17,500) Rs. 20,000

(d) Purchased furniture for office use Rs. 10,000

(e) Cash paid to Rohit in full settlement Rs. 48,500

(f) Cash received from Manish Rs. 20,000

(g) Rent paid Rs. 1,000

(h) Cash withdrew for personal use Rs. 3,000

(Ans: Cash Rs. 1,33,000 + Goods Rs. 32,500 + Furniture Rs. 10,000= Rs. 1,75,500; Liabilition = Capital Rs. 1,77,500)

4. Rohit has the following transactions :

(a) Commenced business with cash Rs.1,50,000

(b) Purchased machinery on credit Rs. 40,000

(c) Purchased goods for cash Rs. 20,000

(d) Purchased car for personal use Rs. 80,000

(e) Paid to creditors in full settlement Rs. 38,000

(f) Sold goods for cash costing Rs. 5,000 Rs. 4,500

(g) Paid rent Rs. 1,000

(h) Commission received in advance Rs. 2,000

Prepare the Accounting Equation to show the effect of the abovetransactions on the assets, liabilities and capital.

(Ans: Assets = Cash Rs. 17,500 + Machine Rs. 40,000 + Goods Rs. 15,000= Rs. 72,500; Liabilities = Commission Rs. 2,000 + Capital Rs. 70,500= Rs. 72,500)

5. Use accounting equation to show the effect of the following transactions ofM/s Royal Traders:

(a) Started business with cash Rs.1,20,000

(b) Purchased goods for cash Rs. 10,000

(c) Rent received Rs. 5,000

(d) Salary outstanding Rs. 2,000

(e) Prepaid Insurance Rs. 1,000

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(f) Received interest Rs. 700

(g) Sold goods for cash (Costing Rs. 5,000) Rs. 7,000

(h) Goods destroyed by fire Rs. 500

(Ans: Assets = Cash Rs. 1,22,700 + Goods Rs. 4,500 + Prepaid insuranceRs. 1,000; Liabilities = Outstanding salary Rs. 2,000 + Capital Rs. 1,26,200)

6. Show the accounting Equation on the basis of the following transaction:

(a) Udit started business with:

(i) Cash Rs. 5,00,000(ii) Goods Rs. 1,00,000

(b) Purchased building for cash Rs. 2, 00,000(c) Purchased goods from Himani Rs. 50,000(d) Sold goods to Ashu (Cost Rs. 25,000) Rs. 36, 000(e) Paid insurance premium Rs. 3,000(f) Rent outstanding Rs. 5,000(g) Depreciation on building Rs. 8,000(h) Cash withdrawn for personal use Rs. 20,000(i) Rent received in advance Rs. 5,000(j) Cash paid to himani on account Rs. 20,000

(k) Cash received from Ashu Rs. 30,000

(Ans : Assets = Cash Rs. 2,92,000 + Goods Rs. 1,25,000 + BuildingRs. 1,92,000 + Debitors Rs. 6,000 = 6,15,000: Laibilities = CreditorsRs. 30,000 + Outstanding Rent Rs. 5,000 + Rent Rs. 5,000 + CapitalRs. 5,75,000 = Rs. 6,15,000)

7. Show the effect of the following transactions on Assets, Liabilities andCapital through accounting equation:

(a) Started business with cash Rs. 1,20,000

(b) Rent received Rs. 10,000

(c) Invested in shares Rs. 50,000

(d) Received dividend Rs. 5,000

(e) Purchase goods on credit from Ragani Rs. 35,000

(f) Paid cash for house hold Expenses Rs. 7,000

(g) Sold goods for cash (costing Rs.10,000) Rs. 14,000

(h) Cash paid to Ragani Rs. 35,000

(i) Deposited into bank Rs. 20,000

(Ans: Assets = Cash Rs. 37,000 + Shares Rs. 50,000 + Goods Rs. 25,000 +Bank Rs. 20,000 = Rs. 1,32,000; Liabilities = Capital Rs. 1,32,000)

8. Show the effect of following transaction on the accounting equation:

(a) Manoj started business with

(i) Cash Rs. 2,30,000

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83Recording of Transactions - I

(ii) Goods Rs. 1,00,000

(iii) Building Rs. 2,00,000

(b) He purchased goods for cash Rs. 50,000

(c) He sold goods(costing Rs.20,000) Rs. 35,000

(d) He purchased goods from Rahul Rs. 55,000

(e) He sold goods to Varun (Costing Rs. 52,000) Rs. 60,000

(f) He paid cash to Rahul in full settlement Rs. 53,000

(g) Salary paid by him Rs. 20,000

(h) Received cash from Varun in full settlement Rs. 59,000

(i) Rent outstanding Rs. 3,000

(j) Prepaid Insurance Rs. 2,000

(k) Commission received by him Rs. 13, 000

(l) Amount withdrawn by him for personal use Rs. 20,000

(m) Depreciation charge on building Rs. 10,000

(n) Fresh capital invested Rs. 50,000

(o) Purchased goods from Rakhi Rs. 6,000

(Ans: Assets = Cash Rs. 2,42,000 + Goods Rs. 1,43,000 +Building Rs.1,90,000+ Prepaid Insurouce Rs. 2,000 = Rs. 5,77,000; Liabilities = Outstanding RentRs. 3,000 + Creditor Rs. 10,000 + Capital Rs. 5,64,000 = Rs. 5,77,000)

9. Transactions of M/s Vipin Traders are given below.

Show the effects on Assets, Liabilities and Capital with the help of accountingEquation.

(a) Business started with cash Rs. 1,25,000

(b) Purchased goods for cash Rs. 50,000

(c) Purchase furniture from R.K. Furniture Rs. 10,000

(d) Sold goods to Parul Traders (Costing Rs. 7,000 vide Rs.9,000bill no. 5674)

(e) Paid cartage Rs. 100

(f) Cash Paid to R.K. furniture in full settlement Rs. 9,700

(g) Cash sales (costing Rs.10,000) Rs. 12,000

(h) Rent received Rs. 4,000

(i) Cash withdrew for personal use Rs. 3,000

(Ans: Asset = cash Rs. 78,200 + Goods Rs. 33,000 + Furniture Rs. 10,000Debtors Rs. 9,000= Rs. 1,30,200; Liabilities = Capital Rs. 1,30,200)

10. Bobby opened a consulting firm and completed these transactions duringNovember, 2005:

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(a) Invested Rs. 4,00,000 cash and office equipment with Rs. 1,50,000 ina business called Bobbie Consulting.

(b) Purchased land and a small office building. The land was worthRs. 1,50,000 and the building worth Rs. 3, 50,000. The purchase pricewas price was paid with Rs. 2,00,000 cash and a long term note payablefor Rs. 8,00,000.

(c) Purchased office supplies on credit for Rs. 12,000.

(d) Bobbie transferred title of motor car to the business. The motor carwas worth Rs. 90,000.

(e) Purchased for Rs. 30,000 additional office equipment on credit.

(f) Paid Rs. 75,00 salary to the office manager.

(g) Provided services to a client and collected Rs. 30,000

(h) Paid Rs. 4,000 for the month’s utilities.

(i) Paid supplier created in transaction c.

(j) Purchase new office equipment by paying Rs. 93,000 cash and tradingin old equipment with a recorded cost of Rs. 7,000.

(k) Completed services of a client for Rs. 26,000. This amount is to bepaid within 30 days.

(l) Received Rs. 19,000 payment from the client created in transaction k.

(m) Bobby withdrew Rs. 20,000 from the business.

Analyse the above stated transactions and open the following T-accounts:

Cash, client, office supplies, motor car, building, land, long term payables,capital, withdrawals, salary, expense and utilities expense.

Journalising

11. Journalise the following transactions in the books of Himanshu:

2005 Rs.

Dec.01 Business started with cash 75,000

Dec.07 Purchased goods for cash 10,000

Dec.09 Sold goods to Swati 5,000

Dec.12 Purchased furniture 3,000

Dec.18 Cash received from Swati In full settlement 4,000

Dec.25 Paid rent 1,000

Dec.30 Paid salary 1,500

12. Enter the following Transactions in the Journal of Mudit :

2006 Rs.

Jan.01 Commenced business with cash 1,75,000

Jan.01 Building 1,00,000

Jan.02 Goods purchased for cash 75,000

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85Recording of Transactions - I

Jan.03 Sold goods to Ramesh 30,000

Jan.04 Paid wages 500

Jan.06 Sold goods for cash 10,000

Jan.10 Paid for trade expenses 700

Jan.12 Cash received from Ramesh 29,500

Discount allowed 500

Jan.14 Goods purchased for Sudhir 27,000

Jan.18 Cartage paid 1,000

Jan.20 Drew cash for personal use 5,000

Jan.22 Goods use for house hold 2,000

Jan.25 Cash paid to Sudhir 26,700

Discount allowed 300

13. Journalise the following transactions:

2005 Rs.

Dec. 01 Hema started business with cash 1,00,000

Dec. 02 Open a bank account with SBI 30,000

Dec. 04 Purchased goods from Ashu 20,000

Dec.06 Sold goods to Rahul for cash 15,000

Dec.10 Bought goods from Tara for cash 40,000

Dec.13 Sold goods to Suman 20,000

Dec.16 Received cheque from Suman 19,500

Discount allowed 500

Dec.20 Cheque given to Ashu on account 10,000

Dec.22 Rent paid by cheque 2,000

Dec.23 Deposited into bank 16,000

Dec.25 Machine purchased from Parigya 10,000

Dec.26 Trade expenses 2,000

Dec.28 Cheque issued to Parigya 10,000

Dec.29 Paid telephone expenses by cheque 1,200

Dec.31 Paid salary 4,500

14. Jouranlise the following transactions in the books of Harpreet Bros.:

(a) Rs.1,000 due from Rohit are now a bad debts.

(b) Goods worth Rs.2,000 were used by the proprietor.

(c) Charge depreciation @ 10% p.a for two month on machine costingRs.30,000.

(d) Provide interest on capital of Rs. 1,50,000 at 6% p.a. for 9 months.

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86 Accountancy

(e) Rahul become insolvent, who owed is Rs. 2,000 a final dividend of60 paise in a rupee is received from his estate.

15. Prepare Journal from the transactions given below :

(a) Cash paid for installation of machine Rs. 500

(b) Goods given as charity Rs. 2,000

(c) Interest charge on capital @7% p.a. when total Rs. 70,000capital were

(d) Received Rs.1,200 of a bad debts written-off last year.

(e) Goods destroyed by fire Rs. 2,000

(f) Rent outstanding Rs. 1,000

(g) Interest on drawings Rs. 900

(h) Sudhir Kumar who owed me Rs. 3,000 has failed to pay the amount.He pays me a compensation of 45 paise in a rupee.

(i) Commission received in advance Rs. 7,000

Posting

16. Journalise the following transactions, post to the ledger:

2005 Rs.

Nov. 01 Business started with (i) Cash 1,50,000

(ii) Goods 50,000

Nov. 03 Purchased goods from Harish 30,000

Nov. 05 Sold goods for cash 12,000

Nov. 08 Purchase furniture for cash 5,000

Nov. 10 Cash paid to Harish on account 15,000

Nov. 13 Paid sundry expenses 200

Nov. 15 Cash sales 15,000

Nov. 18 Deposited into bank 5,000

Nov. 20 Drew cash for personal use 1,000

Nov. 22 Cash paid to Harish in full settlement of account 14,700

Nov. 25 Good sold to Nitesh 7,000

Nov. 26 Cartage paid 200

Nov. 27 Rent paid 1,500

Nov. 29 Received cash from Nitesh 6,800

Discount allowed 200

Nov. 30 Salary paid 3,000

17. Journalise the following transactions is the journal of M/s GoelBrothers and post them to the ledger.2006 Rs.

Jan. 01 Started business with cash 1,65,000

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Jan. 02 Open bank account in PNB 80,000

Jan. 04 Goods purchased from Tara 22,000

Jan. 05 Goods purchased for cash 30,000

Jan. 08 Goods sold to Naman 12,000

Jan. 10 Cash paid to tara 22,000

Jan. 15 Cash received from Naman 11,700

Discount allowed 300

Jan. 16 Paid wages 200

Jan. 18 Furniture purchased for office use 5,000

Jan. 20 withdrawn from bank for personal use 4,000

Jan. 22 Issued cheque for rent 3,000

Jan. 23 goods issued for house hold purpose 2,000

Jan. 24 drawn cash from bank for office use 6,000

Jan. 26 Commission received 1,000

Jan. 27 Bank charges 200

Jan. 28 Cheque given for insurance premium 3,000

Jan. 29 Paid salary 7,000

Jan. 30 Cash sales 10,000

18 Give journal entries of M/s Mohit traders, Post them to the Ledgerfrom the following transactions :

August 2005 Rs.

1. Commenced business with cash 1,10,000

2. Opened bank account with H.D.F.C. 50,000

3. Purchased furniture 20,000

7. Bought goods for cash from M/s Rupa Traders 30,000

8. Purchased good from M/s Hema Traders 42,000

10. Sold goods for cash 30,000

14. Sold goods on credit to M/s. Gupta Traders 12,000

16. Rent paid 4,000

18. Paid trade expenses 1,000

20. Received cash from Gupta Traders 12,000

22. Goods return to Hema Traders. 2,000

23. Cash paid to Hema Traders 40,000

25. Bought postage stamps 100

30. Paid salary to Rishabh 4,000

19. Journalise the following transaction in the Books of the M/s BhanuTraders and Post them into the Ledger.

December, 2005 Rs.

1. Started business with cash 92,000

2. Deposited into bank 60,000

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88 Accountancy

4. Bought goods on credit from Himani 40,000

6. Purchased goods from cash 20,000

8. Returned goods to Himani 4,000

10. Sold goods for cash 20,000

14. Cheque given to Himani 36,000

17. Goods sold to M/s Goyal Traders. 3,50,000

19. Drew cash from bank for personal use 2,000

21. Goyal traders returned goods 3,500

22. Cash deposited into bank 20,000

26. Cheque received from Goyal Traders 31,500

28. Goods given as charity 2,000

29. Rent paid 3,000

30. Salary paid 7,000

31. Office machine purchased for cash 3,000

20. Journalise the following transaction in the Book of M/s Beautitraders. Also post them in the ledger.

Dec. 2005 Rs.

1. Started business with cash 2,00,000

2. Bought office furniture 30,000

3. Paid into bank to open an current account 1,00,000

5. Purchased a computer and paid by cheque 2,50,000

6. Bought goods on credit from Ritika 60,000

8. Cash sales 30,000

9. Sold goods to Karishna on credit 25,000

12. Cash paid to Mansi on account 30,000

14. Goods returned to Ritika 2,000

15. Stationery purchased for cash 3,000

16. Paid wages 1,000

18. Goods returned by Karishna 2,000

20. Cheque given to Ritika 28,000

22. Cash received from Karishna on account 15,000

24. Insurance premium paid by cheque 4,000

26. Cheque received from Karishna 8,000

28. Rent paid by cheque 3,000

29. Purchased goods on credit from Meena Traders 20,000

30. Cash sales 14,000

21. Journalise the following transaction in the books of Sanjana andpost them into the ledger :

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89Recording of Transactions - I

January, 2006 Rs.

1. Cash in hand 6,000

Cash at bank 55,000

Stock of goods 40,000

Due to Rohan 6,000

Due from Tarun 10,000

3. Sold goods to Karuna 15,000

4. Cash sales 10,000

6. Goods sold to Heena 5,000

8. Purchased goods from Rupali 30,000

10. Goods returned from Karuna 2,000

14. Cash received from Karuna 13,000

15. Cheque given to Rohan 6,000

16. Cash received from Heena 3,000

20. Cheque received from Tarun 10.000

22. Cheque received from to Heena 2,000

25. Cash given to Rupali 18,000

26. Paid cartage 1,000

27. Paid salary 8,000

28. Cash sale 7,000

29. Cheque given to Rupali 12,000

30. Sanjana took goods for Personal use 4,000

31. Paid General expense 500

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding - I

1. (iii), 2 (Capital increases by net profit and fresh capital introduced, decreasesby drawings and net loss), 3 (No), 4 (ii)

Test Your Understanding - II

1. Cash account and capital account, Assets and Liabilities, Assest increaseand capital increase.

2. Purchase account and Remesh account, Expenses and Liabilities, Expensesand Liabilities increases.

3. Cash account and sales account, Assets and Revenues, Assets and Revenuesincreases.

4. Salaries account and cash account, Expense and Assets, Expenses increasesAssets decreases.

5. Furniture account and Cash account, Asset increases Asset decreases.6. Loan account and Bank, Liability and Asset, Liabilities increases Asset

decreases.

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90 Accountancy

7. Sarita account and Sales account, Asset and Revenue, Assets decreasesRevenue decreases.

8. Ramesh account and Cash, liabilities and Assets, Liabilities decreases Assetsincreases.

9. Rent account and Cash account, Expense and Assets, Expenses increasesAssets decreases.

Test Your Understanding - III

1(d), 2(d), 3(b), 4(b), 5(d), 6(c), 7(a)

Test your understanding - IV

1. Rent 2. Debtors 3. Cash4. Machine 5. Creditors 6. Office stationary7. Debtors

Test Your Understanding - V

1 (iv), 2 (i), 3 (i), 4 (ii), 5 (iii), 6 (iv), 7 (iv), 8 (iv), 9 (iii).

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In chapter 3, you learnt that all thebusiness transactions are first recorded in the

journal and then they are posted in the ledgeraccounts. A small business may be able to recordall its transactions in one book only, i.e., the journal.But as the business expands and the number oftransactions becomes large, it may becomecumbersome to jour-nalise each transaction. Forquick, efficient and accurate recording of businesstransactions, Journal is sub-divided into specialjournals. Many of the business transactions arerepetitive in nature. They can be easily recorded inspecial journals, each meant for recording all thetransactions of a similar nature. For example, allcash transactions may be recorded in one book, all creditsales transactions in another book and all creditpurchases transactions in yet another book and so on.These special journals are also called daybooks orsubsidiary books. Transactions that cannot be recordedin any special journal are recorded in journal called theJournal Proper. Special journals prove economical andmake division of labour possible in accounting work. Inthis chapter we will discuss the following special purposebooks:

• Cash Book• Purchases Book• Purchases Return (Return Outwards) Book• Sales Book• Sales Return (Return Inwards) Book• Journal Proper

Recording of Transactions-II 4

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying thischapter, you will be ableto :

• state the need forspecial purpose books;

• record the transactionsin cash book and postthem in the ledger;

• prepare the petty cashbook;

• record the transactionsin the special purposebooks;

• post the entries in thespecial purpose bookand to the ledger;

• balance the ledgeraccounts.

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4.1 Cash Book

Cash book is a book in which all transactions relating to cash receipts andcash payments are recorded. It starts with the cash or bank balances at thebeginning of the period. Generally, it is made on monthly basis. This is a verypopular book and is maintained by all organisations, big or small, profit ornot-for-profit. It serves the purpose of both journal as well as the ledger (cash)account. It is also called the book of original entry. When a cashbook ismaintained, transactions of cash are not recorded in the journal, and noseparate account for cash or bank is required in the ledger.

4.1.1 Single Column Cash Book

The single column cash book records all cash transactions of the business ina chronological order, i.e., it is a complete record of cash receipts and cashpayments. When all receipts and payments are made in cash by a businessorganisation only, the cash book contains only one amount column on each(debit and credit) side. The format of single column cash book is shown infigure 4.1.

Cash BookDr. Cr.

Date Particulars L.F. Amount Date Particulars L.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Fig. 4.1 : Format of single column cash book

Recording of entries in the single column cash book and its balancing isillustrated by an example. Consider the following transactions of M/s RoopaTraders observe how they are recorded in a single column cash book.

Date Details AmountRs.

2005Nov. 01 Cash in hand 30,000Nov. 04 Cash received from Gurmeet 12,000Nov. 08 Insurance paid (Annual Instalment) 6,000Nov. 13 Purchased furniture 13,800Nov. 16 Sold goods for cash 28,000Nov. 17 Purchased goods from Mudit in cash 17,400Nov. 20 Purchase stationery 1,100Nov. 24 Cash paid to Rukmani in full settlement of account 12,500

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Nov. 27 Sold goods to Kamal for cash 18,200Nov. 30 Paid monthly rent 2,500Nov. 30 Paid salary 3,500Nov. 30 Deposited in bank 8,000

Roopa TradersCash Book

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars L.F. Amount Date Particulars L.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Nov. 01 Balance b/d 30,000 Nov. 08 Insurance 6,000Nov. 04 Gurmeet 12,000 Nov. 13 Furniture 13,800Nov. 16 Sales 28,000 Nov. 17 Purchases 17,400Nov. 27 Sales 18,200 Nov. 20 Stationery 1,100

Nov. 24 Rukmani 12,500Nov. 30 Rent 2,500Nov. 30 Salary 3,500Nov. 30 Bank 8,000Nov. 30 Balance c/d 23,400

88,200 88,200

Dec.01 Balance b/d 23,400

Posting of the Single Column Cash Book

As evident from figure 4.1, the left side of the cash book shows the receipts ofthe cash whereas the right side of the cash book shows all the paymentsmade in cash. The accounts appearing on then debit side for the cash bookare credited in the respective ledger accounts because cash has been receivedin respect of them. Thus, in our example, an entry ‘cash received from Gurmeet‘appears on the debit side of the cash book conveys that the cash has beenreceived from Gurmeet. Therefore, in the ledger, Gurmeet’s account will becredited by writing ‘Cash’ in the particulars column on the credit side. Similarly,all the account names appearing on the credit side of the cash book are debitedas cash/cheque has been paid in respect of them. Now, notice, how thetransactions in our example are posted to the related ledger accounts:

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94Recording of Transactions - II

Books of Roopa TradersGurmeet’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Nov.04 Cash 12,000

Sales AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Nov. 16 Cash 28,000Nov. 27 Cash 18,200

Insurance AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Nov. 08 Cash 6,000

Furniture AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Nov. 13 Cash 13,800

Purchases AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Nov. 17 Cash 17,400

Stationery AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Nov. 20 Cash 1,100

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Rukmani’s AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Nov.24 Cash 12,500

Rent AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Nov.30 Cash 2,500

Salary AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Nov. 30 Cash 3,500

Bank’s AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Nov.30 Cash 8,000

4.1.2 Double Column Cash Book

In this type of cash book, there are two columns of amount on each side of thecash book. In fact, now-a-days bank transactions are very large in number. Inmany organisations, as far as possible, all receipts and payments are affectedthrough bank.

A businessman generally opens a current account with a bank. Bank, donot allow any interest on the balance in current account but charge a smallamount, called incidental charges, for the services rendered.

For depositing cash/cheques in the bank account, a form has to be filled,which is called a pay-in-slip. (refer figure 4.2) It contains a counterfoil alsowhich is returned to the customer (depositor) with the signature of the cashier,as receipt.

The bank issues blank cheque forms, to the account holder for withdrawingmoney. (refer figure 4.3) The depositor writes the name of the party to whompayment is to be made after the words Pay printed on the cheque. Cheque

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96Recording of Transactions - II

Fig. 4.2 : A pay-in-slip

Fig. 4.3 : A cheque

forms have the printed word bearer, which means payment is to be made tothe person whose name has been written after the words “pay” or the bearerof the cheques. When the world ‘bearer’ is struck off by drawing a line, thecheque becomes an order cheque. It means payment is to be made to theperson whose name is written on the cheque or to his order after properidentification.

Cheques are generally crossed in practice. The payment of a crossed chequecannot be made direct to the party on the counter. It is to be paid only througha bank. When two parallel lines are drawn across the cheque, it is said to becrossed. The various types of crossing providing different degrees of safety tothe payment are shown in figure 4.4.

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97Recording of Transactions - II

In case of an A/c payee only crossing, the amount of the cheque can bedeposited only in the account of the person whose name appears on the cheque.When the name of the bank is written between two parallel lines, it becomes aspecial crossing and the payment can be made only to the bank whose namehas been written between the two lines.

Though this is rarely done, a cheque can be transferred by the payee (theperson in whose favour the cheque has been drawn) to another person, if it isnot crossed A/c payee only. A bearer cheque can be passed on by mere delivery.An order cheque can be transferred by endorsement and delivery. Endorsementmeans the writing of instructions to pay the cheque to a particular personand then singing it on the back of the cheque.

When the number of bank transactions is large; it is convenient to have aseparate amount column for bank transactions in the cash book itself insteadof recording them in the journal. This helps in getting information about theposition of the bank account from time to time. Just like cash transactions,all payments into the bank are recorded on the left side and all withdrawals/payments through the bank are recorded on the right side. When cash isdeposited in the bank or cash is withdrawn from the bank, both the entriesare recorded in the cash book. This is so because both aspects of the transactionappear in the cash book itself. When cash is paid into the bank, the amountdeposited is written on the left side in the bank column and at the same timethe same amount is entered on the right side in the cash column. The reverseentries are recorded when cash is withdrawn from the bank for use in theoffice. Against such entries the word C, which stands for contra is written inthe L.F. column indicating that these entries are not to be posted to the ledgeraccount.

Fig. 4.4 : Types of crossing

& C

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98Recording of Transactions - II

The bank column is balanced in the same way as the cash column. However,in the bank column, there can be credit balance also because of overdrafttaken from the bank. Overdraft is a situation when cash withdrawn from thebank exceeds the amount of deposit. Entries in respect of cheques receivedshould be made in the bank column of the cash book. When a cheque isreceived, it may be deposited into the bank on the same day or it may bedeposited on another day. In case, it is deposited on the same day the amountis recorded in the bank column of the cash book on the receipts side. If thecheque is deposited on another day, in that case, on the date of receipt it istreated as cash received and hence recorded in the cash column on the receiptsside. On the day of deposit to the bank, it is shown in the Bank Column onreceipt (Dr.) side and in the Cash Column on the payment (Cr.) side. This is acontra entry.

If a cheque received from a customer is dishonoured, the bank will returnthe dishonoured cheque and debit the firm’s account. On receipt of suchcheque or intimation from the bank, the firm will make an entry on the creditside of the cash book by entering the amount of the dishonoured cheque inthe bank column and the name of the customer in the particulars column.This entry will restore the position prevailing before the receipt of the chequeform the customer and its deposit in the bank. Dishonour of a cheque meansreturn of the cheque unpaid, generally due to insufficient funds in thecustomer’s account with the bank.

If the bank debits the firm on account of interest, commission or othercharges for bank services, the entry will be made on the credit side in bankcolumn. If the bank credits the firm’s account, the entry will be made on thedebit side of the cash book in the appropriate column. The format of doublecolumn cash book is shown in figure 4.5.

Cash Book

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars L.F. Cash Bank Date Particulars L.F. Cash BankRs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

Fig. 4.5 : Format of a double column cashbook

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99Recording of Transactions - II

We will now learn how the transactions are recorded in the double columncash book.Consider the following example:The following transactions related to M/s Tools India :

Date Details AmountRs.

2005

Sept. 01 Bank balance 42,000Sept. 01 Cash balance 15,000Sept. 04 Purchased goods by cheque 12,000Sept. 08 Sales of goods for cash 6,000Sept. 13 Purchased machinery by cheque 5,500Sept. 16 Sold goods and received cheque (deposited same day) 4,500Sept. 17 Purchase goods from Mriaula in cash 17,400Sept. 20 Purchase stationery by cheque 1,100Sept. 24 Cheque given to Rohit 1,500Sept. 27 Cash withdrawn from bank 10,000Sept. 30 Rent paid by cheque 2,500Sept. 30 Paid salary 3,500

The double column cash book based upon above business transactions willprepared as follows :

Cash Book

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars L.F. Cash Bank Date Particulars L.F. Cash BankRs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

2005 2005Sept. Sept.01 Balance b/d 15,000 42,000 04 Purchases 12,00008 Sales 6,000 13 Machine 5,50016 Sales 4,500 17 Purchase 17,40027 Bank C 10,000 20 Stationery 1,100

24 Rohit 1,50027 Cash C 10,00030 Rent 2,50030 Salary 3,50030 Balance c/d 10,100 13,900

31,000 46,500 31,000 46,500

Oct.01 Balance b/d 10,100 13,900

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100Recording of Transactions - II

Posting of the Double Column Cash Book

When the bank column is maintained in the cash book, the bank accountalso is not opened in the ledger. The bank column serves the purpose of thebank account. Entries marked C (being contra entries as explained earlier)are ignored while posting from the cash book to the ledger. These entriesrepresent debit or credit of cash account against the bank account or vice-versa. We will now see how the transactions recorded in double column cashbook are posted to the individual accounts.

Purchases AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005

Sept.04 Bank 12,000Sept. 17 Cash 17,400

Sales AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005

Sept. 08 Cash 6,000Sept. 16 Bank 4,500

Machinery AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005

Sept. 13 Bank 5,500

Stationery AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Sept.20 Bank 1,100

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101Recording of Transactions - II

Rohit’s AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Sept.24 Bank 1,500

Rent AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Sept.30 Bank 2,500

Salary AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Sept.30 Cash 3,500

4.1.3 Petty Cash Book

In every organisation, a large number of small payments such as conveyance,cartage, postage, telegrams and other expenses (collectively recorded undermiscellaneous expenses) are made. These are generally repetitive in nature. Ifall these payments are handled by the cashier and are recorded in the maincash book, the procedure is found to be very cumbersome. The cashier maybe overburdened and the cash book may become very bulky. To avoid this,large organisations normally appoint one more cashier (petty cashier) andmaintain a separate cash book to record these transactions. Such a cashbook maintained by petty cashier is called petty cash book.

The petty cashier works on the Imprest system. Under this system, a definitesum, say Rs. 2,000 is given to the petty cashier at the beginning of a certainperiod. This amount is called imprest amount. The petty cashier goes on makingall small payments out of this imprest amount and when he has spent thesubstantial portion of the imprest amount say Rs.1,780, he gets reimbursementof the amount spent from the head cashier. Thus, he again has the full imprestamount in the beginning of the next period. The reimbursement may be madeon a weekly, fortnightly or monthly basis, depending on the frequency of smallpayments. (In certain cases, the petty cash system is operated through the

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102Recording of Transactions - II

main cash book itself. In such instances, the petty cash book is not maintainedindependently.)

The petty cash book generally has a number of columns for the amount onthe payment side (credit) besides the first other amount column. Each of theamount columns is allotted for items of specific payments, which are mostcommon. The last amount column is designated as ‘Miscellaneous’ followedby a ‘Remarks’ column. In the miscellaneous column those payments arerecorded for which a separate column does not exist. In the ‘Remarks’ thenature of payment is recorded. At the end of the period, all amount columnsare totaled. The total amount column l shows the total amount spent and tobe reimbursed. On the receipt (debit) side, there is only one amount column.Columns for the date, voucher number and particulars are common for bothreceipts and payments.

Box 1

Advantages of Maintaining Petty Cash Book

1. Saving of Time and efforts of chief cashier: The chief cashier is not required todeal with petty disbursements. He can concentrate on cash transactions involvinglarge amount of cash. It saves time and labour and helps chief cashier to dischargehis duties more effectively

2. Effective control over cash disbursements: Cash control becomes easy because ofdivision of work. The head cashier can control big payments directly and pettypayments by keeping a proper check on the petty cashier. This way the chancesof making frauds and embezzlements become very difficult.

3. Convenient recording: Recording of petty disbursements in the main cash bookmakes it bulky and unmanageable. Further, the materiality principle requiresthat insignificant details need not be given in the main cashbook. This way thecash book reveals only material and useful information.Recording of such small payments becomes easy as the totals of different typesof expenses are posted to ledger. It also saves time and effort of posting individualitems in the ledger. In nutshell it can be stated that preparation of petty cashbook is a cost reduction control measure.

For example, Mr. Mohit, the petty cahier of M/s Samaira Traders receivedRupees 2,000 on May 01, 2005 from the Head Cashier. For the month, detailsof petty expenses are listed here under:

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103Recording of Transactions - II

Date Details AmountRs.

2005

May

02 Auto fare 5503 Courier services 4004 Postal stamps 10505 Erasers/Sharpeners/Pencils/Pads 22506 Speed post charges 9808 Taxi fare (Rs.105 + Rs.90) 19508 Refreshments 8510 Auto fare 6012 Registered postal charges 4213 Telegram 3414 Cartage 2516 Computer stationery 16519 Bus fare 2419 STD call charges 8720 Office sanitation including disinfectant (Rs. 36 + Rs. 24) 6022 Refreshment 4523 Photo stating charges 4728 Courier services 4029 Unloading charges 4030 Bus fare 15

Posting from the Petty Cash Book

The petty cash book is balanced periodically. The difference between the totalreceipts and total payments is the balance with the petty cashier. The balance iscarried to the next period and the petty cashier is paid the amount actually spent.A petty cash account is opened in the ledger. It is debited with the amount givento petty cashier. Each expense account is individually debited with the periodictotal as per the respective column by writing “petty cash account” and the pettycash account is credited with the total expenditure incurred during the period bywriting sundries as per petty cash book. The petty cash account is balanced. Itreflect the actual cash with the petty cashier.

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104Recording of Transactions - II

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105Recording of Transactions - II

Books of Samaira TradersJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2005May 01 Petty cash A/c Dr. 2,000

To Cash A/c 2,000(Cash paid to petty cashier)

May 31 Postage A/c Dr. 325Telephone & Telegram A/c Dr. 121Conveyance A/c Dr. 349Stationary A/c Dr. 390Miscellaneous expenses A/c Dr. 302

To Petty cash A/c 1,487(Petty expenses posted to pettycash account)Petty cash A/c Dr. 1,487

To Cash A/c 1,487(Cash paid to petty cashier)

Petty Cash AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005 2005May 01 Cash 2,000 May 31 Sundries as 1,487

per petty cashbook

May 31 Balance c/d 5132,000 2,000

Jun. 01 Balance b/d 513Jun. 01 Cash 1,487

Books of Samaria TradersPostage Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005May 31 Petty cash 325

Telephone and Telegrams AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005May 31 Petty cash 121

Books of Samaira TradersJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2005May 01 Petty cash A/c Dr. 2,000

To Cash A/c 2,000(Cash paid to petty cashier)

May 31 Postage A/c Dr. 325Telephone & Telegram A/c Dr. 121Conveyance A/c Dr. 349Stationary A/c Dr. 390Miscellaneous expenses A/c Dr. 302

To Petty cash A/c 1,487(Petty expenses posted to pettycash account)Petty cash A/c Dr. 1,487

To Cash A/c 1,487(Cash paid to petty cashier)

Petty Cash AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005 2005May 01 Cash 2,000 May 31 Sundries as 1,487

per petty cashbook

May 31 Balance c/d 5132,000 2,000

Jun. 01 Balance b/d 513Jun. 01 Cash 1,487

Books of Samaria TradersPostage Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005May 31 Petty cash 325

Telephone and Telegrams AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005May 31 Petty cash 121

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106Recording of Transactions - II

Conveyance AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005May 31 Petty cash 349

Stationery Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005May 31 Petty cash 390

Miscellaneous Expenses Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005May 31 Petty cash 302

4.1.4 Balancing of Cash Book

On the left side, all cash transactions relating to cash receipts (debits) and onthe right side all transactions relating to cash payments (credits) are entereddate-wise. When a cash book is maintained, a separate cash book in theledger is not opened. The cash book is balanced in the same way as an accountin the ledger. But it may be noted that in the case of the cash book, there willalways be debit balance because cash payments can never exceed cash receiptsand cash in hand at the beginning of the period.

The source document for cash receipts is generally the duplicate copy ofthe receipt issued by the cashier. For payment, any document, invoice, bill,receipt, etc. on the basis of which payment has been made, will serve as asource document for recording transactions in the cash book. When paymenthas been made, all these documents, popularly known as vouchers, are givena serial number and filed in a separate file for future reference and verification.

Illustration 1

From the following transactions made by M/s Kuntia Traders, prepare the single columncashbook.

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107Recording of Transactions - II

Date Details AmountRs.

2005

Sept. 01 Cash in hand 40,000Sept. 02 Deposited in bank 16,000Sept. 04 Received from Puneet in full settlement of claim 11,700

of Rs. 12,000.Sept. 05 Cash paid to Rukmani in full settlement of claim of 6,850

Rs.7,000Sept. 06 Sold goods to Sudhir for cash 14,800Sept. 06 Paid quarterly insurance premium on policy for 2,740

proprietor’s wifeSept. 07 Purchased office furniture 8,000Sept. 07 Purchased stationery 1,700Sept. 07 Paid cartage 120Sept. 10 Paid Kamal, discount allowed by him Rs. 6,800 200Sept. 11 Received from Gurmeet, discount allowed to him Rs.14,500 500Sept. 12 Amount withdrawn for house hold use 5,000Sept. 14 Electricity bill paid 1,160Sept. 17 Goods sold for cash 23,000Sept. 21 Bought goods from Kamal on cash basis 17,000Sept. 24 Paid telephone charges 2,300Sept. 26 Paid postal charges 520Sept. 28 Paid monthly rent 4,200Sept. 29 Paid monthly wages and salary 8,250Sept. 29 Bought goods for cash 11,000Sept. 30 Sold goods for cash 15,600

SolutionBooks of Kuntia Traders

Cash BookDr. Cr.

Date Particulars L.F. Amount Date Particulars L.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Sept. 01 Balance b/d 40,000 Sept. 02 Bank 16,000Sept. 04 Puneet 11,700 Sept. 05 Rukmani 6,850Sept. 06 Sales 14,800 Sept. 06 Drawings 2,740Sept. 11 Gurmeet 14,500 Sept. 07 Office furniture 8,000Sept. 17 Sales 23,000 Sept. 07 Stationery 1,700Sept. 30 Sales 15,600 Sept. 07 Cartage 120

Sept. 10 Kamal 6,800Sept. 12 Drawings 5000Sept. 14 Electric charges 1,160Sept. 21 Purchases 17,000

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108Recording of Transactions - II

Sept. 24 Telephone 2,300charges

Sept. 28 Postal charges 520Sept. 29 Rent 4,200Sept. 29 Wages & Salary 8,250Sept. 30 Purchases 11,000Sept. 30 Balance c/d 27,960

1,19,600 1,19,600

Oct. 01 Balance b/d 27,960

Illustration 2

Record the following transactions in double column cash book and balance it.

Date Details AmountRs.

2005

Aug. 01 Cash balance 15,000Bank balance 10,000

Aug. 03 Paid insurance premium by cheque 4,200Aug. 08 Cash sales 22,000

Cash discount 750Aug. 09 Payment for cash purchases 21,000

Cash discount 700Aug. 09 Cash deposited in bank 15,000Aug. 10 Telephone bill paid by cheque 2,300Aug. 14 Withdrawn from bank for personal use 6,000Aug. 16 Withdrawn from bank office use 14,500Aug. 20 Received cheque from John in full and final settlement 10,700

and deposited the same in the bankAug. 23 Received cash from Michael 6,850

Discount allowed 150Aug. 24 Stationery purchased for cash 1,800Aug. 25 Cartage paid in cash 350Aug. 25 Cheque received from Kumar 4,500Aug. 28 Cheque received from Kumar deposited in Bank 4,500Aug. 31 Cheque deposited on Aug. 28 dishonoured and returned

by the bankAug. 31 Rent paid by cheque 4,000Aug. 31 Paid wages to the watchman in cash 3,000Aug. 31 Paid cash for postage 220

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109Recording of Transactions - II

Solution

Cash Book

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars L.F. Cash Bank Date Particulars L.F. Cash BankRs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

2005 2005Aug. Aug.01 Balance b/d 15,000 10,000 03 Insurance 4,20008 Sales 22,000 09 Purchases 21,00009 Cash C 15,000 09 Bank C 15,00016 Bank C 14,500 10 Telephone 2,300

expenses 20 John 10,700 14 Drawings 6,00023 Michael 6,850 16 Cash C 14,50025 Kumar 4,500 24 Printing and 1,800

stationery28 Cash C 4,500 25 Cartage 35031 Balance c/d 6,000 28 Bank C 4,500

31 Kumar 4,500 31 Rent 4,000 31 Wages 3,000 31 Postage 220 31 Balance c/d 16,980 4,700

62,850 40,200 62,850 40,200

Sept. 01 Balance b/d 16,980 4,700

Illustration 3

Prepare bank column cash book from the following tansactions of M/s Laser Zone for themonth of January 2005 and post them to the related ledger accounts :

Date Details AmountRs.

Jan. 01 Cash in hand 4,000Bank overdraft 3,200

Jan. 04 Wage paid 400Jan. 05 Cash sales 7,000Jan. 07 Purchased goods by cheque 2,000Jan. 09 Purchased furniture for cash 2,200Jan. 11 Cash paid to Rohit 2,000Jan. 13 Cash sales 4,500Jan. 14 Deposited into bank 7,000Jan. 16 Bank charged interest on overdraft 200

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110Recording of Transactions - II

Jan. 20 Paid telephone bill by cheque 600Jan. 25 Sale of goods and received cheque 3,000

(deposited same day)Jan. 27 Paid rent 800Jan. 29 Drew cash for personal use 500Jan. 30 Paid salary 1,000Jan. 31 Interest collected by bank 1,700

Solution

Books of Laser ZoneCash Book

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars L.F. Cash Bank Date Particulars L.F. Cash BankRs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

2005 2005Jan. Jan. 01 Balance b/d 4,000 01 Balance b/d 3,200 05 Sales 7,000 04 Wages 400 13 Sales 4,500 07 Purchase 2,000 14 Cash C 7,000 09 Furniture 2,200 25 Sales 3,000 11 Rohit 2,000 31 Interest 1,700 14 Bank C 7,000

16 Overdraft 200interest

20 Telephone 600 27 Rent 800 29 Drawings 500 30 Salary 1,000 01 Balance c/d 1,600 5,700

15,500 11,700 15,500 11,700

Oct. 01 Balance b/d 1,600 5,700

Wages AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Jan.04 Cash 400

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111Recording of Transactions - II

Sales AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Jan. 05 Cash 7,000Jan.13 Cash 4,500Jan.25 Bank 3,000

Purchases AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Jan.07 Bank 2,000

Furniture AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Jan. 09 Cash 2,200

Rohit AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Jan. 11 Cash 2,000

Ovedraft Interest (Paid) AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Jan.16 Bank 200

Telephone Expenses AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Jan.20 Bank 600

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112Recording of Transactions - II

Rent AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Jan.27 Cash 800

Drawings AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Jan.29 Cash 500

Salary AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Jan.30 Cash 1,000

Interest (Received) AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Jan.31 Bank 1,700

Illustration 4

Prepare double column cash book of M/s Advance Technology Pvt. Ltd for the month ofDecember 2005 from the following transactions :

Date Details AmountRs.

2005Dec. 01 Cash in hand 3,065

Cash at bank 6,780Dec. 02 Cash paid to petty cashier 1,000Dec. 03 Received cheque from Priya 3,000Dec. 04 Cash sales 2,000Dec. 05 Deposited into bank 1,200Dec. 06 Priya’s cheque deposited into bank 3,000Dec. 08 Purchased furniture by cheque 6,500Dec. 10 Paid trade expenses 400Dec. 12 Cash sales 9,000

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113Recording of Transactions - II

Dec. 13 Bank charges 300Dec. 15 Dividend collected by bank 1,200Dec. 16 Paid electric bill by cheque 600Dec. 17 Cash purchases 2,000Dec. 19 Paid for advertising 1,000Dec. 21 Goods sold and received a cheque 6,000

(deposited same day)Dec. 22 Paid legal charges 500Dec. 23 Drew from bank for personal use 2,000Dec. 24 Paid establishment expenses 340Dec. 25 Paid for printing of bill book 850Dec. 26 Paid insurance premium by cheque 2,150Dec. 27 Cash sales 7,200Dec. 28 Paid salary by cheque 4,000Dec. 29 Rent paid 3,000Dec. 30 Commission received by cheque 2,500

(deposited same day)Dec. 31 Paid for charity by cheque 800

Solution

Books of Advance TechnologyCash Book

Dr. Cr.Date Particulars L.F. Cash Bank Date Particulars L.F. Cash Bank

Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

2005 2005Dec. Dec.01 Balance b/d 3,065 6,780 02 Petty Cashier 1,00003 Priya 3,000 05 Bank C 1,200 04 Sales 2,000 06 Bank C 3,00005 Cash C 1,200 08 Furniture 6,50006 Cash C 3,000 10 Trade expenses 40012 Sales 9,000 13 Bank charges 30015 Dividend 1,200 16 Electric charges 60021 Sales 6,000 17 Purchases 2,00027 Sales 7,200 19 Advertisement 1,00030 Commission 2,500 22 Legal charges 500

23 Drawings 2,00024 Establishment 340

expenses 25 Printing 85026 Insurance 2,150

premium 28 Salary 4,00029 Rent 3,000

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114Recording of Transactions - II

31 Charity 80031 Balance c/d 10,975 4,330

24,265 20,680 24,265 20,680

2006Jan.01 Balance b/d 10,975 4,330

(ii) Ledger Posting

Petty Cashier’s AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Dec.02 Cash 1,000

Priya’s AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 03 Cash 3,000

Sales Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.04 Cash 2,000Dec.12 Cash 9,000Dec.21 Bank 6,000Dec.27 Cash 7,200

Furniture Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.08 Bank 6,500

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115Recording of Transactions - II

Trade Expenses Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.10 Cash 400

Bank Charges Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.13 Bank 300

Dividend AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.15 Bank 1,200

Electric Charges AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.16 Bank 600

Purchases AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 17 Cash 2,000

Advertisement AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 19 Cash 1,000

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116Recording of Transactions - II

Legal Charges AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 22 Cash 500

Drawings AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 24 Bank 2,000

Establishment Expenses AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 24 Cash 340

Printing AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 25 Cash 850

Insurance Premium AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 26 Bank 2,150

Salary AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 28 Bank 4,000

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117Recording of Transactions - II

Rent AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 29 Cash 3,000

Commission Received AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 30 Bank 2,500

Charity AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 31 Bank 800

4.2 Purchases (Journal) Book

All credit purchases of goods are recorded in the purchases journal whereascash purchases are recorded in the cash book. Other purchases such aspurchases of office equipment, furniture, building, are recoded in the journalproper if purchased on credit or in the cash book if purchased for cash. Thesource documents for recording entries in the book are invoices or bills receivedby the firm from the supplies of the goods. Entries are made with the netamount of the invoice. Trade discount and other details of the invoice neednot be recorded in this book. The format of the purchases journal is shown infigure 4.6.

Purchases (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of Supplier L.F. AmountNo. (Account to be credited) Rs.

Fig. 4.6 : Format of purchases (journal) book

The monthly total of the purchases book is posted to the debit of purchasesaccount in the ledger. Individual suppliers accounts may be posted daily.Consider the following details obtained from M/s Kanika Traders and observehow the entries are recorded in the purchase journal.

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118Recording of Transactions - II

Date Details2005Aug. 04 Purchased from M/s Neema Electronics (invoice no. 3250): 20 Mini-size T.V.

@ Rs.2,000 per piece, 15 Tape recorders @ Rs. 12,500 per piece. Trade discounton all items @ 20%.

Aug. 10 Bought from M/s Pawan Electronics (invoice no. 8260): 10 Video cassettes @Rs. 150 per piece, 20 Tape recorders @ Rs. 1,650 per piece. Trade discout@ 10% on purchases.

Aug. 18 Purchased from M/s. Northern Electronics (invoice no. 4256): 15 Northernstereos @ Rs. 4,000 per piece, 20 Northern colour T.V. @ Rs. 14,500 per piece.Trade discount @ 12.5%.

Aug. 26 Purchased form M/s Neema Electronics (Invoice No. 3294): 10 Mini-size T.V.@ Rs. 1,000 per piece, 5 Colour T.V. @ Rs. 12,500 per piece. Trade discount@ 20%.

Aug. 29 Bought from M/s Pawan Electronics: (Invoice No. 8281) 20 Video cassettes @150 per piece 25 Tape recorders @ Rs. 1,600 per piece. Trade discount @ 10%on purchases.

Books of Kanika TradersPurchases (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of Supplier L.F. AmountNo. (Account to be credited) Rs.

2005Aug.04 3250 Neema Electronics 1,82,000Aug.10 8260 Pawan Electronics 31,050Aug.18 4256 Northern Electronics 3,06,250Aug.26 3294 Neema Electronics 54,000Aug.29 8281 Pawan Electronics 38,700Aug.31 6,12,000

Posting from the purchases journal is done daily to their respective accountswith the relevant amounts on the credit side. The total of the purchases journalis periodically posted to the debit of the purchases account normally on themonthly basis. However, if the number of transactions is very large, this totalmay be done and posted at some other convenient time interval such as daily,weekly or fortnightly. The posting from the purchases journal to the ledgerfrom is illustrated as follows:

Books of Kanika Electronics Neema Electronics

Dr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Aug.04 Purchases 1,82,000Aug. 26 Purchases 54,000

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119Recording of Transactions - II

Pawan ElectronicsDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Aug. 10 Purchases 31,050Aug. 29 Purchases 38,700

Northern ElectronicsDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Aug.18 Purchases 3,06,250

Purchases AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Aug. 31 Sundries as 6,12,000

per PurchasesJournal

4.3 Purchases Return (Journal) Book

In this book, purchases return of goods are recorded. Sometimes goodspurchased are returned to the supplier for various reasons such as the goodsare not of the required quality, or are defective, etc. For every return, a debitnote (in duplicate) is prepared and the original one is sent to the supplier formaking necessary entries in his book. The supplier may also prepare a note,which is called the credit note. The source document for recording entries inthe purchases return journal is generally a debit note. A debit note will containthe name of the party (to whom the goods have been returned) details of thegoods returned and the reason for returning the goods. Each debit note isserially numbered and dated. The format of the purchases return journal isshown in figure 4.7(a).

Purchases Return (Journal) Book

Date Debit Name of the Supplier L.F. AmountNote No. (Account to be debited) Rs.

Fig 4.7(a) : Format of Purchases return (journal)book

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120Recording of Transactions - II

Box 2

Debit and Credit Notes

A Debit note is a document evidencing a debit to be raised against a party for reasonsother than sale on credit. On finding that goods supplied are not as per the terms ofthe order placed, the defective goods are returned to the supplier of the goods and anote is prepared to debit the supplier; or when an additional sum is recoverablefrom a customer such a note is prepared to debit the customer with the additionaldues. In these two situations the note is called a debit note (refer figure 4.7(b)).

A Credit note is prepared, when a party is to be given a credit for reasons otherthan credit purchase. It is a common practice to make it in red ink. When goods arereceived back from a customer, a credit note should be sent to him. The suggestedproforma of credit note is shown in figure 4.7(c).

Name of the Firm Issuing the Note

Address of the FirmNo. Date of Issue .........

DEBIT NOTEAgainst : Supplier’s NameGoods returned as per delivery Amount (Rs)Challan No.(Details of goods returned)(Rupees ...........only)

Signature of the Manager with date

Fig. 4.7(b) : Showing a specimen of debit note

Name of the Firm Issuing the Note

Address of the FirmNo. Date of Issue .........

CREDIT NOTEAgainst : Customer’s NameGoods returned by the customer Amount (Rs)Challan No.(Details of goods returned)(Rupees ...........only)

Signature of the Manager with date

Fig. 4.7(c) : Showing a specimen credit note

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121Recording of Transactions - II

Refer to the purchases (journal) book of Kanika Traders you will notice that20 mini size T.V.’s and 15 tape- recorders were bought from Neema Electronicsfor Rs. 1,82,000 However, on delivery 2 mini T.V.’s and tape recorders werefound defective and were returned back vide debit note no. 03/2005. In thiscase, the purchases return books will be prepared as follows :

Purchases Return (Journal) Book

Date Debit Name of the Supplier L.F. AmountNote (Account to be debited) Rs.No.

03/2005 Neema Electronics 13,20013,200

Posting from the purchases returns journal requires that the supplier’sindividual accounts are debited with the amount of returns and the purchasesreturns account is credited with the periodical total.

Neema Electronics AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 13,200Return

Purchases Return AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Sundries as 13,200per purchasereturns book

4.4 Sales (Journal) Book

All credit sales of merchandise are recorded in the sales journal. Cash salesare recorded in the cash book. The format of the sales journal is similar tothat of the purchases journal explained earlier. The source document forrecording entries in the sales journal are sales invoice or bill issued by thefirm to the customers. The date of sale, invoice number, name of the customerand amount of the invoice are recorded in the sales journal. Other detailsabout the sales transaction including terms of payment are available in theinvoice. In fact, two or more than two copies of a sales invoice are prepared for

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122Recording of Transactions - II

each sale. The book keeper makes entries in the sales journal from one copyof the sales invoice. The format of the sales joournal is shown in figure 4.8. Inthe sales journal, one additional column may be added to record sales taxrecovered from the customer and to be paid to the government within thestipulated time. Periodically, at the end of each month the amount column istotal led and posted to the credit of sales account in the ledger. Posting to thedebit side of individual customer’s accounts may be made daily.

Sales (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Customer L.F. AmountNo. (Account to be debited) Rs.

Fig. 4.8 : Format of sales (journal) cash book

For example M/s Koina Supplies sold on credit:(i) Two water purifiers @ Rs. 2,100 each and five buckets @ Rs 130 each to

M/s Raman Traders (Invoice no. 178 dated April 06, 2005).(ii) Five road side containers @ Rs 4,200 each to M/s Nutan enterprises

(Invoice no 180 dated April 09, 2005) .(iii) 100 big buckets @ Rs 850 each to M/s Raman traders (Invoice no. 209,

dated April 28, 2005).The above stated transactions will be entered in a sales journal as follows:

Books of Koina SuppliersSales (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the customer L.F. AmountNo. (Account to be debited) Rs.

2005April 06 178 Raman Traders 4,850April 09 180 Nutan Enterprises 21,000April 28 209 Raman Traders 85,000

April 30 1,10,850

Posting from the sales journal are done to the debit of customer’s accountskept in the ledger. Like the purchases journal, individual customer’s accountsare generally posted daily, with the amount involved. The sales journal is alsototaled periodically (generally monthly), and this total is credited to salesaccount in the ledger. The sales (journal) book illustrated above will be postedin the related ledger account in the following manner:

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123Recording of Transactions - II

Raman Traders AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Apr. 06 Sales 4,850Apr. 28 Sales 85,000

Nutan Enterprises AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Apr.01 Sales 21,000

Sales AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Apr. 30 Sundries as 1,10,850

per sales book

4.5 Sales Return (Journal) Book

This journal is used to record return of goods by customers to them on credit.On receipt of goods from the customer, a credit note is prepared, like the debitnote referred to earlier. The difference between the credit not and the debitnote is that the former is prepared by the seller and the latter is prepared bythe buyer. Like the debit note, the credit note is also prepared in duplicateand contains detail relating to the name of the customer, details of themerchandise received back and the amount. Each credit note is seriallynumbered and dated. The source document for recording entries in the salesreturn book is generally the credit note. The format of the sales return book isshown in figure 4.9

Sales Return (Journal) Book

Date Credit Name of the customer L.F. AmountNo. (Account to be Credited) Rs.

Fig. 4.9 : Format of sales return (journal) book

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124Recording of Transactions - II

Refer to the sales (journal) book of Koina Supplier of you will find that twowater purifiers were sold to Raman Traders for Rs 2,100 each, out of whichone purifier was returned back due to the manufacturing defect (credit noteno. 10/2005). In this case, the sales return (Journal) book will be preparedas follows :

Sales Return (Journal) Book

Date Credit Name of the customer L.F. AmountNo. (Account to be Credited) Rs.

10/2005 Raman Traders 2,1002,100

Posting to the sales return journal requires that the customer’s account becredited with the amount of returns and the sales return account be debitedwith the periodical total in the same way as is done in case of posting from thepurchases journal.

Raman Traders AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Sales Return 2,100

Sales Return AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Sundries 2,100as per salesreturn book

Illustration 5

Enter the following transactions of M/s Hi-Life Fashions in purchases and purchasesreturn book and post them to the ledger accounts for the month of September 2005:

Date Details

Sept. 01 Purchase of following goods on credit from M/s Ratna Traders,as per Invoice No.714:25 Shirts @ Rs.300 per shirt20 Pants @ Rs.700 per pantLess 10% trade discount

Sept. 08 Purchase of following goods on credit from M/s Bombay Fashion House,as per Invoice No.327 ;

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125Recording of Transactions - II

10 Fancy Trousers @ Rs.500 per trouser20 Fancy Hat @ Rs. 100 per hatLess 5% trade discount

Sept. 10 Goods returned to M/s Ratana Traders,as per debit note No.102 :3 shirts @ Rs.300 per shirt1 Pant @ Rs.700 per pantLess 10% trade discount

Sept. 15 Purchase of following goods on credit from M/s Zolta Fashions,as per Invoice No.6781 :10 Jackets @ Rs.1000 per jacket5 Plain shirts Rs.200 per shirtsLess 15% trade discount.

Sept. 20 Purchase of following goods on credit from M/s Bride Palace,as per Invoice No.1076 :10 Fancy Lengha @ Rs.2,000 per lenghaLess 5% trade discount.

Sept. 24 Goods returned to M/s Bombay Fashion House as per debit note No.103 :2 Fancy Trousers @ Rs.500 per trouser4 Fancy Hat @ Rs.100 per hatLess 5% trade discount.

Sept. 28 Goods returned to M/s Bride Palace as per debit note No.105 :1 Fancy Lengha @ Rs.2,000 per lenghaLess 5% trade discount.

Solution

Books of Hi-life FashionsPurchases (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Supplier L.F. AmountNo. (Account to be credited) Rs.

2005Sept.01 714 Ratana Traders 19,350Sept.08 327 Bombay Fashion House 6,650Sept.15 6781 Zolta Fashions 9,350Sept.20 1076 Bride Palace 19,000Sept.30 54,350

Purchases Return (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Supplier L.F. AmountNo. (Account to be debited) Rs.

2005Sept. 10 102 Ratana Traders 1,440Sept. 24 103 Bombay Fashion House 1,330Sept. 28 106 Bride Palace 1,900Sept. 30 4,670

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126Recording of Transactions - II

(ii) Ledger Posting

Books of M/s Hi-Life FashionsRatana Traders Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Sept. 10 Purchases 1,440 Sept.01 Purchases 19,350

return

Bombay Fashion House AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Sept. 24 Purchases 1,330 Sept. 08 Purchases 6,650

return

Zolta Fashions AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Sept. 15 Purchases 9,350

Bride Palace AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Sept. 28 Purchases 1,900 Sept. 20 Purchases 19,000

return

Purchases AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Sept. 30 Sundries as 54,350

per purchases journal

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127Recording of Transactions - II

Purchases Return AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Sept. 30 Sundries as 4,670

per purchasesreturn book

Illustration 6

Enter the following transactions in the Sales and Sales Return book of M/s Vineet Stores:

Date Details

Dec.01. Sold goods on credit to M/s Rohit Stores as per invoice no.325 :30 Kids Books @ Rs. 60 each.20 Animal Books @ Rs. 50 each

Dec. 05 Sold goods on credit to M/s Mera Stores as per invoice no.328 :100 Greeting Cards @ Rs.12 each.50 Musical Cards @ Rs. 50 eachLess 5% trade discount.

Dec. 10 Sold Goods on credit to M/s Mega Stationers as per invoice no.329 :50 Writing Pads @ Rs. 20 each.50 Colour Books @ Rs. 30 each20 Ink Pads @ 16 each

Dec. 15 Goods Returned from M/s Rohit Stores as per credit note no.201:2 Kids Books @ Rs. 60 each1 Animal Book @ Rs. 50 each

Dec. 19 Sold goods on credit to M/s Abha Traders as per invoice no.355 :100 Cards Books @ Rs. 10 each.50 Note Books @ Rs. 35 eachLess 5% trade discount.

Dec. 22 Goods returned from M/s Mega Stationers as per credit note no.204:2 Colour Books @ Rs. 30 each

Dec. 26 Sold goods on credit to M/s Bharti Stores as per invoice no.325 :100 Greeting Cards @ Rs. 20 each.100 Fancy Envelopes @ Rs. 5 each

Dec. 30 Goods returned from M/s Abha Traders as per credit note no.207 :20 Cards Books @ Rs. 10 each5 Note Book@ Rs. 35 eachLess 5% trade discount

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128Recording of Transactions - II

Solution

Books of Veneet StoresSales (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Customer J.F. AmountNo. (Account to be debited) Rs.

2005Dec.01 325 Rohit Stores 2,800Dec.05 328 Mera Stores 3,515Dec.10 329 Mega Stationers 2,820Dec.19 335 Abha Traders 2,375Dec.26 340 Bharti Stores 2,500Dec. 31 14,010

Sales Return (Journal) Book

Date Credit Name of the Customer L.F. AmountNote No. (Account to be credited) Rs.

2005Dec. 15 201 Rohit Stores 170Dec. 22 204 Mega Stationers 150Dec. 30 206 Abha Traders 333Dec. 31 653

(ii) Ledger Posting

Rohit Stores AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005 2005Dec. 01 Sales 2800 Dec.15 Sales return 170

Mera Stores AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 05 Sales 3,515

Mega Stationers AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Dec.10 Sales 2,820 Dec.22 Sales return 150

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129Recording of Transactions - II

Abha Traders AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.19 Sales 2,375 Dec.30 Sales return 333

Bharti Stores AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec.26 Sales 2,500

Sales AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Dec. 31 Sundries as 14,010

per sales book

Sales Return AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount2005 Rs. Rs.

Dec.31 Sundries as 653per salesreturn book

4.6 Journal Proper

A book maintained to record transactions, which do not find place in specialjournals, is known as Journal Proper or Journal Residual.

Following transactions are recorded in this journal:

1. Opening Entry: In order to open new set of books in the beginning of newaccounting year and record therein opening balances of assets, liabilitiesand capital, the opening entry is made in the journal.

2. Adjustment Entries: In order to update ledger account on accrual basis,such entries are made at the end of the accounting period. Such asRent outstanding, Prepaid insurance, Depreciation and Commissionreceived in advance.

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130Recording of Transactions - II

3. Rectification entries: To rectify errors in recording transactions in thebooks of original entry and their posting to ledger accounts this journalis used.

4. Transfer entries: Drawing account is transferred to capital account atthe end of the accounting year. Expenses accounts and revenue accountswhich are not balanced at the time of balancing are opened to recordspecific transactions. Accounts relating to operation of business suchas Sales, Purchases, Opening Stock, Income, Gains and Expenses etcand drawing are closed at the end of the year and their Total/balancesare transferred to Trading and Profit and Loss account by recording thejournal entries. These are also called closing entries.

5. Other entries: In addition to the above mentioned entries in the pointsnumber 1 to 4, recording of the following transaction is done in thejournal proper :(i) At the time of a dishonour of a cheque the entry for cancellation for

discount received or discount allowed earlier.(ii) Purchase/sale of items on credit other than goods.(iii) Goods withdrawn by the owner for personal use.(iv) Goods distributed as samples for sales promotion.(v) Endorsement and dishonour of bills of exchange.(vi) Transaction in respect of consignment and joint venture, etc.(vii) Loss of goods by fire/theft/spoilage.

Test Your Understanding - I

Select the Correct Answer

(a) When a firm maintains a cash book, it need not maintain ;(i) Journal Proper(ii) Purchases (journal) book(iii) Sales (journal) book(iv) Bank and cash account in the ledger

(b) Double column cash book records:(i) All transactions(ii) Cash and bank transactions(iii) Only cash transactions(iv) Only credit transactions

(c) Goods purchased on cash are recorded in the :(i) Purchases (journal) book(ii) Sales (journal) book(iii) Cash book(iv) Purchases return (journal)book

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131Recording of Transactions - II

(d) Cash book does not record transaction of :

(i) Cash nature(ii) Credit nature(iii) Cash and credit nature(iv) None of these

(e) Total of these transactions is posted in purchase account :(i) Purchase of furniture(ii) Cash and credit purchase(iii) Purchases return(iv) Purchase of stationery

(f) The periodic total of sales return journal is posted to :(i) Sales account(ii) Goods account(iii) Purchases return account(iv) Sales return account

(g) Credit balance of bank account in cash book shows :(i) Overdraft(ii) Cash deposited in our bank(iii) Cash withdrawn from bank(iv) None of these

(h) The periodic total of purchases return journal is posted to :(i) Purchase account(ii) Profit and loss account(iii) Purchase returns account(iv) Furniture account

(i) Balancing of account means :(i) Total of debit side(ii) Total of credit side(iii) Difference in total of debit & credit(iv) None of these

4.7 Balancing the Accounts

Accounts in the ledger are periodically balanced, generally at the end of theaccounting period, with the object of ascertaining the net position of each amount.Balancing of an account means that the two sides are totaled and the differencebetween them is shown on the side, which is shorter in order to make theirtotals equal. The words ‘balance c/d’ are written against the amount of thedifference between the two sides. The amount of balance is brought (b/d) downin the next accounting period indicating that it is a continuing account, tillfinally settled or closed.

In case the debit side exceeds the credit side, the difference is written onthe credit side, if the credit side exceeds the debit side, the difference between

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132Recording of Transactions - II

the two appears on the debit side and is called debit and credit balancerespectively. The accounts of expenses losses and gains/revenues are notbalanced but are closed by transferring to trading and profit and loss account.The balancing of the an account is illustrated below with the help of an exampleexplaining the complete process of recording the transactions, posting to ledgerand balancing there of.

Date Details

2005Apr. 01 Commenced business with cash Rs. 1,00,000.Apr.02 Deposited in bank Rs. 40,000.Apr. 02 Purchased for cash furniture Rs. 6,000;

Land Rs. 42,000.Apr.l 03 Paid cheque to M/s Malika & Brothers for purchase of electric wires and

plugs Rs. 17,000.Apr. 04 Bought of M/s Handa Co. vide invoice no. 544:

(i) 28 Immersion Heaters 1,000 Watt of Smg. Ltd. @ Rs. 50, and(ii) 40 Tube lights @ Rs.35. trade discount @ 12.5%.

Apr.l 04 Purchased stationery for cash Rs. 2,300.Apr. 05 Loan from M/s Dayal Traders. @ 6% Rs. 25,000 and deposited money in

the bank on the next day.Apr. 05 Paid cartage Rs. 80 and other charges Rs. 20.Apr. 06 Bought of M/s Burari. Ltd. on account vide Invoice No. 125:

(i) 50 Table lamps (Universal) @ Rs. 80 :(ii) 20 Electric kettles (General) @ Rs. 125.(iii) 5 Electric iron@ Rs. 300. trade discount 20%.

Apr. 07 Sales to M/s Ramneek on account vide invoice no. 871:(i) 10 Immersion heaters1000 watt @ Rs. 60.(ii) 5 Table lamps @ Rs. 100:(iii) 2 Electric irons @ 320.

Apr. 08 Sales to M/s Kapadia on credit vide invoice no. 880(i) 15 Immersion heaters @ 60:(ii) 15 Tube lights @ Rs. 38.

Apr. 10 Return inwards from Ramneek :(i) 2 Immersion heaters,(ii) 1 Electric iron.

Apr. 11 Paid rent by cheque Rs. 4,000.Apr. 11 Purchased from M/s Rungta. for cash:

(i) 5 Immersion heaters 1000 watt @ Rs. 45.Apr. 12 Returned goods to Burari Ltd. :

(i) 3 Table lamps (Universal)(ii) 2 Electric kettles(iii) 1 Electric iron.

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133Recording of Transactions - II

Apr. 15 Purchased on account furniture from quality Furniture Ltd. Rs. 8,000.Apr. 16 Paid for advertisement Rs. 1,200.Apr. 18 Sales to M/s Daman on account vide invoice no. 902:

(i) 10 Electric kettles (General) @ Rs. 130.Apr. 19 Purchased from M/s Kochhar Co. on credit vide invoice no.205:

(i) 25 Electric Mixers @ Rs. 600.(ii) 40 Electric irons (Special) @ Rs. 540. trade discount 20%.

Apr. 20 Sales to M/s Ramneek on account vide bill no.925: 4 Electric Mixers@ Rs. 600.

Apr. 21 Received cheque of Rs.3,700 from M/s Ramneek for full and final settlementof claim. The cheque deposited in bank after two days.

Apr. 21 Purchased from M/s Burari Ltd. on credit vide invoice no.157:(i) 10 Electric kettles @ Rs. 125(ii) 20 Electric lamps @ Rs. 80 trade discount @ 20%.

Apr. 23 Sales to M/s Nutan on account vide invoice no.958:(i) 2 Electric Mixers @ Rs. 600.

Apr. 23 Cash sales of Electric wires and plugs Rs. 14,500, cash discount allowedRs. 200.

Apr. 24 Cash purchases from M/s Hitesh:(i) 5 Electric fans @ Rs. 740.

Apr. 25 Paid electricity bill Rs. 1,320.Apr. 25 Made full and final payment to M/s Burari Ltd. by cheque discount allowed

by them Rs. 320.Apr. 26 Purchased stationery on account from M/s Mohit Mart Rs. 3,200.Apr. 27 Sales to M/s Daman on account vide Invoice No. 981:

(i) 15 Table lamps @ Rs. 100(ii) 10 Immersion heaters 1000 watt @ Rs. 80.

Apr. 28 Deposited in bank Rs. 5,000.Apr. 30 Withdrew Rs. 8,000 for personal use.Apr. 30 Paid telephone bill Rs. 2700 by cheque.Apr. 30 Paid insurance Rs. 1,600 by cheque.Apr. 30 Paid to M/s Handa Co. Rs.2,450 by cheque; and Rs. 28,000 to M/s Kochhar

and co. by cheque who allowed Rs. 1,280 as discount.

Purchases (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Supplier L.F. AmountNo. (Account to be credited) Rs.

2005Apr. 04 544 Handa Co. 2,450Apr. 06 125 Burari Ltd. 6,400Apr. 19 205 Kochhar Co. 29,280Apr. 21 157 Burari Ltd. 2,280

Apr. 30 40,410

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134Recording of Transactions - II

Sales (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of the Supplier L.F. AmountNo. (Account to be credited) Rs.

2005Apr. 07 871 Ramneek 1,740Apr. 08 880 Kapadia 1,470Apr. 18 902 Daman 1,300Apr. 20 925 Ramneek 2,400Apr. 23 958 Nutan 1,200Apr. 27 981 Daman 2,300

Apr. 30 10,410

Purchases Return (Journal) Book

Date Debit Name of the Supplier L.F. Amount(Account to be debited)

2005Apr. 12 Burari Ltd. 632Apr. 30 632

Sales Return (Journal) Book

Date Credit Name of the customer L.F. Amount(Account to be credited) Rs.

Apr. 10 Ramneek 440Apr. 30 440

Journal Proper

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Apr. 15 Furniture A/c Dr. 8,000

To Quality Furniture A/c 8,000(Purchase of furniture on credit)

Apr. 25 Burari Ltd A/c Dr. 320To Discount A/c 320

(Discount received)Apr. 26 Stationery A/c Dr. 3,200

To Mohit Mart A/c 3,200(Purchase of Stationery items on credit)

Apr. 30 Kochhar A/c 1,280To Discount A/c 1,280

(Discount received)Total 12,800 12,800

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135Recording of Transactions - II

Cash Book

Date Particulars L.F. Cash Bank Date Particulars L.F. Cash BankRs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. April01 Capital 1,00,000 02 Bank C 40,00002 Cash C 40,000 02 Furniture 6,00005 6% Loan 25,000 02 Land 42,00006 Cash C 25,000 03 Purchases 17,00021 Ramneek 3,700 04 Stationery 2,30023 Cash C 3,700 05 Miscellaneous 100

expenses23 Sales 14,500 06 Bank C 25,00028 Cash C 5,000 11 Rent 4,000

11 Purchases 22516 Advertisement 1,20023 Bank C 3,70024 Purchases 3,70025 Electric 1,320

charges25 Burari Ltd. 7,72828 Bank C 5,00030 Drawings 8,00030 Telephone 2,700

charges30 Insurance 1,60030 Handa Co. 2,45030 Kochhar & Co. 28,00030 Balance c/d 4,655 10,222

30 1,43,200 73,700 30 1,43,200 73,700

May01 Balance b/d 4,655 10,222

The recorded transactions will be posted in the ledger.

Capital Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr.30 Balance c/d 1,00,000 Apr.01 Cash 1,00,000

1,00,000 1,00,000

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136Recording of Transactions - II

6% Loan Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 30 Balance c/d 25,000 April 05 Cash 25,000

25,000 25,000

Ramneek’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 07 Sales 1,740 April10 Sales return 440Apr. 20 Sales 2,400 April21 Cash 3,700

4,140 4,140

Sales AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Apr. 23 Cash 14,500Apr. 30 Sundries 10,410

24,910

Furniture AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 02 Cash 6,000 Apr. 30 Balance c/d 14,000Apr. 15 Quality 8,000

Furniture14,000 14,000

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137Recording of Transactions - II

Land AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 02 Cash 42,000 Apr.30 Balance c/d 42,000

42,000 42,000

Purchases AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Apr. 03 Bank 17,000Apr. 11 Bank 225Apr. 24 Cash 3,700Apr. 30 Sundries 40,410

61,335

Stationery AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Apr. 04 Cash 2,300Apr. 26 Mohit mart 3,200

5,500

Miscellaneous Expenses AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Apr. 05 Cash 100

100

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138Recording of Transactions - II

Rent AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Apr. 04 Bank 4,000

4,000

Advertisement AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Apr.16 Cash 1,200

1,200

Electric Charges AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Apr. 25 Cash 1,320

1,320

Drawings AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Apr. 30 Cash 8,000

8,000

Telephone Charges AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 30 Bank 2,700

2,700

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139Recording of Transactions - II

Insurance AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Apr. 30 Bank 1,600

1,600

Quality Furniture AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 30 Balance c/d 8,000 Apr. 15 Furniture 8,000

8,000 8,000

Mohit Mart AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 30 Balance c/d 3,200 Apr. 26 Stationery 3,200

3,200 3,200

Purchases Return AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005 Apr. 30 Sundries 632

632

Handa Company AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 30 Bank 2,450 Apr. 04 Purchases 2,450

2,450 2,450

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140Recording of Transactions - II

Burari Ltd. AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 12 Purchases 632 Apr. 06 Purchases 6,400

return Apr. 25 Bank 7,728 Apr. 21 Purchases 2,280

Discount 3208,680 8,680

Kochhar AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 30 Bank 28,000 Apr. 19 Purchases 29,280

Discount 1,28029,280 29,280

Sales Return AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 30 Sundries 440 Apr. 30

. 440

Kapadia AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 08 Sales 1,470 Apr. 30 Balance c/d 1,470

1,470 1,470

Daman AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 18 Sales 1,300 Apr. 30 Balance c/d 3,600Apr. 27 Sales 2,300

3,600 3,600

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141Recording of Transactions - II

Nutan AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 23 Sales 1,200 Apr. 30 Balance c/d 1,200

1,200 1,200

Discount Received AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Apr. 25 Burari Ltd 320Apr. 30 Kochhar 1,280

1,600

Test Your Understanding - II

1. Fill in the Correct Words :(a) Cash book is a ......... journal.(b) In Journal proper, only.........discount is recorded.(c) Return of goods purchased on credit to the suppliers will be entered in ......

Journal.(d) Assets sold on credit are entered in .........(e) Double column cash book records transaction relating to .........and .........(f) Total of the debit side of cash book is .........than the credit side.(g) Cash book does not record the .........transactions.(h) In double column cash book .........transactions are also recorded.(i) Credit balance shown by a bank column in cash book is .........(j) The amount paid to the petty cashier at the beginning of a period is known as

.........amount.(k) In purchase book goods purchased on .........are recorded.

2. State whether the following statements are True or False :(a) Journal is a book of secondary entry.(b) One debit account and more than one credit account in a entry is called

compound entry.(c) Assets sold on credit are entered in sales journal.(d) Cash and credit purchases are entered in purchasejJournal.(e) Cash sales are entered in sales journal.(f) Cash book records transactions relating to receipts and payments.(g) Ledger is a subsidiary book.(h) Petty cash book is a book having record of big payments.

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142Recording of Transactions - II

(i) Cash received is entered on the debit side of cash book.(j) Transaction recorded both on debit and credit side of cash book is known as

contra entry.(k) Balancing of account means total of debit and credit side.(l) Credit purchase of machine is entered in purchase journal.

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Posting • Sales (Journal) Book• Day books • Balancing of Accounts• Cash book • Purchase (Journal) book• Petty Cash book • Purchases return (Journal) Book• Sales return (Journal) Book

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Journal : Basic book of original entry.2. Cash book : A book used to record all cash receipts and payments.3. Petty cash book : A book used to record small cash payments.4. Purchase journal : A special journal in which only credit purchases are recorded5. Sales journal : A special journal in which only credit sales are recorded6. Purchases Return Book : A book in which return of merchandise purchased is

recorded.7. Sales Return Book : A special book in which returns of merchandise sold on

credit are recorded.

Questions For Practice

Short Answers

1. Briefly state how the cash book is both journal and a ledger.2. What is the purpose of contra entry?3. What are special purpose books?4. What is petty cash book? How it is prepared?5. Explain the meaning of posting of journal entries?6. Define the purpose of maintaining subsidiary journal.7. Write the difference between return Inwards and return ouwards.8. What do you understand by ledger folio?9. What is difference between trade discount and cash discount?

10. Write the process of preparing ledger from a journal.11. What do you understand by Imprest amount in petty cash book?

Long Answers

1. Explain the need for drawing up the special purpose books.2. What is cash book? Explain the types of cash book.3. What is contra entry? How can you deal this entry while preparing double

column cash book?

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143Recording of Transactions - II

4. What is petty cash book? Write the advantages of petty cash book?5. Describe the advantages of sub-dividing the Journal.6. What do you understand by balancing of account?

Numerical Questions

Simple Cash Book

1. Enter the following transactions in a simple cash book for December 2005:Rs.

01 Cash in hand 12,00005 Cash received from Bhanu 4,00007 Rent Paid 2,00010 Purchased goods Murari for cash 6,00015 Sold goods for cash 9,00018 Purchase stationery 30022 Cash paid to Rahul on account 2,00028 Paid salary 1,00030 Paid rent 500

(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 13,200)

2. Record the following transaction in simple cash book for November 2005:Rs

01 Cash in hand 12,50004 Cash paid to Hari 60007 Purchased goods 80012 Cash received from Amit 1,96016 Sold goods for cash 80020 Paid to Manish 59025 Paid cartage 10031 Paid salary 1,000

(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 12,170)

3. Enter the following transaction in Simple cash book for December 2005 :Rs.

01 Cash in hand 7,75006 Paid to Sonu 4508 Purchased goods 60015 Received cash from Parkash 96020 Cash sales 50025 Paid to S.Kumar 1,20030 Paid rent 600(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 6,765)

Bank Column Cash Book4. Record the following transactions in a bank column cash book for December

2005:Rs.

01 Started business with cash 80,00004 Deposited in bank 50,000

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144Recording of Transactions - II

10 Received cash from Rahul 1,00015 Bought goods for cash 8,00022 Bought goods by cheque 10,00025 Paid to Shyam by cash 20,00030 Drew from Bank for office use 2,00031 Rent paid by cheque 1,000(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 5,000: cash at bank Rs. 37,000)

5. Prepare a double column cash book with the help of following informationfor December 2005 :

Rs.01 Started business with cash 1,20,00003 Cash paid into bank 50,00005 Purchased goods from Sushmita 20,00006 Sold goods to Dinker and received a cheque 20,00010 Paid to Sushmita cash 20,00014 Cheque received on December 06, 2005 deposited into bank18 Sold goods to Rani 12,00020 Cartage paid in cash 50022 Received cash from Rani 12,00027 Commission received 5,00030 Drew cash for personal use 2,000

(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 64,500 : Cash at bank Rs. 70,000)

6. Enter the following transactions in double column cash book of M/s AmbicaTraders for November 2005:

Rs.01 Commenced business with cash 50,00003 Opened bank account with ICICI 30,00005 Purchased goods for cash 10,00010 Purchased office machine for cash 5,00015 Sales goods on credit from Rohan and received chaeque 7,00018 Cash sales 8,00020 Rohan’s cheque deposited into bank22 Paid cartage by cheque 50025 Cash withdrawn for personal use 2,00030 Paid rent by cheque 1,000(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 11,000, Cash at bank Rs. 35,500)

7. Prepare double column cash book from the following information forSeptember 2005:

Rs.01 Cash In hand 7,500

Bank overdraft 3,50003 Paid wages 20005 Cash sales 7,00010 Cash deposited into bank 4,00015 Goods purchased and paid by cheque 2,00020 Paid rent 500

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145Recording of Transactions - II

25 Drew from bank for personal use 40030 Salary paid 1,000(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 8,800, Bank overdraft Rs. 1,900)

8. Enter the following transaction in a double column cash book of M/s.MohitTraders for January 2005 :

Rs.01 Cash in hand 3,500

Bank overdraft 2,30003 Goods purchased for cash 1,20005 Paid wages 20010 Cash sales 8,00015 Deposited into bank 6,00022 Sold goods for cheque which was deposited into 2,000

bank same day25 Paid rent by cheque 1,20028 Drew from bank for personal use 1,00031 Bought goods by cheque 1,000(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 4,100 Cash at bank Rs. 2,500)

9. Prepare double column cash book from the following transactions for theyear December 2005:

Rs.01 Cash in hand 17,500

Cash at bank 5,00003 Purchased goods for cash 3,00005 Received cheque from Jasmeet 10,00008 Sold goods for cash 7,00010 Jasmeet’s cheque deposited into bank12 Purchased goods and paid by cheque 20,00015 Paid establishment expenses through bank 1,00018 Cash sales 7,00020 Deposited into bank 10,00024 Paid trade expenses 50027 Received commission by cheque 6,00029 Paid Rent 2,00030 Withdrew cash for personal use 1,20031 Salary paid 6,000(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 8,800 cash at bank Rs. 10,000)

10. M/s Ruchi trader started their cash book with the following balances onDec. 01 2005 : cash in hand Rs.1,354 and balance in bank current accountRs.7560. He had the following transaction in the month of December, 2005:

Rs.03 Cash sales 2,30005 Purchased goods, paid by cheque 6,00008 Cash sales 10,00012 Paid trade expenses 70015 Sales goods, received cheque(deposited same day) 20,00018 Purchased motor car paid by cheque 15,000

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146Recording of Transactions - II

20 Cheque received from Manisha(deposited same day) 10,00022 Cash Sales 7,00025 Manisha’s cheque returned dishonoured28 Paid Rent 2,00029 Paid telephone expenses by cheque 50031 Cash withdrawn for personal use 2,000

Prepare bank column cash book(Ans. Cash in hand Rs. 15,954 cash at bank Rs. 6,060)

Petty Cash Book

11. Prepare petty cash book from the following transactions. The imprestamount is Rs.2,000.

Rs.January01 Paid cartage 5002 STD charges 4002 Bus fare 2003 Postage 3004 Refreshment for employees 8006 Courier charges 3008 Refreshment of customer 5010 Cartage 3515 Taxi fare to manager 7018 Stationery 6520 Bus fare 1022 Fax charges 3025 Telegrams charges 3527 Postage stamps 20029 Repair on furniture 10530 Laundry expenses 11531 Miscellaneous expenses 100(Ans. Cash balance Rs. 925)

12. Record the following transactions during the week ending Dec.30, 2005with a weekly imprest Rs. 500

Rs.24 Stationery 10025 Bus fare 1225 Cartage 4026 Taxi fare 8027 Wages to casual labour 9029 Postage 80(Ans. Cash balance Rs. 98)

Other Subsidiary Books

13. Enter the following transactions in the Purchase Journal (Book) ofM/s Gupta Traders of July 2005 :

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147Recording of Transactions - II

01 Bought from Rahul Traders as per invoice no.2004140 Registers @ Rs.60 each80 Gel Pens @ Rs.15 each50 note books @ Rs.20 eachTrade discount 10%.

15 Bought from Global Stationers as per invoice no.113240 Ink Pads @ Rs.8 each50 Files @ Rs.10 each20 Color Books @ Rs. 20 eachTrade Discount 5%

23 Purchased from Lamba Furniture as per invoice no.32012 Chairs @ 600 per chair1 Table @ 1000 per table

25 Bought from Mumbai Traders as per invoice no.111110 Paper Rim @ Rs.100 per rim400 drawing Sheets @ Rs.3 each

20 Packet water colour @ Rs.40 per packet

(Ans: Total of purchases book Rs. 8,299)

14. Enter the following transactions in sales (journal) book of M/s.Bansalelectronics:September01 Sold to Amit Traders as per bill no.4321

20 Pocket Radio @ 70 per Radio2, T.V. set, B&W.(6”) @ 800 Per T.V.10. Sold to Arun Electronics as per bill no.43515 T.V. sets (20”) B&W @ Rs.3,000 per T.V.2 T.V. sets (21”) Colour @ Rs. 4,800 per T.V.

22 Sold to Handa Electronics as per bill no.4,39910 Tape recorders @ Rs. 600 each5 Walkman @ Rs. 300 each

28 Sold to Harish Trader as per bill no.443010 Mixer Juicer Grinder @ Rs. 800 each.

(Ans. Total of sales book Rs. 43,100)

15. Prepare a purchases return (journal) book from the following transactionsfor January 2006.

Rs.05 Returned goods to M/s Kartik Traders 1,20010 Goods returned to Sahil Pvt. Ltd. 2,50017 Goods returned to M/s Kohinoor Traders.

for list price Rs.2,000 less 10% trade discount.28 Return outwards to M/s Handa Traders 550(Ans. Total of purchases return book Rs. 6,050)

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148Recording of Transactions - II

16. Prepare Return Inward Journal(Book) from the following transactions ofM/s Bansal Electronics for November 2005:

Rs.04 M/s Gupta Traders returned the goods 1,50010 Goods returned from M/s Harish Traders 80018 M/s Rahul Traders returned the goods not as per 1,200

specifications28 Goods returned from Sushil Traders 1,000(Ans : Total of sales return Rs. 4,500)

Recording, Posting and Balancing

17. Prepare proper subsidiary books and post them to the ledger from thefollowing transactions for the month of February 2006:

Rs.01 Goods sold to Sachin 5,00004 Purchase from Kushal Traders 2,48006 Sold goods to Manish Traders 2,10007 Sachin returned goods 60008 Returns to Kushal Traders 28010 Sold to Mukesh 3,30014 Purchased from Kunal Traders 5,20015 Furniture purchased from Tarun 3,20017 Bought of Naresh 4,06020 Return to Kunal Traders 20022 Return inwards from Mukesh 25024 Purchased goods from Kirit & Co. for list price of 5,700

less 10% trade discount25 Sold to Shri Chand goods 6600

less 5% trade discount26 Sold to Ramesh Brothers 4,00028 Return outwards to Kirit and Co. 1,000

less 10% trade discount28 Ramesh Brothers returned goods Rs. 500.Ans : (Total of sales book Rs.20,670, purchases book Rs.16,870,

Purchases return book Rs.1,380, sales return book Rs.1,350).

18. The following balances of ledger of M/s Marble Traders on April 01, 2006Rs.

Cash in hand 6,000Cash at bank 12,000Bills receivable 7,000Ramesh (Cr.) 3,000Stock (Goods) 5,400Bills payable 2,000Rahul (Dr.) 9,700Himanshu (Dr.) 10,000

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149Recording of Transactions - II

Transactions during the month were:April Rs.01 Goods sold to Manish 3,00002 Purchased goods from Ramesh 8,00003 Received cash from Rahul in full settlement 9,20005 Cash received from Himanshu on account 4,00006 paid to Remesh by cheque 6,000.08 Rent paid by cheque 1,20010 Cash received from manish 3,00012 Cash sales 6,00014 Goods returned to Ramesh 1,00015 Cash paid to Ramesh in full settlement 3,700

Discount received 30018 Goods sold to Kushal 10,00020 Paid trade expenses 20021 Drew for personal use 1,00022 Goods return from Kushal 1,20024 Cash received from Kushal 6,00026 Paid for stationery 10027 Postage charges 6028 Salary Paid 2,50029 Goods purchased from Sheetal Traders 7,00030 Sold goods to Kirit 6000

Goods purchased from Handa Traders 5,000Journlise the above transactions and post them to the ledger.

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding - I

a. (iv) b. (ii) c. (iii) d. (ii) e. (ii) f. (iv) g .(ii) h. (iii) i. (iii)

Test Your Understanding - II

1. (a) subsidiary (b) cash (c) purchases return (d) journal proper(e) cash, bank (f) more (g) credit (h) bank(i) overdraft (j) imprest (k) credit

2. (a) False (b) True (c) False (d) False(e) False (f) True (g) True (h) False(i) True (j) True (k) False (l) False

Page 156: 11th Accountancy

In chapter 4, you have learnt thatthe business organisations keep a record of their

cash and bank transactions in a cash book. Thecash book also serves the purpose of both the cashaccount and the bank account and shows thebalance of both at the end of the period.

Once the cash book has been balanced, it isusual to check its details with the records of thefirm’s bank transactions as recorded by the bank.To enable this check, the cashier needs to ensurethat the cash book is completely up to date and arecent bank statement (or a bank passbook) hasbeen obtained from the bank. A bank statementor a bank passbook is a copy of a bank account asshown by the bank records. This enable the bankcustomers to check their funds in the bankregularly and update their own records oftransactions that have occurred. An illustrativebank passbook of a current account is shown infigure 5.1.

The amount of balance shown in the passbookor the bank statement must tally with the balanceas shown in the cash book. But in practice, theseare usually found to be different. Hence, we haveto ascertain the causes for such difference. It willbe observed that a bank statement/passbookshows all deposits in the credit column andwithdrawals in the debit column. Thus, if depositsexceed withdrawals it shows a credit balance andif withdrawals exceed deposits it will show a debitbalance (overdraft).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying thischapter, you will be ableto :

• state the meaning andneed for the preparationof bank reconciliationstatement;

• identify causes ofdifference betweenbank balance as percash book and passbook;

• prepare the bankreconciliation statement;

• ascertain the correctbank balance as percash book;

Bank Reconciliation Statement 5

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151Bank Reconciliation Statement

5.1 Need for Reconciliation

It is generally experienced that when a comparison is made between the bankbalance as shown in the firm’s cash book, the two balances do not tally.Hence, we have to first ascertain the causes of difference thereof and thenreflect them in a statement called Bank Reconciliation Statement to reconcile(tally) the two balances.

In order to prepare a bank reconciliation statement we need to have abank balance as per the cash book and a bank statement as on a particularday along with details of both the books. If the two balances differ, the entriesin both the books are compared and the items on account of which thedifference has arisen are ascertained with the respective amounts involved sothat the bank reconciliation statement may be prepared. Its format shown infigure 5.5.

Particulars AmountRs.

Balance as per cash book .......Add: Cheques issued but not presented .......

Interest credited by the bank ..............

Less: Cheques deposited but not credited by the bank .......Bank charges not recorded in the cash book .......

Balance as per the passbook xxxx

Fig. 5.2 : Proforma of bank reconciliation statement

It can also be prepared with two amount columns one showing additions(+ column) and another showing deductions (-column). For convenience, weusually adopt this treatment.

Particulars Amount AmountRs. Rs.(+) (–)

Balance as per cash book ......Cheques issued but not presented ` ......Interest credited by the bank ......Cheque deposited but not credited by the bank ......Bank charges not recorded in the cash book ......

Balance as per the passbook. xxxx

Fig. 5.3 : Proforma of bank reconcitiation statement (table form)

Page 158: 11th Accountancy

152Bank Reconciliation Statement

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Page 159: 11th Accountancy

153Bank Reconciliation Statement

Reconciliation of the cash book and the bank passbook balances amountsto an explanation of differences between them. The differences between thecash book and the bank passbook is caused by:

• timing differences on recording of the transactions.• errors made by the business or by the bank.

5.1.1 Timing Differences

When a business compares the balance of its cash book with the balanceshown by the bank passbook, there is often a difference, which is causedby the time gap in recording the transactions relating either to paymentsor receipts. The factors affecting time gap includes :

5.1.1(a) Cheques issued by the bank but not yet presented for payment

When cheques are issued by the firm to suppliers or creditors of the firm,these are immediately entered on the credit side of the cash book. However,the receiving party may not present the cheque to the bank for paymentimmediately. The bank will debit the firm’s account only when these chequesare actually paid by the bank. Hence, there is a time lag between the issue ofa cheque and its presentation to the bank which may cause the differencebetween the two balances.

5.1.1(b) Cheques paid into the bank but not yet collected

When firm receives cheques from its customers (debtors), they areimmediately recorded in the debit side of the cash book. This increasesthe bank balance as per the cash book. However, the bank credits thecustomer account only when the amount of cheques are actually realised.The clearing of cheques generally takes few days especially in case ofoutstation cheques or when the cheques are paid-in at a bank branchother than the one at which the account of the firm is maintained. Thisleads to a cause of difference between the bank balance shown by thecash book and the balance shown by the bank passbook.

5.1.1(c) Direct debits made by the bank on behalf of the customer

Sometimes, the bank deducts amount for various services from the accountwithout the firm’s knowledge. The firm comes to know about it only whenthe bank statement arrives. Examples of such deductions include: chequecollection charges, incidental charges, interest on overdraft, unpaid chequesdeducted by the bank – i.e. stopped or bounced, etc. As a result, the balanceas per passbook will be less than the balance as per cash book.

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154Bank Reconciliation Statement

5.1.1(d) Amounts directly deposited in the bank account

There are instances when debtors(customers) directly deposits money intofirm’s bank account. But, the firm does not receive the intimation from anysource till it receives the bank statement. In this case, the bank records thereceipts in the firm’s account at the bank but the same is not recorded in thefirm’s cash book. As a result, the balance shown in the bank passbook will bemore than the balance shown in the firm’s cash book.

5.1.1(e) Interest and dividends collected by the bank

When the bank collects interest and dividend on behalf of the customer, thenthese are immediately credited to the customers account. But the firm will knowabout these transactions and record the same in the cash book only when itreceives a bank statement. Till then the balances as per the cash book andpassbook will differ.

5.1.1(f) Direct payments made by the bank on behalf of the customers

Sometimes the customers give standing instructions to the bank to makesome payment regularly on stated days to the third parties. For example,telephone bills, insurance premium, rent, taxes, etc. are directly paid by thebank on behalf of the customer and debited to the account. As a result, thebalance as per the bank passbook would be less than the one shown in thecash book.

5.1.1(g) Cheques deposited/bills discounted dishonoured

If a cheque deposited by the firm is dishonoured or a bill of exchange drawnby the business firm is discounted with the bank is dishonoured on the dateof maturity, the same is debited to customer’s account by the bank. As thisinformation is not available to the firm immediately, there will be no entry inthe firm’s cash book regarding the above items. This will be known to the firmwhen it receives a statement from the bank. As a result, the balance as perthe passbook would be less than the cash book balance.

5.1.2 Differences Caused by Errors

Sometimes the difference between the two balances may be accounted for byan error on the part of the bank or an error in the cash book of the business.This causes difference between the bank balance shown by the cash bookand the balance shown by the bank statement.

Page 161: 11th Accountancy

155Bank Reconciliation Statement

5.1.2(a) Errors committed in recording transaction by the firm

Omission or wrong recording of transactions relating to cheques issued, chequesdeposited and wrong totalling, etc. committed by the firm while recording entriesin the cash book cause difference between cash book and passbook balance.

5.1.2(b) Errors committed in recording transactions by the bank

Omission or wrong recording of transactions relating to cheques depositedand wrong totalling, etc. committed by the bank while posting entries in thepassbook also cause differences between passbook and cash book balance.

Test Your Understanding - I

I. Read the following transactions and identify the cause of difference on the basis oftime gap or errors made by business firm/bank. Put a sign ( ) for the correctcause.

S.No. Transactions Time Gap Errorsmade bybusiness/bank

1. Cheques issued to customers but not

presented for payment.

2. Cheque amounting to Rs. 5,000 issuedto M/s. XYZ but recorded as Rs. 500in the cash book.

3. Interest credited by the bank but yetnot recorded in the cash book.

4. Cheque deposited into the bank butnot yet collected by the bank.

5. Bank charges debited to firm’s currentaccount by the bank.

II. Fill in the blanks :

(i) Passbook is a copy of.............as it appears in the ledger of the bank.

(ii) When money is with drawn from the bank, the bank ............. the account ofthe customer.

(iii) Normally, the cash book shows a debit balance, passbook shows.............balance.

(iv) Favourable balance as per the cash book means .............balance in the bankcolumn of the cash book.

Page 162: 11th Accountancy

156Bank Reconciliation Statement

(v) If the cash book balance is taken as starting point the items which make thecash book balance smaller than the passbook must be .............for the purposeof reconciliation.

(vi) If the passbook shows a favourable balance and if it is taken as the startingpoint for the purpose of bank reconciliation statement then cheques issuedbut not presented for payment should be .............to find out cash balance.

(vii) When the cheques are not presented for payment, favourable balance as perthe cash book is .............than that of the passbook.

(viii) When a banker collects the bills and credits the account passbook overdraftshows .............balance.

(ix) If the overdraft as per the passbook is taken as the starting point, the chequesissued but not presented are to be .............in the bank reconciliationstatement.

(x) When the passbook balance is taken as the starting point items which makesthe passbook balance .............than the balance in the cash book must bededucted for the purpose of reconciliation.

5.2 Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statement

After identifying the causes of difference, the reconciliation may be done inthe following two ways:

(a) Preparation of bank reconciliation statement without adjusting cash bookbalance.

(b) Preparation of bank reconciliation statement after adjusting cash bookbalance.

It may be noted that in practice, the bank reconciliation statement isprepared after adjusting the cash book balance, about which you will studylater in the chapter.

5.2.1 Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statement without adjusting CashBook Balance

To prepare bank reconciliation statement, under this approach, the balanceas per cash book or as per passbook is the starting item. The debit balance asper the cash book means the balance of deposits held at the bank. Such abalance will be a credit balance as per the passbook. Such a balance existswhen the deposits made by the firm are more than its withdrawals. It indicatesthe favourable balance as per cash book or favourable balance as per thepassbook. On the other hand, the credit balance as per the cash book indicatesbank overdraft. In other words, the excess amount withdrawn over the amountdeposited in the bank. It is also known as unfavourable balance as per cashbook or unfavourable balance as per passbook.

Page 163: 11th Accountancy

157Bank Reconciliation Statement

We may have four different situations while preparing the bankreconciliation statement. These are :

1. When debit balance (favourable balance) as per cash book is given andthe balance as per passbook is to be ascertained.

2. When credit balance (favourable balance) as per passbook is given andthe balance as per cash book is to be ascertained.

3. When credit balance as per cash book (unfavourable balance/overdraftbalance) is given and the balance as per passbook is to ascertained.

4. When debit balance as per passbook (unfavourable balance/overdraftbalance) is given and the cash book balance as per is to ascertained.

5.2.1(a) Dealing with favourable balances

The following steps may be initiated to prepare the bank reconciliationstatement:

(i) The date on which the statement is prepared is written at the top, aspart of the heading.

(ii) The first item in the statement is generally the balance as shown by thecash book. Alternatively, the starting point can also be the balance asper passbook.

(iii) The cheques deposited but not yet collected are deducted.

(iv) All the cheques issued but not yet presented for payment, amountsdirectly deposited in the bank account are added.

(v) All the items of charges such as interest on overdraft, payment by bankon standing instructions and debited by the bank in the passbook butnot entered in cash book, bills and cheques dishonoured etc. arededucted.

(vi) All the credits given by the bank such as interest on dividends collected,etc. and direct deposits in the bank are added.

(vii) Adjustment for errors are made according to the principles of rectificationof errors. (The rectification of errors has been discussed in detail inchapter 6.)

(viii) Now the net balance shown by the statement should be same as shownby the passbook.

It may be noted that treatment of all items shall be the reverse of the aboveif we adjust passbook balance as the starting point.(see illustration 3)

The following solved illustrations will help you understand dealing withfavourable balance as per cash book and passbook.

Page 164: 11th Accountancy

158Bank Reconciliation Statement

Illustration 1

From the following particulars of Mr. Vinod, prepare bank reconciliation statement as onMarch 31, 2005.

1. Bank balance as per cash book Rs. 50,000.2. Cheques issued but not presented for payment Rs. 6,000.3. The bank had directly collected dividend of Rs. 8,000 and credited to bank account

but was not entered in the cash book.4. Bank charges of Rs. 400 were not entered in the cash book.5. A cheques for Rs. 6,000 was deposited but not collected by the bank.

Solution

Bank Reconciliation Statement of Mr. Vinod as on March 31, 2005

Particulars + –Rs. Rs.

1. Balance as per cash book 50,0002. Cheques issued but not presented for payment 6,0003. Dividends collected by the bank 8,0004. Cheque deposited but not credited by the bank 6,0005. Bank charges debited by the bank 4006. Balance as per passbook. 57,600

64,000 64,000

Illustration 2

From the following particulars of Anil & Co. prepare a bank reconciliation statement ason August 31, 2005.

1. Balance as per the cash book Rs. 54,000.2. Rs. 100 bank incidental charges debited to Anil & Co. account, which is not recorded

in cash book.3. Cheques for Rs. 5,400 is deposited in the bank but not yet collected by the bank.4. A cheque for Rs. 20,000 is issued by Anil & Co. not presented for payment.

Solution

Bank Reconciliation Statement of Anil & Co. as on August 31, 2005

Particulars (+) (–)Amount Amount

Rs. Rs.

1. Balance as per cash book 54,000 -2. Cheqeus issued but not presented for payment 20,000 -3. Cheques deposited but not credited by the bank - 5,4004. Bank incidental charges debited by the bank - 1005. Balance as per passbook - 68,500

74,000 74,000

Page 165: 11th Accountancy

159Bank Reconciliation Statement

Illustration 3

The bank passbook of M/s. Boss & Co. showed a balance of Rs. 45,000 on May 31, 2005.1. Cheques issued before May 31,2005, amounting to Rs. 25,940 had not been

presented for encashment.2. Two cheques of Rs. 3,900 and Rs. 2,350 were deposited into the bank on May 31

but the bank gave credit for the same in June.3. There was also a debit in the passbook of Rs. 2,500 in respect of a cheque

dishonoured on 31.5.2005. Prepare a bank reconciliation statement as onMay 31, 2005.

Solution

Bank Reconciliation Statement of Bose & Co as on May 31, 2005

Particulars (+) (–)Amount Amount

Rs. Rs.

1. Balance as per passbook 45,0002. Cheques deposited but not collected by the bank 6,250

(Rs. 3,900+ Rs. 2,350)3. Cheque dishonoured recorded only in passbook 2,5004. Cheques issued but not presented for payment 25,940

5. Balance as per cash book 27,810

53,750 53,750

5.2.1(b) Dealing with overdrafts

So far we have dealt with bank reconciliation statement where bank balanceshas been positive – i.e., there has been money in the bank account. However,businesses sometimes have overdrafts at the bank. Overdrafts are where thebank account becomes negative and the businesses in effect have borrowedfrom the bank. This is shown in the cash book as a credit balance. In thebank statement, where the balance is followed by Dr. (or sometimes OD) meansthat there is an overdraft and called debit balance as per passbook.

An overdraft is treated as negative figure on a bank reconciliation statement.The following solved illustration will help you understand the preparation ofbank reconciliation statement when there is an overdraft.

Illustration 4

On March 31, 2005, Rakesh had on overdraft of Rs. 8,000 as shown by his cash book.Cheques amounting to Rs. 2,000 had been paid in by him but were not collected by thebank. He issued cheques of Rs. 800 which were not presented to the bank for payment.There was a debit in his passbook of Rs. 60 for interest and Rs. 100 for bank charges.Prepare bank reconciliation statement.

Page 166: 11th Accountancy

160Bank Reconciliation Statement

Solution

Bank Reconciliation Statement of Rakesh as on April 01, 2005

Particulars (+) (–)Amount Amount

Rs. Rs.

1. Overdraft as per cash book 8,0002. Cheques deposited but not yet collectedcharged by the bank 2,0003. Bank charges 604. Cheques issued but not presented for payment 800 1005. Balance as per bank passbook (overdraft) 9,360

10,160 10,160

Illustration 5

On March 31, 2005 the bank column of the cash book of Agrawal Traders showed a creditbalance of Rs. 1,18,100 (Overdraft). On examining of the cash book and the bank statement,it was found that :

1. Cheques received and recorded in the cash book but not sent to the bank of collectionRs. 12,400.

2. Payment received from a customer directly by the bank Rs. 27,300 but no entrywas made in the cash book.

3. Cheques issued for Rs. 1,75,200 not presented for payment.Interest of Rs. 8,800 charged by the bank was not entered in the cash book. Preparebank reconciliation statement.

Solution

Bank Reconciliation Statement of Agarwal Traders as on March 31, 2005

Particulars (+) (–)Amount Amount

Rs. Rs.1. Overdraft as per cash book 1,18,1002. Cheques received and recorded in the cash book but not 12,400

sent to the bank for collection3. Interest on bank overdraft debited by the bank but not 8,800

entered in the cash book4. Payment received from the customer directly 27,3005. Credited in the bank a/c but not entered in the cash book 1,75,2006. Cheques issued but not presented for payment

7. Balance as per the passbook (favourable balance) 63,200

2,02,500 2,02,500

Page 167: 11th Accountancy

161Bank Reconciliation Statement

Illustration 6

From the following particulars of Asha & Co. prepare a bank reconciliation statement onDecember 31, 2005.

Rs.Overdraft as per passbook 20,000Interest on overdraft 2,000Insurance Premium paid by the bank 200Cheque issued but not presented for payment 6,500Cheque deposited but not yet cleared 6,000Wrongly debited by the bank 500

Solution

Bank Reconciliation Statement of Asha & Co as on December 31, 2005

Particulars (+) (–)Amount Amount

Rs. Rs.

1. Overdraft as per passbook 20,0002. Interest on overdraft 2,0003. Insurance premium paid by the bank 2004. Cheque issued but not presented for payment 6,5005. Cheques deposited but not yet cleared 6,0006. Wrongly debited by the bank 5007. Balance as per the cash book (overdraft) 17,800

26,500 26,500

Illustration 7

From the following particulars, prepare a bank reconciliation statement as onMarch 31, 2001.

(a) Debit balance as per cash book is Rs. 10,000.

(b) A cheque for Rs. 1,000 deposited but not recorded in the cash book.

(c) A cash deposit of Rs. 200 was recorded in the cash book if there is not bank,column therein.

(d) A cheque issued for Rs. 250 was recorded as Rs. 205 in the cash column.

(e) The debit balance of Rs. 1,500 as on the previous day was brought forward as acredit balance.

(f) The payment side of the cash book was under cast by Rs. 100.

(g) A cash discount allowed of Rs. 112 was recorded as Rs. 121 in the bank column.

(h) A cheque of Rs. 500 received from a debtor was recorded in the cash book but notdeposited in the bank for collection.

(i) One outgoing cheque of Rs. 300 was recorded twice in the cash book.

Page 168: 11th Accountancy

162Bank Reconciliation Statement

Solution

Bank Reconciliation statement as on September 30, 2004

Particulars (+) (–)Amount Amount

Rs. Rs.

1. Debit balance as per cash book 10,0002. Error in carrying forward 3,0003. Cheque recorded twice in cash book 3004. Cheque deposit not record in bank column 2005. Cheque deposit but not recorded 1,0006, Under casting of payment side 1007. Cheque issued but not entered 2508. A cash discount wrongly recorded in bank column 1219. Cheque recorded but not deposited 500

10. Credit balance as per passbook 13,529

14,500 14,500

Illustration 8

From the following particulars, prepare the bank reconciliation statement of Shri Krishanas on March 31, 2005.

(a) Balance as per passbook is Rs. 10,000.(b) Bank collected a cheque of Rs. 500 on behalf of Shri Krishan but wrongly credited

it to Shri Krishan’s account.(c) Bank recorded a cash book deposit of Rs. 1,589 as Rs. 1,598.(d) Withdrawal column of the passbook under cast by Rs. 100.(e) The credit balance of Rs. 1,500 as on the pass-book was recorded in the debit

balance.(f) The payment of a cheque of Rs. 350 was recorded twice in the passbook.(g) The pass-book showed a credit balance. For a cheque of Rs. 100 deposited by Shri

Kishan.

Solution

Bank Reconciliation Statement as on March 31, 2005

Particulars (+) (–)Amount Amount

Rs. Rs.

1. Credit balance as per passbook 10,0002. Cheque wrongly credited to another customer account 5003. Error in carrying forward 3,0004. Cheque recorded twice 3505. Excess credit for cash deposit 96. Under casting of withdrawal column 1007. Wrong credit 1,0008. Debit balance as per cash book 12,741

13,850 13,850

Page 169: 11th Accountancy

163Bank Reconciliation Statement

Test Your Understanding - II

Select the Correct Answer:

1. A bank reconciliation statement is prepared by :

(a) Creditors (b) Bank(c) Account holder in a bank (d) Debtors

2. A bank reconciliation statement is prepared with the balance :

(a) Passbook (b) Cash book(c) Both passbook and cash book (d) None of these

3. Passbook is a copy of :

(a) Copy of customer Account (b) Bank column of cash book(c) Cash column of cash book (d) Copy of receipts and payments

4. Unfavourable bank balance means :(a) Credit balance in passbook (b) Credit balance in cash book(c) Debit balance in cash book (d) None of these

5. Favourable bank balance means :

(a) Credit balance in the cash book (b) Credit balance in passbook(c) Debit balance in the cash book (d) Both b and c

6. A bank reconciliation statement is mainly prepared for :

(a) Reconcile the cash balance of the cash book.(b) Reconcile the difference between the bank balance shown

by the cash book and bank passbook(c) Both a and b(d) None of these

5.2.2 Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statement with AdjustedCash Book

When we look at the various items that normally cause the difference betweenthe passbook balance and the cash book balance, we find a number of items,which appear only in the passbook. Why not first record such items in thecash book to work out the adjusted balance (also known as amended balance)of the cash book and then prepare the bank reconciliation statement. Thisshall reduce the number of items responsible for the difference and have thecorrect figure of balance at bank in the balance sheet. In fact, this is exactlywhat is done in practice whereby only those items which cause the differenceon account of the time gap in recording appear in bank reconciliation statement.These are as (i) cheques issued but not yet presented, (ii) cheques depositedbut not yet collected, and (iii) due to an error in the passbook. The step wisepreparation of bank reconciliation statement is shown in figure 5.4.

Page 170: 11th Accountancy

164Bank Reconciliation Statement

Illustration 9

The following is the summary of a cash book for December, 2004.

Cash Book (Bank Column)

Rs. Rs.Receipts 13,221 Balance b/d 6,849Balance c/d 4,986 Payments 11,358

18,207 18,207

All receipts are banked and payments are made by cheques. On investigation thefollowing are observed:

1. Bank charges of Rs. 1,224 entered in the bank statement have not been entered incash book.

2. Cheques drawn amounting to Rs. 2,403 have not been presented to the bank forpayment.

3. Cheques received totalling Rs. 6,858 have been entered in the cash book and depositedin the bank, but have not been credited by the bank until January, 2005.

4. A cheque for Rs. 198 has been entered as a receipt in the cash book instead of aspayment.

5. A cheque for Rs. 225 has been debited by the bank in error.6. A cheque received for Rs. 720 has been returned by the bank and marked “No

funds available”, no adjustment had been made in the cash book.7. All dividends receivable are credited directly to the bank account. During December,

an amount of Rs. 558 was credited by the bank and no entry is made in the cash book.8. A cheque drawn for Rs. 54 has been incorrectly entered in the cash book as Rs.594.9. The balance brought forward should have been Rs. 639.

10. The bank statement as on December, 31, 2004 showed an overdraft of Rs. 10,458.(a) You are required to prepare an amended cash book and(b) Prepare a bank reconciliation statement as on Dec. 31, 2004.

Solution

Amended Cash Book(Bank column)

Dr. Cr.Date Particulars L.F. Amount Date Particulars L.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

Dividends received 558 Balance b/d 4,986 Bank charges 1,224Adj. for cheque drawn for 540 Adj. regarding cheque 396Rs.54 entered as Rs.594 entered as receiptAdj. of balance brought 450 Adj. regarding cheque 720forward returnedBalance c/d 5,778

7,326 7,326

Balance b/d 5,778

Page 171: 11th Accountancy

165Bank Reconciliation Statement

Bank Reconciliation Statement as on Dec. 31, 2004

Rs. Rs.Overdraft as per bank statement 10,458

Add: Cheque issued but not yet presented for payment 2,40312,861

Less: Cheques deposited but not yet credited 6,858

Cheque debited in error 225 7,083Balance as per cash book 5,778

Illustration 10

The bank overdraft of Smith Ltd., on December 31, 2004 as per cash book is Rs.18,000From the following information, asscertain the adjusted cash balance and prepare bankreconciliation statement Rs.

(i) Unpresented cheques 6,000

(ii) Uncleared cheques 3,400

(iii) Bank interest debited in the passbook only 1,000

(iv) Bills collected and credited in the passbook only 1,600

(v) Cheque of Arun traders dishonoured 1,000

(vi) Cheque issued to Kapoor & Co. not yet entered in the 600of cash book.

Amended Cash Book (Bank Column)

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars L.F. Amount Date Particulars L.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Bills collected as per 1,600 Balance b/d 18,000passbookBalance c/d 19,000 Interest 1,000

Cheque dishonoured(Arun Traders) 1,000Kapoor and Co. 600(cheque)

20,600 20,600

Balance b/d 19,000

Bank Reconciliation Statement as on December 31, 2004

Bank overdraft as per cash book 19,000Add Uncleared cheques 3,400

22,400Less Unpresented cheques 6,000

Bank overdraft as per passbook 16,400

Page 172: 11th Accountancy

166Bank Reconciliation Statement

Fig. 5.4 : Showing the step wise preparation of bank reconcilation statement

A Small Project — An Activity of Preparation of Bank Reconcilation Statement

Kamlesh works as a cashier for Aqua Products Co. His responsibilities includemaintainance of the firm’s. The firm’s cash book for July 2005 which Kamleshhas just finished entering and balancing for the month is shown in exhibit 1.Help Kamlesh to prepare the bank reconciliation statement.Note : the cash column is omitted). A copy of firm’s bank statement dated July 31, 2005 isalso illustrated in exhibiy 2. The numerical difference between the two is Rs. 261.30.(Bank statement Rs. 903.00 – Cash book Rs. 641.70).

Aqua Products – Cash Book

Date Particulars Bank Date Particulars BankRs. Rs.

2005 2005July 01 Balance b/d 756.20 July 02 Aditya 004450 50.00July 03 Kanishk Enterprises 220.00 July 02 Verma & Co. 004451 130.00July 15 Rampaul and Sons 330.00 July 02 Gytri & Co. 004452 10.00July 31 Sarin Bros 63.00 July 08 Mehta Ltd. 004453 27.50

July 14 Subash & Co. 89.00July 14 Kaushik 004454 49.00July 15 Kriosk Ltd. 004455 250.00July 26 Insurance premium 122.00

(SO)July 31 Balance c/d 641.70

1,369.20 1,369.20

July 31 Balance b/d 641.70

Exhibit-1

5.4

Page 173: 11th Accountancy

167Bank Reconciliation Statement

Bank Statement

Account Aqual Products Co.Account Number 79014456Ledger No. 17Date July 31, 2005

Date Details Debit Credit BalanceRs. Rs. Rs.

2005July 01 Balance 756.20 Cr.July 04 Cheques 220.00 976.20 Cr.July 09 004450 50.00 926.20 Cr.July 14 004452 10.00 916.20 Cr.July 16 Subash & Co. (DD) 89.00 827.20 Cr.July 19 Cheques 330.00 1,157.20 Cr.July 24 004455 250.00 907.20 Cr.July 26 Insurance Premium 122.00 785.20 Cr.July 30 004454 49.00 736.20 Cr.July 31 Bank charges 12.95 723.25 Cr.July 31 Ruchita Limited 179.75 903.00 Cr.

Exhibit 2

Solution

Step 1 : Tick off the items in both cash book and bank statement (as shown in Exhibit 2).Step 2 : Updating the cash book from the bank statement.The unticked items on the bank statement indicate items that have not yet been enteredin Aqua Products Co.’s cash book. These are :

(i) Receipt on July 31 by Ruchita Limited amounting to Rs. 179.75(ii) Bank charges debited by bank on July 31 amounting to Rs. 12.95

These items needs to be entered in the cash book to up date it (refer exhibit 3 – Thenew entries are shown in darker type).

Aqua Products Cash Book (Extract)

Date Details Bank Date Details BankRs. Rs.

2005 2005July 31 Balance b/d 641.70 July 31 Bank charges 12.95July 31 Ruchita Limited 179.75 Jul. 31 Balance c/d 808.50

821.45 821.45

Aug. 01 Balance b/d 808.50

Exhibit 3

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168Bank Reconciliation Statement

Step 3 : Balance the cash book bank columns to produce an updated balance.As shown in exhibit 3, the balance of the bank column stands at Rs. 808.50. But then

a difference is Rs. 94.50 (i.e. Rs. 903.00 – 808.50) still exists.Step 4 : Identify the remaining unticked items from the cash book.These are Rs.

1. Receipts on July 31 from Sarin Bros 63.002. Payments made on July 02 to Verma & Co. 130.00

(Cheque No. 004457)3. Payments made on July 08 to Mehta Ltd. 27.50

(Cheque No. 004453)These above three items will appear in next month’s bank statement as these are due totime gap. These are the items which will appear in the bank reconciliation statement.

Aqua Products Co.

Bank Reconciliation Statement as on July 31, 2005

Rs.Balance at bank as per cash book 808.50

Add Unpresented chequesVerma and Co. 130.00Mehta and Co. 27.50 157.50

966.00Less Outstanding lodgement 63.00

Balance at bank as per bank statement 903.00

Do it Yourself

You are a trainee accountant for Kamraj Limited, a small printing company. One ofyour tasks is to enter transactions in the company’s cash book, check the entries onreceipt of the bank statement, update the cash book and make any amendments asnecessary. You are then asked to prepare a bank reconciliation statement at the endof the month.The company’s cash book (showing the bank money columns only) and the bankstatement are shown below.You are required to :• compare the cash book with the bank statement.• Make the entries necessary to update the cash book.• Calculate the adjusted bank balance as per cash book.

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169Bank Reconciliation Statement

Kamrat Ltd. – Cash Book

Date Particulars Bank Date Particulars BankRs. Rs.

2005 2005Aug. 01 Balance b/d 1,946 Aug. 02 XYZ Insurance 75

Aug. 01 Kapoor & Co. 249 Aug. 02 Nanda & Co. 200100 206Aug. 05 V. S. Rao 188 Aug. 04 Daily Ltd. 200101 315Aug. 08 S. K. Alok 150 Aug. 07 Garage Charges200102 211Aug. 10 E. Norries Ltd. 440 Aug. 09 M.D. Finance 120Aug. 18 Samaira Ltd. 65 Aug. 13 Hill Bros 200103 22Aug. 27 Harsh Vardan 520 Aug. 20 Akshey Ltd. 200104 137Aug. 30 IBP Partners 82 Aug. 27 Kalakriti Ltd. 270

Aug. 31 Balance c/d 2,284

3,640 3,640

Sep. 01 Balance b/d 2,284

Exhibit 1

ABC STATEMENT12, Mall Road, Gurgaon.Account Kamraj Limited Account No.78300582Date August 31, 2004

Date Particulars Debit Credit BalanceRs.

2005Aug. 01 Balance 1,946 CRAug. 02 Cheques 249 2,195 CRAug. 04 XYZ Insurance (DD) 75 2,120 CRAug. 04 200101 315 1,805 CRAug. 05 V. S. Rao 188 1,993 CRAug. 08 Cheques 150 2,143 CRAug. 09 200102 211 1,932 CRAug. 12 Cheques 440 2,372 CRAug. 12 N. P. Finance (SO) 120 2,252 CRAug. 20 Cheques 65 2,317 CRAug. 27 Kalakriti Ltd. 270 2,047 CRAug. 30 Tony Bros 92 2,139 CRAug. 31 Bank charges 55 2,084 CRAug. 31 Surya Finance (SO) 1,000 1,084 CR

Exhibit 2

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170Bank Reconciliation Statement

Name of business..........

Bank Reconciliation Statement as at ..........

Balance at bank as per cash book ..........

Add : unpresented cheque(s) ..........

Less : outstanding lodgement(s) not yet entered on bank statement

Balance at bank as per bank statement ..........

Note : show the working clearly and step-wise

Test your Understanding - III

State whether each of the following statements is True or False

1. Passbook is the statement of account of the customer maintained by the bank.2. A business firm periodically prepares a bank reconciliation statement to reconcile

the bank balance as per the cash book with the passbook as these two showdifferent balances for various reasons.

3. Cheques issued but not presented for payment will reduce the balance as perthe passbook.

4. Cheques deposited but not collected will result in increasing the balance of thecash book when compared to passbook.

5. Overdraft as per the passbook is less than the overdraft as per cash book whenthere are cheques deposited but not collected by the banker.

6. The debit balance of the bank account as per the cash book should be equal tothe credit balance of the account of the business in the books of the bank.

7. Favourable bank balance as per the cash book will be less than the bank passbookbalance when there are unpresented cheques for payment.

8. Direct collections received by the bank on behalf of the customers would increasethe balance as per the bank passbook when compared to the balance as per thecash book.

9. When payments made by the bank as per the standing instructions of thecustomer, the balance in the passbook will be more when compared to the cashbook.

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

1. Bank Reconciliation Statement2. Cash book and Passbook

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171Bank Reconciliation Statement

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Bank Reconciliation Statement : A statement prepared to reconcile the bankbalance as per cash book with the balance as per passbook or bank statement,by showing the items of difference between the two accounts.

2. Causes of difference :

– timing of recoding the transaction.– error made by business or by the bank.

3. Correct cash balance: It may happens that some of the receipts or paymentsare missing from either of the books and errors, if any, need to be rectified.This arise the need to look at the entries/errors recorded in both statementsand other information available and compute the correct cash balance beforereconciling the statements.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. State the need for the preparation of bank reconciliation statement?2. What is a bank overdraft?3. Briefly explain the statement ‘wrongly debited by the bank’ with the help of

an example.4. State the causes of difference occurred due to time lag.5. Briefly explain the term ‘favourable balance as per cash book’6. Enumerate the steps to ascertain the correct cash book balance.

Long Answers

1. What is a bank reconciliation statement. Why is it prepared?2. Explain the reasons where the balance shown by the bank passbook does

not agree with the balance as shown by the bank column of the cash book.3. Explain the process of preparing bank reconciliation statement with

amended cash balance.

Numerical Questions

Favourable balance of cash book and passbook –1. From the following particulars, prepare a, bank reconciliation statement

as at March 31, 2005.(i) Balance as per cash book Rs. 3,200

(ii) Cheque issued but not presented for payment Rs. 1,800(iii) Cheque deposited but not collected upto March 31, 2005 Rs. 2000(iv) Bank charges debited by bank Rs. 150(Ans: Balance as per passbook Rs. 2,800)

2. On March 31 2005 the cash book showed a balance of Rs. 3,700 as cash atbank, but the bank passbook made up to same date showed that chequesfor Rs. 700, Rs. 300 and Rs. 180 respectively had not presented for payment,

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172Bank Reconciliation Statement

Also, cheque amounting to Rs. 1,200 deposited into the account had notbeen credited. Prepare a bank reconciliation statement.(Ans : Balance as per passbook Rs. 3,680).

3. The cash book shows a bank balance of Rs. 7,800. On comparing the cashbook with passbook the following discrepancies were noted :(a) Cheque deposited in bank but not credited Rs. 3,000(b) Cheque issued but not yet present for payment Rs. 1,500(c) Insurance premium paid by the bank Rs. 2,000(d) Bank interest credit by the bank Rs. 400(e) Bank charges Rs. 100(d) Directly deposited by a customer Rs. 4,000(Ans: Balance as per passbook Rs. 8,600).

4. Bank balance of Rs. 40,000 showed by the cash book of Atul on December31, 2005. It was found that three cheques of Rs. 2,000, Rs. 5,000 andRs. 8,000 deposited during the month of December were not credited inthe passbook till January 02, 2005. Two cheques of Rs. 7,000 and Rs.8,000 issued on December 28, were not presented for payment till January03, 2005. In addition to it bank had credited Atul for Rs. 325 as interestand had debited him with Rs. 50 as bank charges for which there were nocorresponding entries in the cash book.Prepare a bank reconciliation statement as on December 31, 2004.(Ans: Balance as per passbook Rs. 40,245).

5. On comparing the cash book with passbook of Naman it is found that onMarch 31, 2005, bank balance of Rs. 40,960 showed by the cash bookdiffers from the bank balance with regard to the following :(a) Bank charges Rs 100 on March 31, 2005, are not entered in the cash

book.(b) On March 21, 2005, a debtor paid Rs. 2,000 into the company’s bank

in settlement of his account, but no entry was made in the cash bookof the company in respect of this.

(c) Cheques totaling Rs. 12,980 were issued by the company and dulyrecorded in the cash book before March 31, 2005, but had not beenpresented at the bank for payment until after that date.

(d) A bill for Rs. 6,900 discounted with the bank is entered in the cashbook with recording the discount charge of Rs. 800.

(e) Rs. 3,520 is entered in the cash book as paid into bank on March 31st,2005, but not credited by the bank until the following day.

(f) No entry has been made in the cash book to record the dishon or onMarch 15, 2005 of a cheque for Rs. 650 received from Bhanu.Prepare a reconciliation statement as on March 31, 2005.

(Ans: Balance as per passbook Rs. 50,870).6. Prepare bank reconciliation statement as on December 31, 2004. On this

day the passbook of Mr. Himanshu showed a balance of Rs. 7,000.

(a) Cheques of Rs. 1,000 directly deposited by a customer.

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173Bank Reconciliation Statement

(b) The bank has credited Mr. Himanshu for Rs. 700 as interest.

(c) Cheques for Rs. 3000 were issued during the month of December butof these cheques for Rs. 1,000 were not presented during the month ofDecember.

(Ans: Balance as per cash book Rs. 3,300).7. From the following particulars prepare a bank reconciliation statement

showing the balance as per cash book on December 31, 2005.(a) Two cheques of Rs. 2,000 and Rs. 5,000 were paid into bank in October,

2005 but were not credited by the bank in the month of December.(b) A cheque of Rs. 800 which was received from a customer was entered

in the bank column of the cash book in December 2004 but was omittedto be banked in December, 2004.

(c) Cheques for Rs. 10,000 were issued into bank in January 2005 butnot credited by the bank on December 31, 2005.

(d) Interest on investment Rs. 1,000 collected by bank appeared in thepassbook.Balance as per Passbook was Rs. 50,000

(Ans: Balance as per cash book Rs. 47,800)8. Balance as per passbook of Mr. Kumar is 3,000.

(a) Cheque paid into bank but not yet clearedRam Kumar Rs. 1,000Kishore Kumar Rs. 500

(b) Bank Charges Rs. 300(c) Cheque issued but not presented

Hameed Rs. 2,000Kapoor Rs. 500

(d) Interest entered in the passbook but not entered in the cash book Rs. 100Prepare a bank reconciliation statement.

(Ans: Balance as per cash book Rs. 2,200).9. The passbook of Mr. Mohit current account showed a credit Balance of

Rs. 20,000 on dated December 31, 2005. Prepare a Bank ReconciliationStatement with the following information.(i) A cheque of Rs. 400 drawn on his saving account has been shown on

current account.(ii) He issued two cheques of Rs. 300 and Rs. 500 on of December 25, but

only the Ist cheque was presented for payment.(iii) One cheque issued by Mr. Mohit of Rs. 500 on December 25, but it was

not presented for payment whereas it was recorded twice in the cashbook.

(Ans: Balance as per cash book Rs. 18,900).

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174Bank Reconciliation Statement

Unfavourable balance of cash book

10. On Ist January 2005, Rakesh had an overdraft of Rs. 8,000 as showed byhis cash book. Cheques amounting to Rs. 2,000 had been paid in by himbut were not collected by the bank by January 01, 2005. He issued chequesof Rs. 800 which were not presented to the bank for payment up to thatday. There was a debit in his passbook of Rs. 60 for interest and Rs. 100for bank charges. Prepare bank reconciliation statement for comparingboth the balance.(Ans : Overdraft as per passbook Rs. 9,360)

11. Prepare bank reconciliation statement.(i) Overdraft shown as per cash book on December 31, 2005 Rs. 10,000.

(ii) Bank charges for the above period also debited in the passbookRs. 100.

(iii) Interest on overdraft for six months ending December 31, 2005Rs. 380 debited in the passbook.

(iv) Cheques issued but not incashed prior to December 31, 2005amounted to Rs. 2,150.

(v) Interest on Investment collected by the bank and credited in thepassbook Rs. 600.

(vi) Cheques paid into bank but not cleared before December, 31 2005were Rs. 1,100.

(Ans: overdraft as per passbook Rs. 8,830).12. Kumar find that the bank balance shown by his cash book on December

31, 2005 is Rs. 90,600 (Credit) but the passbook shows a difference dueto the following reason:A cheque (post dated) for Rs. 1,000 has been debited in the bank columnof the cash book but not presented for payment. Also, a cheque forRs. 8,000 drawn in favour of Manohar has not yet been presented forpayment. Cheques totaling Rs. 1,500 deposited in the bank have not yetbeen collected and cheque for Rs. 5,000 has been dishonoured.(Ans: overdraft as per passbook Rs. 1,03,600).

13. On December 31, 2005, the cash book of Mittal Bros. Showed an overdraftof Rs. 6,920. From the following particulars prepare a Bank ReconciliationStatement and ascertain the balance as per passbook.(1) Debited by bank for Rs. 200 on account of Interest on overdraft and

Rs. 50 on account of charges for collecting bills.(2) Cheques drawn but not encashed before December, 31 2005 for

Rs. 4,000.(3) The bank has collected interest and has credited Rs. 600 in passbook.(4) A bill receivable for Rs. 700 previously discounted with the bank

had been dishonoured and debited in the passbook.(5) Cheques paid into bank but not collected and credited before

December 31, 2005 amounted Rs. 6,000.(Ans : Overdraft as per passbook Rs. 9,270).

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175Bank Reconciliation Statement

Unfavourable balance of the passbook

14. Prepare bank reconciliation statement of Shri Bhandari as on December31, 2005(i) The Payment of a cheque for Rs. 550 was recorded twice in the

passbook.(ii) Withdrawal column of the passbook under cast by Rs. 200

(iii) A Cheque of Rs. 200 has been debited in the bank column of theCash Book but it was not sent to bank at all.

(iv) A Cheque of Rs. 300 debited to Bank column of the passbook wasnot sent to the bank.

(v) Rs. 500 in respect of dishonoured cheque were entered in thepassbook but not in the cash book.Overdraft as per passbook is Rs. 20,000.

(Ans: Overdraft as per cash book Rs. 20,350).15. Overdraft shown by the passbook of Mr. Murli is Rs. 20,000. Prepare

bank reconciliation statement on dated December 31, 2005.(i) Bank charges debited as per passbook Rs. 500.

(ii) Cheques recorded in the cash book but not sent to the bank forcollection Rs. 2,500.

(iii) Received a payment directly from customer Rs. 4,600.(iv) Cheque issued but not presented for payment Rs. 6,980.(v) Interest credited by the bank Rs. 100.

(vi) LIC paid by bank Rs. 2,500.(vii) Cheques deposited with the bank but not collected Rs. 3,500.(Ans: Overdraft as per cash book Rs. 22,680).

16. Raghav & Co. have two bank accounts. Account No. I and Account No. II.From the following particulars relating to Account No. I, find out the balanceon that account of December 31, 2005 according to the cash book ofthe firm.(i) Cheques paid into bank prior to December 31, 2005, but not credited

for Rs. 10,000.(ii) Transfer of funds from account No. II to account no. I recorded by

the bank on December 31, 2005 but entered in the cash book afterthat date for Rs. 8,000.

(iii) Cheques issued prior to December 31, 2005 but not presented untilafter that date for Rs. 7,429.

(iv) Bank charges debited by bank not entered in the cash book forRs. 200.

(v) Interest Debited by the bank not entered in the cash book Rs. 580.(vi) Overdraft as per Passbook Rs. 18,990.(Ans: Overdraft as per cash book Rs. 23,639).

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176Bank Reconciliation Statement

17. Prepare a bank reconciliation statement from the following particularsand show the balance as per cash book.(i) Balance as per passbook on December 31, 2005 overdrawn

Rs. 20,000.(ii) Interest on bank overdraft not entered in the cash book Rs. 2,000.(iii) Rs. 200 insurance premium paid by bank has not been entered in

the cash book.(iv) Cheques drawn in the last week of December, 2005, but not cleared

till date for Rs. 3,000 and Rs. 3,500.(v) Cheques deposited into bank on November, 2005, but yet to be

credited on dated December 31, 2005 Rs. 6,000.(vii) Wrongly debited by bank Rs. 500.(Ans: Overdraft as per cash book Rs. 17,800).

18. The passbook of Mr. Randhir showed an overdraft of Rs. 40,950 on March31, 2005.Prepare bank reconciliation statement on March 31, 2005.(i) Out of cheques amounting to Rs. 8,000 drawn by Mr. Randhir on

March 27 a cheque for Rs. 3,000 was encashed on April 03.(ii) Credited by bank with Rs. 3,800 for interest collected by them, but

the amount is not entered in the cash book.(iii) Rs. 10,900 paid in by Mr. Randhir in cash and by cheques on March,

31 cheques amounting to Rs. 3,800 were collected on April, 07.(iv) A Cheque of Rs. 780 credited in the passbook on March 28 being

dishonoured is debited again in the passbook on April 01, 2005. Therewas no entry in the cash book about the dishonour of the cheque untilApril 15.

(Ans: Overdraft as per cash book Rs. 36,350)

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177Bank Reconciliation Statement

Project

1. You are employed by Silk and Carpets as their cashier. Your mainresponsibility is to maintain the company’s cash book and prepare a bankreconciliation statement at the end of each month.The cash book (showing the bank money columns only) is set out belowtogether with a copy of the bank statement for February 2005.

You are required to :

• Reconcile the cash book with the bank statement.• Make the entries necessary to update the cash book..• Start with the balance as per the cash book, list any unpresented cheques

and sub-total on the reconciliation statement.• Enter details of bank lodgements.• Calculate the balance as per the bank statement and check your total against

the bank statement for accuracy.

Silk & Carpets Ltd. Cash Book

Cash BookDr. Cr.

Date Particulars Bank Date Particulars BankRs. Rs.

2005 2005Feb. 01 Balance b/d 1,425 Feb. 01 Bhargav Bros 98Feb. 01 Brown & Co. 157 Feb. 01 Maruti Ltd. 400460 50Feb. 04 Brindas 243 Feb. 03 Jackson Ltd. 400461 540Feb. 08 Robinson Ltd. 91 Feb. 09 Spencer Partners 400462 42Feb. 13 Morris 75 Feb. 09 Ivory Computer 400463 490Feb. 20 Kinki and Co. 420 Feb. 10 Surya Insurance 300Feb. 28 Howell Ltd. 94 Feb. 16 Shankar Garage 400464 110

Feb. 23 Petty cash 400465 50Feb. 27 Swaroop & Co. 400466 120Feb. 28 Balance c/d 705

2,505 2,505

Feb. 08 Balance b/d 705

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178Bank Reconciliation Statement

ROHTAGI BANK STATEMENT10, Shastri Road, New Delhi.

AccountBrooklyn Limited Account No. 29842943

Date February 28, 2005

Date Particulars Debit Credit Balance2004

Feb. 01 Balance 1,425 Cr.Feb. 02 Cheques 157 1,582 Cr.Feb. 04 Maruti Ltd. 50 1,532 Cr.Feb. 02 400460 98 1,434 Cr.Feb. 06 Brindas 243 1,677 Cr.Feb. 10 Cheques 91 1,768 Cr.Feb. 12 Surya Insurance (DD) 300 1,468 Cr.Feb. 14 Morris 75 1,543 Cr.Feb. 14 400463 490 1,053 Cr.Feb. 23 Cheques 420 1,473 Cr.Feb. 26 Rajeshwar 103 1,370 Cr.Feb. 26 400465 50 1,320 Cr.Feb. 27 Soumya 220 1,540 Cr.Feb. 28 Bank charges 38 1,502 Cr.

2. As accounts assistant for Chinnar Limited your main task is to entertransactions into the company’s cash book, check the entries against thebank statement and prepare a monthly bank reconciliation statement.The cash book (showing the bank money columns only) and bank statementfor October 2005 are set out below.

You are required to :

• Reconcile the cash book with the bank statement.• Make the entries necessary to update the cash book.• Balance the bank columns of the cash book and calculate the revised bank

balance.• Start with the balance as per the cash book, list any unpresented cheques

and sub-total on the reconciliation statement.• Enter details of bank lodgements.• Calculate the balance as per the bank statement and check your total against

the bank statement for accuracy.

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179Bank Reconciliation Statement

Chinnar Limited – Cash BookCash Book

Date Particulars Bank Date Particulars Bank.Rs. Rs.

Oct. 01 Balance b/d 2,521 Oct. 01 Sharp & Co Rent 400Oct. 04 Allen Rogers 620 Oct. 04 I. Oswal 210526 367Oct. 08 Moore & Kale 27 Oct. 05 Health & Sports 210527 1,108Oct. 11 Howard Limited 48 Oct. 08 Evon & Son 210528 320Oct. 11 Barrett & Bryson 106 Oct. 13 Khare Garage 210529 32Oct. 12 D Patel 301 Oct. 14 J. Choudrey 210530 28Oct. 20 Cohen & Co. 58 Oct. 22 Astha Insurance (DD) 139Oct. 25 J McGilvery 209 Oct. 25 Soma Computers 210531 1,800Oct. 31 Balance c/d 604 Oct. 30 Rastogi 300

4,494 4,494

Nov. 01 Balance b/d 604

OM BANK STATEMENT99, Jawahar MargAccountChinnar Limited Account No. 06618432Date October 31, 2005

Date Particulars Debit Credit BalanceRs.

2004Oct. 01 Balance 2,521 Cr.Oct. 01 Sharp & Co 400 2,121 Cr.Oct. 04 Allen Rogers 620 2,741 Cr.Oct. 07 210526 367 2,374 Cr.Oct. 11 Cheques 154 2,528 Cr.Oct. 13 D Patel (BGC) 301 2,829 Cr.Oct. 15 Cheques 27 2,856 Cr.Oct. 18 210528 320 2,536 Cr.Oct. 18 210527 1,108 1,428 Cr.Oct. 22 Astha Insurance (DD) 139 1,289 Cr.Oct. 27 210531 1,800 511 Dr.Oct. 28 Bharadwaj’s 114 397 Dr.Oct. 29 Rastogi 300 697 Dr.Oct. 29 Bank Interest 53 750 Dr.Oct. 29 Bank Charges 45 795 Dr.

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180Bank Reconciliation Statement

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding - I

(I) 1. Time Gap 2. Error 3. Time gap4. Time gap 5. Time gap

(II) (i) Customer account (ii) Debit (iii) Credit(iv) Debit (v) Added (vi) Deducted(vii) loss (viii) Loss (ix) Added(x) Higher

Test Your Understanding - II

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6.(b)

Test Your Understanding - III

1. (T) 2. (T) 3. (F) 4. (T) 5. (F) 6.(T), 7.(T) 8.(T) 9.(F)

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In the earlier chapters, you have learnt about thebasic principles of accounting that for every debit

there will be an equal credit. It implies that if thesum of all debits equals the sum of all credits, it ispresumed that the posting to the ledger in termsof debit and credit amounts is accurate. The trialbalance is a tool for verifying the correctness ofdebit and credit amounts. It is an arithmeticalcheck under the double entry system which verifiesthat both aspects of every transaction have beenrecorded accurately. This chapter explains themeaning and process of preparation of trial balanceand the types of errors and their rectification.

6.1 Meaning of Trial Balance

A trial balance is a statement showing thebalances, or total of debits and credits, of all theaccounts in the ledger with a view to verify thearithmatical accuracy of posting into the ledgeraccounts. Trial balance is an important statementin the accounting process. which shows finalposition of all accounts and helps in preparingthe final statements. The task of preparing thestatements is simplified because the accountantcan take the account balances from the trialbalance instead of looking them up in the ledger.

Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors 6

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter,you will be able to :• state the meaning of

trial balance;

• enumerate the objectivesof preparing trialbalance ;

• prepare trial balance;

• explain the types oferrors;

• state various processof locating errors ;

• identify the errors whichaffect the agreement oftrial balance and thosewhich do not affect theagreement of trialbalance;

• rectify the errorswithout preparingsuspense account;and

• rectify the errors withsuspense account.

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Accountancy182

Trial Balance of ......as on March 31, 2005

Account Title L.F Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Total

Fig. 6.1 : Showing format of a trial balance

It is normally prepared at the end of an accounting year. However, anorganisation may prepare a trial balance at the end of any chosen period,which may be monthly, quarterly, half yearly or annually depending upon itsrequirements.In order to prepare a trial balance following steps are taken:• Ascertain the balances of each account in the ledger.• List each account and place its balance in the debit or credit column, as

the case may be. (If an account has a zero balance, it may be included inthe trial balance with zero in the column for its normal balance).

• Compute the total of debit balances column.• Compute the total of the credit balances column.• Verify that the sum of the debit balances equal the sum of credit balances.

If they do not tally, it indicate that there are some errors. So one mustcheck the correctness of the balances of all accounts. It may be notedthat all assets expenses and receivables account shall have debit balanceswhereas all liabilities, revenues and payables accounts shall have creditbalances (refer figure 6.2).

6.2 Objectives of Preparing the Trial Balance

The trial balance is prepared to fulfill the following objectives :1. To ascertain the arithmetical accuracy of the ledger accounts.2. To help in locating errors.3. To help in the preparation of the financial statements.

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183Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors

Account Title L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

• Capital• Land and Buildings• Plant and Machinery• Equipment• Furniture and Fixtures• Cash in Hand• Cash at Bank• Debtors• Bills Receivable• Stock of Raw Materials• Work in Progress• Stock of Finished Goods• Prepaid Insurance• Purchases• Carriage Inwards• Carriage Outwards• Sales• Sales Return• Purchases Return• Interest Paid• Commission/Discount Received• Salaries• Long Term Loan• Bills Payable• Creditors• Outstanding Salaries• Outstanding Interest Earned• Advances from Customers• Drawings• Reserve Fund• Provision for Doubtful Debts

Total xxx xxx

Fig. 6.2 : Illustrative trial balance

6.2.1 To Ascertain the Arithmetical Accuracy of Ledger Accounts

As stated earlier, the purpose of preparing a trial balance is to asceitain whetherall debits and credit are properly recorded in the ledger or not and that allaccounts have been correctly balanced. As a summary of the ledger, it is a listof the accounts and their balances. When the totals of all the debit balances

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Accountancy184

and credit balances in the trial balance are equal, it is assumed that theposting and balancing of accounts is arithmetically correct. However, thetallying of the trial balance is not a conclusive proof of the accuracy of theaccounts. It only ensures that all debits and the corresponding credits havebeen properly recorded in the ledger.

6.2.2 To Help in Locating Errors

When a trial balance does not tally (that is, the totals of debit and creditcolumns are not equal), we know that at least one error has occured. Theerror (or errors) may have occured at one of those stages in the accountingprocess: (1) totalling of subsidiary books, (2) posting of journal entries in theledger, (3) calculating account balances, (4) carrying account balances to thetrial balance, and (5) totalling the trial balance columns.

It may be noted that the accounting accuracy is not ensured even if thetotals of debit and credit balances are equal because some errors do not affectequality of debits and credits. For example, the book-keeper may debit a correctamount in the wrong account while making the journal entry or in posting ajournal entry to the ledger. This error would cause two accounts to haveincorrect balances but the trial balance would tally. Another error is to recordan equal debit and credit of an incorrect amount. This error would give thetwo accounts incorrect balances but would not create unequal debits andcredits. As a result, the fact that the trial balance has tallied does not implythat all entries in the books of original record (journal, cash book, etc.) havebeen recorded and posted correctly. However, equal totals do suggest thatseveral types of errors probably have not occured.

6.2.3 To Help in the Preparation of the Financial Statements

Trial balance is considered as the connecting link between accounting recordsand the preparation of financial statements. For preparing a financialstatement, one need not refer to the ledger. In fact, the availability of a talliedtrial balance is the first step in the preparation of financial statements. Allrevenue and expense accounts appearing in the trial balance are transferredto the trading and profit and loss account and all liabilities, capital and assetsaccounts are transferred to the balance sheet.(Preparation of the financial statements is explained in chapters, 9 and 10).

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185Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors

6.3 Preparation of Trial Balance

A trial balance can be prepared in the following three ways :(i) Totals Method(ii) Balances Method(iii) Totals-cum-balances Method

6.3.1 Totals method

Under this method, total of each side in the ledger (debit and credit) is ascertainedseparately and shown in the trial balance in the respective columns. The total ofdebit column of trial balance should agree with the total of credit column in thetrial balance because the accounts are based on double entry system. However,this method is not widely used in practice, as it does not help in assuming accuracyof balances of various accounts and and preparation of the fianancial statements.

6.3.2 Balances Method

This is the most widely used method in practice. Under this method trialbalance is prepared by showing the balances of all ledger accounts and thentotalling up the debit and credit columns of the trial balance to assure theircorrectness. The account balances are used because the balance summarisesthe net effect of all transactions relating to an account and helps in preparingthe financial statements. It may be noted that in trial balance, normally inplace of balances in individual accounts of the debtors, a figure of sundrydebtors is shown, and in place of individual accounts of creditors, a figure ofsundry creditors is shown.

6.3.3 Totals-cum-balances Method

This method is a combination of totals method and balances method. Underthis method four columns for amount are prepared. Two columns for writingthe debit and credit totals of various accounts and two columns for writingthe debit and credit balances of these accounts. However, this method is alsonot used in practice because it is time consuming and hardly serves anyadditional or special purpose.

Let us now learn how will the trial balance be prepared using each ofthese methods with the help of the following example :

Mr. Rawat’s ledger shows the following accounts for his business. Helphim in preparing the trial balance using : (i) Totals method,(ii) Balances method, (iii) Totals-cum-Balances method.

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Rahul’s Capital AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Dec. 31 Balance c/d 60,000 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 40,000

Cash 20,00060,000 2006 60,000

Jan. 01 Balance b/d 60,000

Rohan’s AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005

Cash 40,000 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 10,000Dec. 31 Balance c/d 20,000 Purchases 50,000

60,000 2006 60,000

Jan. 1 Balance b/d 20,000

Machinery AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005 2005Dec. 31 Balance b/d 20,000 Depreciation 3,000

Dec. 31 Balance c/d 17,00020,000 20,000

2006Jan. 01 Balance b/d 17,000

Rahul’s AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Jan. 01 Balance b/d 15,000 Cash 55,000

Sales 60,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 20,0002006 75,000 75,000

Jan. 01 Balance b/d 20,000

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187Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors

Sales AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Rahul 60,000Cash 10,000

70,000

Cash AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Jan. 01 Balanc e b/d 15,000 Rohan 40,000

Capital 20,000 Wages 5,000Rahul 55,000 Purchases 12,000Sales 10,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 43,000

1,00,000 1,00,000

2006Jan. 01 Balance b/d 43,000

Wages AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005

Cash 5,000

5,000

Depreciation AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Machinery 3,000

3,000

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Purchases Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005

Rohan 50,000Cash 12,000

62,000

The trial balance under the three methods is illustrated below:

(i) Trial Balance as at March 31, 2005(Using Totals Method)

Account L.F. Debit CreditTitle Total Total

Rs. Rs.Rawat’s Capital 60,000Rohan 40,000 60,000Machinery 20,000 3,000Rahul 75,000 55,000Sales 70,000Cash 1,00,000 57,000Wages 5,000Depreciation 3,000Purchases 62,000

3,05,000 3,05,000

(ii) Trial Balance as at March 31, 2005 (Using Balances Method)

Account Title L.F. Debit CreditBalance Balance

Rs. Rs.

Rawat’s Capital 60,000Rohan’s Capital 20,000Machinery 17,000Rahul 20,000Sales 70,000Cash 43,000Wages 5,000Depreciation 3,000Purchases 62,000

Total 1,50,000 1,50,000

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(iii) Trial Balance as at March 31, 2005 (Using Totals-cum-Balances Method)

Account Title L.F. Debit Credit Debit CreditTotal Total Balance Balance

Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.Rawat’s Capital 60,000 60,000Rohan 40,000 60,000 20,000Machinery 20,000 3,000 17,000Rahul 75,000 55,000 20,000Sales 70,000 70,000Cash 1,00,000 57,000 43,000Wages 5,000 5,000Depreciation 3,000 3,000Purchases 62,000 62,000

Total 3,05,000 3,05,000 1,50,000 1,50,000

Test Your Understanding - I

Indicate against each amount wheather it is a debit or a credit balance, and preparea trial balance as at March 31, 2005 based on the following balances:

Accounts Title AmountRs.

Capital 1,00,000Drawings 16,000Machinery 20,000Sales 2,00,000Purchases 2,10,000Sales return 20,000Purchases return 30,000Wages 40,000Goodwill 60,000Interest received 15,000Discount allowed 6,000Bank overdraft 22,000Bank loan 90,000Debtors :Nathu 55,000Roopa 20,000Creditors :Reena 35,000Ganesh 25,000Cash 54,000Stock on April 01, 2004 16,000

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6.4. Significance of Agreement of Trial Balance

It is important for an accountant that the trial balance should tally. Normally atallied trial balance means that both the debit and the credit entries have beenmade correctly for each transaction. However, as stated earlier, the agreement oftrial balance is not an absolute proof of accuracy of accounting records. A talliedtrial balance only proves, to a certain extent, that the posting to the ledger isarithmetically correct. But it does not guarantee that the entry itself is correct.There can be errors, which affect the equality of debits and credits, and there canbe errors, which do not affect the equality of debits and credits. Some commonerrors include the following:• Error in totalling of the debit and credit balances in the trial balance.• Error in totalling of subsidiary books.• Error in posting of the total of subsidiary books.• Error in showing account balances in wrong column of the tiral balance,

or in the wrong amount.• Omission in showing an account balance in the trial balance.• Error in the calculation of a ledger account balance.• Error while posting a journal entry: a journal entry may not have been

posted properly to the ledger, i.e., posting made either with wrong amountor on the wrong side of the account or in the wrong account.

• Error in recording a transaction in the journal: making a reverse entry,i.e., account to be debited is credited and amount to be credited is debited,or an entry with wrong amount.

• Error in recording a transaction in subsidiary book with wrong name or wrongamount.

6.4.1 Classification of Errors

Keeping in view the nature of errors, all the errors can be classified into thefollowing four categories:• Errors of Commission• Errors of Omission• Errors of Principle• Compensating Errors

6.4.2 Errors of Commission

These are the errors which are committed due to wrong posting of transactions,wrong totalling or balancing of the accounts, wrong casting of the subsidiarybooks, or wrong recording of amount in the books of original entry, etc.For example: Raj Hans Traders paid Rs. 25,000 to Preetpal Traders (a supplierof goods). This transaction was correctly recorded in the cashbook. But while

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posting to the ledger, Preetpal’s account was debited with Rs. 2,500 only. Thisconstitutes an error of commission. Such an error by definition is of clericalnature and most of the errors of commission affect in the trial balance.

6.4.3 Errors of Omission

The errors of omission may be committed at the time of recording thetransaction in the books of original entry or while posting to the ledger. Therecan be of two types:

(i) error of complete omission(ii) error of partial omission

When a transaction is completely omitted from recording in the books oforiginal record, it is an error of complete omission. For example, credit salesto Mohan Rs. 10,000, not entered in the sales book. When the recording oftransaction is partly omitted from the books, it is an error of partial omission.If in the above example, credit sales had been duly recorded in the sales bookbut the posting from sales book to Mohan’s account has not been made, itwould be an error of partial omission.

6.4.4 Errors of Principle

Accounting entries are recorded as per the generally accepted accountingprinciples. If any of these principles are violated or ignored, errors resultingfrom such violation are known as errors of principle. An error of principle mayoccur due to incorrect classification of expenditure or receipt between capitaland revenue. This is very important because it will have an impact on financialstatements. It may lead to under/over stating of income or assets or liabilities,etc. For example, amount spent on additions to the buildings should be treatedas capital expenditure and must be debited to the asset account. Instead, ifthis amount is debited to maintenance and repairs account, it has been treatedas a revenue expense. This is an error of principle. Similarly, if a credit purchaseof machinery is recorded in purchases book instead of journal proper or rentpaid to the landlord is recorded in the cash book as payment to landlord,these errors of principle. These errors do not affect the trial balance.

6.4.5 Compensating Errors

When two or more errors are committed in such a way that the net effect ofthese errors on the debits and credits of accounts is nil, such errors are calledcompensating errors. Such errors do not affect the tallying of the trial balance.For example, if purchases book has been overcast by Rs. 10,000 resulting inexcess debit of Rs. 10,000 in purchases account and sales returns book isundercast by Rs. 10,000 resulting in short debit to sales returns account is a

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case of two errors compensating each other’s effect. One plus is set off by theother minus, the net effect of these two errors is nil and so they do not affectthe agreement of trial balance.

6.5 Searching of Errors

If the trial balance does not tally, it is a clear indication that at least one errorhas occured. The error (or errors) needs to be located and corrected beforepreparing the financial statements.

If the trial balance does not tally, the accountant should take the followingsteps to detect and locate the errors :• Recast the totals of debit and credit columns of the trial balance.• Compare the account head/title and amount appearing in the trial balance,

with that of the ledger to detect any difference in amount or omission of anaccount.

• Compare the trial balance of current year with that of the previous year tocheck additions and deletions of any accounts and also verify whetherthere is a large difference in amount, which is neither expected norexplained.

• Re-do and check the correctness of balances of individual accounts inthe ledger.

• Re-check the correctness of the posting in accounts from the books oforiginal entry.

• If the difference between the debit and credit columns is divisible by 2,there is a possibility that an amount equal to one-half of the differencemay have been posted to the wrong side of another ledger account. Forexample, if the total of the debit column of the trial balance exceeds by Rs.1,500, it is quite possible that a credit item of Rs.750 may have beenwrongly posted in the ledger as a debit item. To locate such errors, theaccountant should scan all the debit entries of an amount of Rs. 750.

• The difference may also indicate a complete omission of a posting. Forexample, the difference of Rs. 1,500 given above may be due to omissionsof a posting of that amount on the credit side. Thus, the accountant shouldverify all the credit items with an amount of Rs. 1,500.

• If the difference is a multiple of 9 or divisible by 9, the mistake could bedue to transposition of figures. For example, if a debit amount of Rs. 459is posted as Rs. 954, the debit total in the trial balance will exceed thecredit side by Rs. 495 (i.e. 954 – 459 = 495). This difference is divisible by9. A mistake due to wrong placement of the decimal point may also bechecked by this method. Thus, a difference in trial balance divisible by 9helps in checking the errors for a transposed mistake.

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6.6 Rectification of Errors

From the point of view of rectification, the errors may be classified into thefollowing two categories :

(a) errors which do not affect the trial balance.(b) errors which affect the trial balance.

This distinction is relevant because the errors which do not affect the trialbalance usually take place in two accounts in such a manner that it can beeasily rectified through a journal entry whereas the errors which affect thetrial balance usually affect one account and a journal entry is not possible forrectification unless a suspense account has been opened.

6.6.1 Rectification of Errors which do not Affect the Trial Balance

These errors are committed in two or more accounts. Such errors are alsoknown as two sided errors. They can be rectified by recording a journal entrygiving the correct debit and credit to the concerned accounts.

Examples of such errors are – complete omission to record an entry in thebooks of original entry; wrong recording of transactions in the book of accounts;complete omission of posting to the wrong account on the correct side, anderrors of principle.The rectification process essentially involves:• Cancelling the effect of wrong debit or credit by reversing it; and• Restoring the effect of correct debit or credit.

For this purpose, we need to analyse the error in terms of its effect on theaccounts involved which may be:

(i) Short debit or credit in an account ; and/or(ii) Excess debit or credit in an account.

Therefore, rectification entry can be done by :

(i) debiting the account with short debit or with excess credit,(ii) crediting the account with excess debit or with short credit.

The procedure for rectification for such errors is explained with the help offollowing examples :

(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were not recorded in the sales book. This is anerror of complete omission. Its affect is that Mohan’s account has not been debitedand Sales account has not been credited. Accordingly, recording usual entry forcredit sales will rectify the error.

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Sales A/c 10,000

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(b) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were recorded as Rs. 1,000 in the sales book.This is an error of commission. The effect of wrong recording is shown below:

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 1,000

To Sales A/c 1,000

Correct effect should have been:

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000

Now that Mohan’s account has to be given an additional debit of Rs. 9,000and sales account has to be credited with additional amount of Rs. 9,000,rectification entry will be :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 9,000

To Sales A/c 9,000

(c) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were recorded as Rs. 12,000. This is an error ofcommission. The effect of wrong entry made has been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 12,000

To Sales A/c 12,000

Correct effect should have been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000

You can see that there is an excess debit of Rs. 2,000 in Mohan’s accountand excess credit of Rs. 2,000 in sales account.

The, rectification entry will be recorded as follows:

Sales A/c Dr. 2,000

To Mohan‘s A/c 2,000

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(d) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 was correctly recorded in the sales book but wasposted to Ram’s account. This is an error of commission. The effect of wrong postinghas been :

Ram’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000

Correct effect should have been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000

Notice that there is no error in sales account. But Ram’s account has beendebited with Rs. 10,000 instead of Mohan’s account.

Hence rectification entry will be :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Ram’s A/c 10,000

(e) Rent paid Rs. 2,000 was wrongly shown as payment to landlord in thecash book:The effect of wrong posting has been :

Landlord’s A/c Dr. 2,000

To Cash A/c 2,000

Correct effect should have been :

Rent A/c Dr. 2,000

To Cash A/c 2,000

Landlord’s account has been wrongly debited instead of Rent account.

Hence, rectification entry will be :

Rent A/c Dr. 2,000

To Landlord’s A/c 2,000

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Test Your Understanding - II

Record the rectification entry for the following transactions:1. Credit sales to Rajni Rs. 5,000 recorded in Purchases book:

This is an error of ..........................................State the wrong entry recorded in the book of accounts

Correct effect should have been:

The rectification entry will be:

2. Furniture purchased from M/s Rao Furnishigs for Rs. 8,000 was entered intothe purchases book .This is the error of ........................................State the wrong entry recorded in the book of accounts

Correct effect should have been:

The rectification entry will be:

3. Cash sales to Radhika Rs. 15,000 was shown as receipt of commission in thecash book.This is the error of ..............................................State the wrong entry recorded in the book of accounts

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197Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors

Correct effect should have been :

The rectificatin entry will be:

4. Cash received from Karim Rs. 6,000 posted to Nadeem.This is the error of ........................................State the wrong entry recorded in the book of accounts:

Correct effect should have been:

The rectification entry will be:

6.6.2 Rectification of Errors Affecting Trial Balance

The errors which affect only one account can be rectified by giving an exaplanatorynote in the account affected or by recording a journal entry with the help of theSuspense Account. Suspense Account is explained later in this chapter. Examplesof such errors are error of casting; error of carrying forward; error of balancing;error of posting to correct account but with wrong amount; error of posting tothe correct account but on the wrong side; posting to the wrong side with thewrong amount; omitting to show an account in the trial balance.

An error in the books of original entry, if discovered before it is posted tothe ledger, may be corrected by crossing out the wrong amount by a singleline and writing the correct amount above the crossed amount and initiallingit. An error in an amount posted to the correct ledger account may also be

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corrected in a similar way, or by making an additional posting for the differencein amount and giving an explanatory note in the particulars column. Buterrors should never be corrected by erasing or overwriting reduces theauthenticity of accounting records and give an impression that something isbeing concealed. A better way therefore is by noting the correction on theappropriate side for neutralising the effect of the error. Take for example acase where Shyam’s account was credited short by Rs. 190. This will be rectifiedby an additional entry for Rs. 190 on the credit side of his account as follows.

Shyam’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Difference in 190amount postedshort on.....

Take another example, purchases book was undercast by Rs. 1,000. The effectof this entry is on purchases account (debit side) where the total of purchasesbook is posted

Purchases Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Undercasting 1,000purchasesbook for the month of....

Suspese Account

Even if the trial balance does not tally due to the existence of one sided errors,accountant has to carry forward his accounting process prepare financialstatements. The accountant tallies his trial balance by putting the differenceon shorter side as ‘suspense account’.The process of opening of suspense account can be understood with the helpof the following example :

Consider the sales book of an organisation.

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199Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors

Sales Book (Journal)

Date Invoice Name of customers L.F. AmountNo. (Accounts to be debited) Rs.

Ashok traders 20,000Bimal service centre 10,000Chopra enterprises 5,000Diwakar and sons 15,000

50,000

If sales to Diwakar and sons were not posted to his account, ledger willshow the following position :

Ashok Traders Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Sales 20,000 Balance c/d 20,00020,000 20,000

Bimal Service Centre’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Sales 10,000 Balance c/d 10,000

10,000 10,000

Chopra Enterprises Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Sales 5,000 Balance c/d 5,0005,000 5,000

Sales AccountCr. Dr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Sundries 50,000

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The trial balance when prepared on the basis of above balances will nottally. Its credit column total will amount to Rs. 50,000 and debit column totalto Rs. 35,000. The trial balance would differ with Rs. 15,000. This differencewill be temporarily put to suspense account and trial balance will be made toagree in the ledger.

In the above case, difference in trial balance has arisen due to one sidederror (omission of posting to Diwakar and sons’s account). In a real situation,there can be many other such one-sided errors which cause a difference intrial balance and thus result in opening of the suspense account. Till the allerrors affecting agreement of trial balance are not located it is not possible torectify them and tally the trial balance in such a situation, is shown in theSuspense account, make the total of debit and credit columns and proceedfurther with the accounting process.

When the errors are located and the specific accounts and amounts involvedare identified, the amounts are transferred from suspense account to therelevant accounts thereby closing the suspense account. Thus, suspenseaccount is not placed in any particular category of accounts and is just atemporary phenomenon.While rectifying one-sided errors using suspense account, the following stepsare taken:

(i) Identify the account affected due to error.(ii) Ascertain the amount of excess debit/credit or short debit/credit in the

affected account.(iii) If the error has resulted in excess debit or short credit in the affected

account, credit the account with the amount of excess debit or shortcredit.

(iv) If the error has resulted in excess credit or short debit in the affectedaccount, debit the account with the amount of excess credit or shortdebit.

(v) Complete the journal entry by debiting or crediting the suspense accountas another account affected otherwise.

We will now discuss the process of rectification using suspense account:(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were not posted to his account. This is

an error of partial omission comitted while posting entries of the salesbook.Wrong effect has been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. Nil To Sales A/c 10,000

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Correct effect should have been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Sales A/c 10,000

The rectification entry will be :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Suspense A/c 10,000

(b) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were posted to his account as Rs. 7000. This isan error of commission. Mohan’s account has been debited with Rs. 7,000 insteadof Rs. 10,000 resulting in short debit of Rs. 3,000.The wrong effect has been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 7,000To Sales A/c 10,000

Correct effect should have been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Sales A/c 10,000

Hence, rectification entry will be:

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 3,000To Suspens A/c 3,000

(c) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were posted to his account as Rs. 12,000.This is an error of commission. The wrong effect has been :

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 12,000To Sales A/c 10,000

Correct effect should have been

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Sales A/c 10,000

The rectification entry will be :

Suspense A/c Dr. 2,000To Mohan’s A/c 2,000

(d) Purchases book overcast by Rs. 1,000. Errors in casting of subsidiary booksaffect only those accounts where totals of the subsidiary books involved are

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posted. The accounts of individual parties are not affected. Consider thefollowing example.

Purchases (Journal) Book

Date Invoice Name of suppliers L.F. AmountNo. (Accounts to be credited) Rs.

Dheru 8,000Chandraprakash 7,000Sachin 6,000

21,000

Wrong total 22,000due to overcasting.

Dheru’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 8,000

Chandraprakash’s AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 7,000

Sachin’s AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.Purchases 6,000

Purchases AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Sundries 22,000

As you can notice that there is no error in accounts of Dheeru, Chanderprakash andSachin. Only purchases account has been debited with Rs. 1,000 extra. Hence, rectificationentry will be :

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203Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors

Suspense A/c Dr. 1,000

To Purchases A/c 1,000

6.6.3 Rectification of Errors in the Next Accounting Year

If some errors committed during an accounting year are not located andrectified before the finalisation of financial statements, suspense accountcannot be closed and its balance will be carried forward to the next accountingperiod. When the errors committed in one accounting year are located andrectified in the next accounting year, profit and loss adjustment account isdebited or credited in place of accounts of expenses/losses and incomes/gains in order to avoid impact on the income statement of next accountingperiod. You will learn about this aspect at an advanced stage of your studiesin accounting.

Box 1

Guiding Principles of Rectification of Errors

1. If error is committed in books of original entry then assume all postings aredone accordingly.

2. If error is at the posting stage then assume that recording in the subsidiarybooks has been correctly done.

3. If error is in posting to a wrong account (without mentioning side and amount ofposting) then assume that posting has been done on the right side and with theright amount.

4. If posting is done to a correct account but with wrong amount (without mentioningside of posting) then assume that posting has been done on the correct side.

5. If error is posting to a wrong account on the wrong side (without mentioningamount of posting) then assume that posting has been done with the amount asper the original recording of the transaction.

6. If error is of posting to a wrong account with wrong amount (without mentioningthe side of posting) then assume that posting has been done on the right side.

7. If posting is done to a correct account on the wrong side (without mentioningamount of posting) then assume that posting has been done with correct amountas per original recording.

8. Any error in posting of individual transactions in subsidiaries books relates toindividual account only, the sales account, purchase account, sales returnaccount or purchases return account are not involved.

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9. If a transaction is recorded in cash book, then the error in posting relates to theother affected account, not to cash account/bank account

10. If a transaction is recorded through journal proper, then the phrase ‘transactionwas not posted’ indicates error in both the accounts involved, unless statedotherwise.

11. Error in casting of subsidiary books will affect only that account where total ofthe particular book is posted leaving the individual personal accounts unaffected.

Test Your Understanding - III

Show the effect through Journal entries :1. Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 10,000 were posted to his account as Rs. 12,000

This is an error of ..................................The wrong effect has been :

The correct effect should have been :

The rectification entry will be.

2. Cash paid to Neha Rs. 2,000 was not posted to her account. This is an error of..................................The wrong effect has been :

The correct effect should have been :

The rectification entry will be :

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205Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors

3. Sales returns from Megha Rs. 1,600 were posted to her account as Rs. 1,000.This is an error of ..................................The wrong effect has been :

The correct effect should have been :

The rectification entry will be :

4. Depreciation written off on furniture Rs. 1,500 was not posted to depreciationaccount. This is an error of ................The wrong effect has been :

The correct effect should have been :

The rectification entry :

Illustration 1

Rectify the following errors :

Credit purchases from Raghu Rs. 20,000(i) were not recorded.(ii) were recorded as Rs. 10,000.(iii) were recorded as Rs. 25,000.(iv) were not posted to his account.(v) were posted to his account as Rs. 2,000.(vi) were posted to Reghav’s account.(vii) were posted to the debit of Raghu’s account.(viii) were posted to the debit of Raghav.(ix) were recorded through sales book.

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Solution

(i)

Purchases A/c Dr. 20,000To Raghu’s A/c 20,000

(Credit purchases from Raghu omitted to be recorded, now corrected)

(ii)

Purchases A/c Dr. 10,000To Raghu’s A/c 10,000

(Credit purchases from Raghu recorded as Rs. 10,000 instead of Rs 20,000,now corrected)

(iii)

Raghu’s A/c Dr. 5,000To Purchases A/c 5,000

(Credit purchases from Raghu recorded as Rs. 25,000 instead ofRs. 20,000).

(iv)

Suspense A/c Dr. 20,000To Raghu’s A/c 20,000

(Credit purchases from Raghu not posted to his account now corrected).

(v)

Suspense A/c Dr. 18,000To Raghu’s A/c 18,000

(Credit purchases from Raghu Rs. 20,000 posted to his account asRs. 2,000

(vi)

Raghav’s A/c Dr. 20,000To Raghu’s A/c 20,000

(Credit purchases from Raghu wrongly credited to Raghav, now corrected)

(vii)

Suspense A/c Dr. 40,000To Raghu’s A/c 40,000

(Credit purchases from Raghu Rs. 20,000 wrongly posted to the debit ofhis account, now corrected).

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(viii)

Suspense A/c Dr. 40,000To Raghav’s A/c 20,000To Raghu’s A/c 20,000

(Credited purchases from Raghu Rs. 20,000 wrongly debited to Raghav,now corrected).

(ix)

Sales A/c Dr. 20,000Purchases A/c Dr. 20,000

To Raghu’s A/c 40,000

(Credit purchases from Raghu wrongly recorded through sales book, nowcorrected).

Illustration 2

Rectify the following errors :Cash sales Rs. 16,000

(i) were not posted to sales account.(ii) were posted as Rs. 6,000 in sales account.

(iii) were posted to commission account.

Solution

(i)

Suspense A/c Dr. 16,000To Sales A/c 16,000

(Cash sales not posted to sales account now rectified)

(ii)

Suspense A/c Dr. 10,000To Sales A/c 10,000

(Cash sales Rs. 16,000 were posted to sales account as Rs. 6,000, nowrectified)

(iii)

Commission A/c Dr. 16,000To Sales A/c 16,000

(Cash sales posted to commission account instead of sales account,now corrected)

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Illustration 3

Depreciation written-off as the machinery Rs. 2,000(i) was not posted(ii) was not posted to machinery account(iii) was not posted to depreciation account

Solution

(i) It was recorded through journal proper. From journal proper posting to all theaccounts are made individually. Hence, no posting was made to depreciation accountand machinery account. Therefore, rectification entry will be :

Depreciation A/c Dr. 2,000To Machinery A/c 2,000

(Depreciation on machinery not posted, now corrected)

(ii) In this case posting was not made to machinery account. It is to be assumed thatdepreciation account should have been correctly debited. Therefore, rectificationentry shall be :

Suspense A/c Dr. 2,000To Machinery A/c 2,000

(Depreciation on machinery not posted to Machinery account, nowcorrected).

(iii) In this case depreciation account was not been debited. However, machinery accountmust have been correctly credited. Therefore, rectification entry shall be :

Depreciation A/c Dr. 2,000To Suspense A/c 2,000

(Depreciation on machinery not posted to Depreciation account, nowcorrected).

Illustration 4

Trial balance of Anurag did not agree. It showed an excess credit Rs. 10,000. Anurag putthe difference to suspense account. He located the following errors :

(i) Sales return book over cast by Rs. 1,000.(ii) Purchases book was undercast by Rs. 600.

(iii) In the sales book total of page no. 4 was carried forward to page 5 as Rs. 1,000instead of Rs. 1,200 and total of page 8 was carried forward to page 9 asRs. 5,600 instead of Rs. 5,000.

(iv) Goods returned to Ram Rs. 1,000 were recorded through sales book.(v) Credit purchases from M & Co. Rs. 8,000 were recorded through sales book.(vi) Credit purchases from S & Co. Rs. 5,000 were recorded through sales book.

However, S & Co. were correctly credited.(vii) Salary paid Rs. 2,000 was debited to employee’s personal account.

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Solution

(i)

Suspense A/c Dr. 1,000To Sales Return A/c 1,000

(Sales returns book overcast by Rs. 1,000, now corrected).

(ii)

Purchases A/c Dr. 600To Suspense A/c 600

(Purchases book undercast by Rs. 600, now corrected)

(iii)

Sales A/c Dr. 400To Suspense A/c 400

(Error in carry forward of sales book, now corrected).

Note : Errors in carry forward the total of one page to another duringa period finally affects the total of that book resulting in error of under/overcastting.In this case, carry forward from page 4 to 5 resulted in undercasting of Rs. 200 andcarry forward from page 8 to page 9 resulted in overcasting of Rs. 600. Overallovercastting being Rs. 600–200 = Rs. 400.

(iv)

Sales A/c Dr. 1,000To Return Outwards A/c 1,000

(Return Outwards wrongly recorded through sales book, now rectified).

(v)

Purchases A/c Dr. 8,000Sales A/c Dr. 8,000

To M & Co.’s A/c 16,000(Credit purchases wrongly recorded through sales book, now rectified).

(vi)

Purchases A/c Dr. 5,000Sales A/c Dr. 5,000

To Suspense A/c 10,000(Credit purchases wrongly recorded through sales book, however suppliersaccount correctly credited, now rectified).

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(vii)

Salary A/c Dr. 2,000To Employee’s personal A/c 2,000

(Salary paid wrongly debited to employee’s personal account, nowcorrected)

Suspense AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Difference as per 10,000trial balance Purchases 600Sales return 1,000 Sales 400

Purchases 5,000Sales 5,000

11,000 11,000

Illustration 5

Trial balance of Rahul did not agree. Rahul put the difference to suspense account.Subsequently, he located the following errors :

(i) Wages paid for installation of Machinery Rs. 600 was posted to wages account.(ii) Repairs to Machinery Rs. 400 debited to Machinery account.

(iii) Repairs paid for the overhauling of second hand machinery purchased Rs. 1,000was debited to Repairs account.

(iv) Own business material Rs. 8,000 and wages Rs. 2,000 were used for constructionof building. No adjustment was made in the books.

(v) Furniture purchased for Rs. 5,000 was posted to purchase account as Rs. 500.(vi) Old machinery sold to Karim at its book value of Rs. 2,000 was recorded through

sales book.(vii) Total of sales returns book Rs. 3,000 was not posted to the ledger.

Rectify the above errors and prepare suspense account to ascertain the originaldifference in trial balance.

(i)

Machinery A/c Dr. 600To Wages A/c 600

(Wages paid for installation of machinery wrongly debited to wages account,now rectified)

(ii)

Repairs A/c Dr. 400To Machinery A/c 400

(Repairs paid wrongly debited to machinery account now rectified)

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(iii)

Machinery A/c Dr. 1,000To Repairs A/c 1,000

(Repairs for overhauling of second hand machinery purchased, wronglydebited to repairs account, now rectified).

(iv)

Building A/c Dr. 10,000To Purchases A/c 8,000To Wages A/c 2,000

(Material and wages used for construction of Building, not debited tobuilding account).

(v)

Furniture A/c Dr. 5,000To Purchases A/c 500To Suspense A/c 4,500

(Furniture purchased for Rs. 5,000 wrongly debited to purchases accountas Rs. 500, now rectified).

(vi)

Sales A/c Dr. 2,000To Machinery 2,000(Sale of machinery wrongly recorded in sales book, now rectified).

(vii)

Sales Return A/c Dr. 3,000To Suspense A/c 3,000

(Total of sales returns book not posted to ledger, now rectified).

Suspense Account

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Difference as per 7,500 Furniture 4,500trial balance Sales return 3.000

7,500 7,500

Hence, original difference in Trial Balance was Rs. 7,500 excess credited.

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Illustration 6

Trial balance of Anant Ram did not agree. It showed an excess credit of Rs. 16,000. Heput the difference to suspense account. Subsequently the following errors were located:

(i) Cash received from Mohit Rs. 4,000 was posted to Mahesh as Rs. 1,000.

(ii) Cheque for Rs. 5,800 received from Arnav in full settlement of his account of Rs.6,000, was dishonoured. No entry was passed in the books on dishonour of thecheque.

(iii) Rs. 800 received from Khanna, whose account had previously been written off asbad, was credited to his account.

(iv) Credit sales to Manav for Rs. 5,000 was recorded through the purchases book asRs. 2,000.

(v) Purchases book undercast by Rs. 1,000.

(vi) Repairs on machinery Rs. 1,600 wrongly debited to Machinery account as Rs. 1,000.

(vii) Goods returned by Nathu Rs. 3,000 were taken into stock. No entry was recordedin the books.

Solution

(i)

Mahesh’s A/c Dr. 1,000Suspense A/c Dr. 3,000

To Mohit’s A/c 4,000(Cash received from Mohit Rs. 4,000 wrongly posted to Mahesh asRs.1,000, now rectified)

(ii)

Arnav’s A/c Dr. 6,000To Bank A/c 5,800To Discount Allowed A/c 200

(Cheque received from Arnav for Rs. 5,800 in full settlement of his accountof Rs. 6,000, dishonoured but no entry made in books, now rectified)

(iii)

Khanna’s A/c Dr. 800To Bad debts recovered A/c 800

(Bad debts recovered wrongly credited to Khanna’s account, now rectified)

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(iv)

Manav’s A/c Dr. 7,000To Purchases A/c 2,000To Sales A/c 5,000

(Credit sales to Manav Rs. 5,000 wrongly recorded through purchasesbook as Rs. 2,000, now rectified)

(v)

Purchases A/c Dr. 1,000To Suspense A/c 1,000

(Purchases book undercast by Rs. 1,000)

(vi)

Repairs A/c Dr. 1,600To Machinery A/c 1,000To Suspense A/c 600

(Repairs on machinery Rs. 1,600 wrongly debited to machinery accountas Rs. 1,000, now rectified)

(vii)

Sales Return A/c Dr. 3,000To Nathu’s A/c 3,000

(Sales return from Nathu not recorded)

Suspense AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Difference as per Purchases 1,000trial balance 16,000 Repairs 600Mohit 3,000 Balance c/d 17,400

19,000 19,000

Note : Even after rectification of errors suspense account is showing a debit balanceof Rs. 17,400. This is due to non-detection of errors affecting trial balance. Balanceof suspense account will be carried forward to the next year and will be eliminatedas and when all the remaining errors affecting trial balance are located.

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Illustration 7

Trial balance of Kailash did not agree. He put the difference to suspense account. Thefollowing errors were discovered :

(i) Goods withdrawn by Kailash for personal use Rs. 500 were not recorded in thebooks.

(ii) Discount allowed to Ramesh Rs.60 on receiving Rs. 2,040 from him was not recordedin the books.

(iii) Discount received from Rohan Rs. 50 on paying Rs. 3,250 to him was not posted at all.(iv) Rs. 700 received from Khalil, a debtor, whose account had earlier been written-off

as bad, were credited to his personal account.(v) Cash received from Govil, a debtor, Rs. 5,000 was posted to his account as Rs. 500.(vi) Goods returned to Mahesh Rs. 700 were posted to his account as Rs. 70.

(vii) Bill receivable from Narayan Rs. 1,000 was dishonoured and wrongly debited toallowances account as Rs. 10,000.

Give journal entries to rectify the above errors and prepare suspense account to ascertainthe amount of difference in trial balance.

Solution.

(i)

Drawings A/c Dr. 500To Purchases A/c 500

(Goods withdrawn by proprietor for personal use not recorded, nowrectified).

(ii)

Discount allowed A/c Dr. 60To Ramesh’s A/c 60

(Discount allowed to Ramesh not recorded, now rectified)

(iii)

Rohan’s A/c Dr. 50To Discount received A/c 50

(Discount received from Rohan not posted , now corrected)

(iv)

Khalil’s A/c Dr. 700To Bad debts recovered A/c 700

(Bad debts recovered wrongly credited to debtor’s personal account, nowcorrected)

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(v)

Suspense A/c Dr. 4,500To Govil’s A/c 4,500

(Cash received from Govil Rs. 5,000 wrongly posted to his account asRs. 500)

(vi)

Mahesh’s A/c Dr. 630To Suspense A/c 630

(Goods returned to Mahesh Rs. 700 wrongly posted to his account asRs. 70, now corrected)

(vii)

Narayan’s A/c Dr. 1,000Suspense A/c Dr. 9,000

To Allowances A/c 10,000(Bill receivables from Narayan Rs. 1,000 wrongly debited to allowancesaccount as Rs. 10,000).

Suspense Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Govil 4,500 Mahesh 630Allowances 9,000 Difference as per 12,870

trial balance13,500 13,500

Test Your Understanding - IV

Tick the Correct Answer

(1) Agreement of trial balance is affected by:(a) One sided errors only.(b) Two sided errors only.(c) Both a and b.(d) None of the above.

(2) Which of the following is not an error of principle:(a) Purchase of furniture debited to purchases account.(b) Repairs on the overhauling of second hand machinery purchased debited to

repairs account.

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(c) Cash received from Manoj posted to Saroj.(d) Sale of old car credited to sales account.

(3) Which of the following is not an error of commission:(a) Overcasting of sales book.(b) Credit sales to Ramesh Rs. 5,000 credited to his account.(c) Wrong balancing of machinery account.(d) Cash sales not recorded in cash book.

(4) Which of following errors will be rectified through suspense account:(a) Sales return book undercast by Rs. 1,000.(b) Sales return by Madhu Rs. 1,000 not recorded.(c) Sales return by Madhu Rs 1,000. recorded as Rs,100.(d) Sales return by Madhu Rs. 1,000 recorded through purchases returns book

(5) If the trial balance agrees, it implies that:(a) There is no error in the books.(b) There may be two sided errors in the book.(c) There may be one sided error in the books.(d) There may be both two sided and one sided errors in the books.

(6) If suspense account does not balance off even after rectification of errors it impliesthat:(a) There are some one sided errors only in the books yet to be located.(b) There are no more errors yet to be located.(c) There are some two sided errors only yet to be located.(d) There may be both one sided errors and two sided errors yet to be located.

(7) If wages paid for installation of new machinery is debited to wages Account, it is:(a) An error of commission.(b) An error of principle.(c) A compensating error.(d) An error of omission.

(8) Trial balance is:(a) An account.(b) A statement.(c) A subsidiary book.(d) A principal book.

(9) A Trial balance is prepared:(a) After preparation financial statement.(b) After recording transactions in subsidiary books.(c) After posting to ledger is complete.(d) After posting to ledger is complete and accounts have been balanced,

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Trial Balance • Compensating Error• Error of Commission • Error of Principle• Error Omission • Suspense Account

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Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Meaning of trial balance : A statement showing the abstract of the balance(debit/credit) of various accounts in the ledger.

2. Objectives of trial balance : The main objectives of preparing the trial balanceare : (i) to ascertain the arithmetical accuracy of the ledger accounts; (ii) tohelp in locating errors; and (iii) to help in the preparatioon of the final accounts.

3. Preparation of trial balance by the balance method : In this method, the trialbalance has three columns. The first column is for the head of the account,the second column for writing the debit balance and the third for the creditbalance of each account in the ledger.

4. Various types of errors :(i) Errors of commission : Errors caused due to wrong recording of a

transaction, wrong totalling, wrong casting, wrong balancing, etc.(ii) Errors of Omission : Errors caused due to omission of recording a

transaction entirely or party in the books of account.(iii) Errors of Principle : Errors arising due to wrong classificatrion of receipts

and payments between revenue and capital receipts and revenue andcapital expenditure.

(iv) Compensating errors : Two or more errors committed in such a way thatthey nullify the effect of each other on the debits and credits.

5. Rectification of errors : Errors affecting only one account can be rectified bygiving an explanatory note or by passing a journal entry. Errors which affecttwo or more accounts are rectified by passing a journal entry.

6. Meaning and utility of suspense account : An account in which the differencein the trial balance is put till such time that errors are located and rectified.It facilitates the preparation of financial statements even when the trial balancedoes not tally.

7. Disposal of suspense account : When all the errors are located and rectifiedthe suspense account stands disposed off.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. State the meaning of a trial balance?2. Give two examples of errors of principle?3. Give two examples of errors of commission?4. What are the methods of preparing trial balance?5. What are the steps taken by an accountant to locate the errors in the trial

balance?6. What is a suspense account? Is it necessary that is suspense account will

balance off after rectification of the errors detected by the accountant? Ifnot, then what happens to the balance still remaining in suspense account?

7. What kinds of errors would cause difference in the trial balance. Also listexamples that would not be revealed by a trial balance?

8. State the limitations of trial balance?

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Long Answers

1. Describe the purpose for the preparation of trial balance.2. Explain errors of principle and give two examples with measures to rectify

them.3. Explain the errors of commission and give two examples with measures to

rectify them.4. What are the different types of errors that are usually committed in recording

business transaction.5. As an accounts for a company, you are disappointed to learn that the

totals in your new trial balance are not equal. After going through a carefulanalysis, you have discovered only one error. Specifically, the balance ofthe Office Equipment account has a debit balance of Rs. 15,600 on thetrial balance. However, you have figured out that a correctly recorded creditpurchase of pendrive for Rs 3,500 was posted from the journal to the ledgerwith a Rs. 3,500 debit to Office Equipment and another Rs. 3,500 debit tocreditors accounrts. Answer each of the following questions and presentthe amount of any misstatement :(a) Is the balance of the office equipment account overstated, understated,

or correctly stated in the trial balance?(b) Is the balance of the creditors account overstated, understated, or

correctly stated in the trial balance?(c) Is the debit column total of the trial balance overstated, understated,

or correclty stated?(d) Is the credit column total of the trial balance overstated, understated,

or correctly stated?(e) If the debit column total of the trial balance is Rs. 2,40,000 before

correcting the error, what is the total of credit column.

Numerical Questions

1. Rectify the following errors :(i) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were not recorded.(ii) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were not recorded.(iii) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were not recorded.(iv) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were not recorded.

2. Rectify the following errors :(i) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were recorded as Rs.700.(ii) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were recorded. as Rs.900.

(iii) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were recorded as Rs 400.(iv) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were recorded as Rs.100.

3. Rectify the following errors :(i) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were recorded as Rs.7,200.(ii) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were recorded as Rs. 9,900.(iii) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were recorded as Rs 4,040.(iv) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were recorded as Rs.1,600.

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4. Rectify the following errors :(a) Salary paid Rs. 5,000 was debited to employee’s personal account.(b) Rent Paid Rs. 4,000 was posted to landlord’s personal account.(c) Goods withdrawn by proprietor for personal use Rs. 1,000 were debited

to sundry expenses account.(d) Cash received from Kohli Rs. 2,000 was posted to Kapur’s account.(e) Cash paid to Babu Rs. 1,500 was posted to Sabu’s account.

5. Rectify the following errors :(a) Credit Sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were recorded in purchases book.(b) Credit Purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,00 were recorded in sales book.(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were recorded in the sales return

book.(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were recorded in purchases

return book.(e) Goods returned from Nahesh Rs. 2,000 were recorded in purchases book.

6. Rectify the following errors :(a) Sales book overcast by Rs. 700.(b) Purchases book overcast by Rs. 500.(c) Sales return book overcast by Rs. 300.(d) Purchase return book overcast by Rs. 200.

7. Rectify the following errors :(a) Sales book undercast by Rs.300.(b) Purchases book undercast by Rs.400.(c) Return Inwards book undercast by Rs.200.(d) Return outwards book undercast by Rs.100.

8. Rectify the following errors and ascertain the amount of difference in trialbalance by preparing suspense account :(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were not posted.(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were not posted.(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were not posted.(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were not posted.(e) Cash paid to Ganesh Rs. 3,000 was not posted.(f) Cash sales Rs. 2,000 were not posted.

(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 2,000 excess credit).9. Rectify the following errors and ascertain the amount of difference in trial

balance by preparing suspense account :(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were posted as Rs. 9,000.(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were posted as Rs. 6,000.(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were posted as Rs. 5,000.(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were posted as Rs. 3,000.(e) Cash sales Rs. 2,000 were posted as Rs. 200.

(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 5,800 excess debit.)

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10. Rectify the following errors :(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were posted to Karan.(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were posted to Gobind.(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were posted to Naresh.(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were posted to Manish.(e) Cash sales Rs. 2,000 were posted to commission account.

11. Rectify the following errors assuming that a suspense account was opened.Ascertain the difference in trial balance.(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were posted to the credit of his account.(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were posted to the debit of his

account as Rs. 6,000.(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were posted to the credit of his

account.(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were posted to the debit of his

account as Rs. 2,000.(e) Cash sales Rs. 2,000 were posted to the debit of sales account as Rs. 5,000.

(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 3,000 excess debit).12. Rectify the following errors assuming that a suspense account was opened.

Ascertain the difference in trial balance.(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were posted to Karan as Rs. 5,000.(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were posted to the debit of

Gobind as Rs 10,000.(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were posted to the credit of Naresh

as Rs 3,000.(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were posted to the debit of

Manish as Rs. 2,000.(e) Cash sales Rs. 2,000 were posted to commission account as Rs. 200.

(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 14, 800 excess debit).13. Rectify the following errors assuming that suspense account was opened.

Ascertain the difference in trial balance.(a) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 7,000 were recorded in Purchase Book.

However, Mohan’s account was correctly debited.(b) Credit purchases from Rohan Rs. 9,000 were recorded in sales book.

However, Rohan’s account was correctly credited.(c) Goods returned to Rakesh Rs. 4,000 were recorded in sales return

book. However, Rakesh’s account was correctly debited.(d) Goods returned from Mahesh Rs. 1,000 were recorded through

purchases return book. However, Mahesh’s account was correctlycredited.

(e) Goods returned to Naresh Rs. 2,000 were recorded through purchasesbook. However, Naresh’s account was correctly debited.

(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 6,000 excess debit).

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14. Rectify the following errors :(a) Furniture purchased for Rs. 10,000 wrongly debited to purchases

account.(b) Machinery purchased on credit from Raman for Rs. 20,000 was

recorded through purchases book.(c) Repairs on machinery Rs. 1,400 debited to machinery account.(d) Repairs on overhauling of secondhand machinery purchased Rs. 2,000

was debited to Repairs account.(e) Sale of old machinery at book value of Rs. 3,000 was credited to sales account.

15. Rectify the following errors assuming that suspension account was opened.Ascertain the difference in trial balance.(a) Furniture purchased for Rs. 10,000 wrongly debited to purchase

account as Rs. 4,000.(b) Machinery purchased on credit from Raman for Rs. 20,000 recorded

through Purchases Book as Rs. 6,000.(c) Repairs on machinery Rs. 1,400 debited to Machinery account as

Rs. 2,400.(d) Repairs on overhauling of second hand machinery purchased Rs. 2,000

was debited to Repairs account as Rs. 200.(e) Sale of old machinery at book value Rs. 3,000 was credited to sales

account as Rs. 5,000.(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 8,800 excess credit).

16. Rectify the following errors :(a) Depreciation provided on machinery Rs. 4,000 was not posted.(b) Bad debts written off Rs. 5,000 were not posted.(c) Discount allowed to a debtor Rs. 100 on receiving cash from him was not

posted.(d) Discount allowed to a debtor Rs. 100 on receiving cash from him was

not posted to discount account.(e) Bill receivable for Rs. 2,000 received from a debtor was not posted.

17. Rectify the following errors :(a) Depreciation provided on machinery Rs. 4,000 was posted as Rs. 400.(b) Bad debts written off Rs. 5,000 were posted as Rs. 6,000.(c) Discount allowed to a debtor Rs. 100 on receiving cash from him was

posted as Rs. 60.(d) Goods withdrawn by proprietor for personal use Rs. 800 were posted

as Rs. 300.(e) Bill receivable for Rs. 2,000 received from a debtor was posted as

Rs. 3,000.18. Rectify the following errors assuming that suspense account was opened.

Ascertain the difference in trial balance.(a) Depreciation provided on machinery Rs. 4,000 was not posted to

Depreciation account.

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(b) Bad debts written-off Rs. 5,000 were not posted to Debtors account.(c) Discount allowed to a debtor Rs. 100 on receiving cash from him was

not posted to discount allowed account.(d) Goods withdrawn by proprietor for personal use Rs. 800 were not posted

to Drawings account.(e) Bill receivable for Rs. 2,000 received from a debtor was not posted to

Bills receivable account.(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 1,900 excess credit).

19. Trial balance of Anuj did not agree. It showed an excess credit of Rs. 6,000.He put the difference to suspense account. He discovered the followingerrors.(a) Cash received from Ravish Rs. 8,000 posted to his account as

Rs. 6,000.(b) Returns inwards book overcast by Rs. 1,000.(c) Total of sales book Rs. 10,000 was not posted to Sales account.(d) Credit purchases from Nanak Rs. 7,000 were recorded in sales Book.

However, Nanak’s account was correctly credited.(e) Machinery purchased for Rs. 10,000 was posted to purchases account

as Rs. 5,000. Rectify the errors and prepare suspense account.(Ans : Total of suspense account Rs. 19,000).

20. Trial balance of Raju showed an excess debit of Rs. 10,000. He put thedifference to suspense account and discovered the following errors :(a) Depreciation written-off the furniture Rs. 6,000 was not posted to

Furniture account.(b) Credit sales to Rupam Rs. 10,000 were recorded as Rs. 7,000.(c) Purchases book undercast by Rs. 2,000.(d) Cash sales to Rana Rs. 5,000 were not posted.(e) Old Machinery sold for Rs. 7,000 was credited to sales account.(f) Discount received Rs. 800 from kanan on playing cash to him was not

posted. Rectify the errors and prepare suspense account.(Ans : Balance carried forward in suspense account Rs. 1,000 (cr.)).

21. Trial balance of Madan did not agree and he put the difference tosuspense account. He discovered the following errors:(a) Sales return book overcast by Rs. 800.(b) Purchases return to Sahu Rs. 2,000 were not posted.(c) Goods purchased on credit from Narula Rs. 4,000 though taken into

stock, but no entry was passed in the books.(d) Installation charges on new machinery purchased Rs. 500 were debited

to sundry expenses account as Rs. 50.(e) Rent paid for residential accommodation of madam (the proprietor)

Rs. 1,400 was debited to Rent account as Rs. 1,000.Rectify the errors and prepare suspense account to ascertain thedifference in trial balance.

(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 2,050 excess credit).

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223Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors

22. Trial balance of Kohli did not agree and showed an excess debit of Rs.16,300. He put the difference to a suspense account and discovered thefollowing errors:(a) Cash received from Rajat Rs. 5,000 was posted to the debit of Kamal

as Rs. 6,000.(b) Salaries paid to an employee Rs. 2,000 were debited to his personal

account as Rs. 1200.(c) Goods withdrawn by proprietor for personal use Rs. 1,000 were credited

to sales account as Rs. 1,600.(d) Depreciation provided on machinery Rs. 3,000 was posted to Machinery

account as Rs. 300.(e) Sale of old car for Rs. 10,000 was credited to sales account as

Rs. 6,000. Rectify the errors and prepare suspense account.(Ans : total of suspense account : Rs. 17,700).

23. Give journal entries to rectify the following errors assuming that suspenseaccount had been opened.(a) Goods distributed as free sample Rs. 5,000 were not recorded in the

books.(b) Goods withdrawn for personal use by the proprietor Rs. 2,000 were

not recorded in the books.(c) Bill receivable received from a debtor Rs. 6,000 was not posted to his

account.(d) Total of Returns inwards book Rs. 1,200 was posted to Returns

outwards account.(e) Discount allowed to Reema Rs. 700 on receiving cash from her was

recorded in the books as Rs. 70.(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 3,600 excess debit).

24. Trial balance of Khatau did not agree. He put the difference to suspense accountand discovered the following errors :(a) Credit sales to Manas Rs. 16,000 were recorded in the purchases book

as Rs. 10,000 and posted to the debit of Manas as Rs. 1,000.(b) Furniture purchased from Noor Rs. 6,000 was recorded through

purchases book as Rs. 5,000 and posted to the debit of Noor Rs. 2,000.(c) Goods returned to Rai Rs. 3,000 recorded through the Sales book as

Rs. 1,000.(d) Old machinery sold for Rs. 2,000 to Maneesh recorded through sales

book as Rs. 1,800 and posted to the credit of Manish as Rs. 1,200.(e) Total of Returns inwards book Rs. 2,800 posted to Purchase account.

Rectify the above errors and prepare suspense account to ascertainthe difference in trial balance.

(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 15,000 excess debit).25. Trial balance of John did not agree. He put the difference to suspense

account and discovered the following errors :(a) In the sales book for the month of January total of page 2 was carried

forward to page 3 as Rs. 1,000 instead of Rs. 1200 and total of page 6was carried forward to page 7 as Rs. 5,600 instead of Rs. 5,000.

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Accountancy224

(b) Wages paid for installation of machinery Rs. 500 was posted to wagesaccount as Rs. 50.

(c) Machinery purchased from R & Co. for Rs. 10,000 on credit was enteredin Purchase Book as Rs. 6,000 and posted there from to R & Co. asRs. 1,000.

(d) Credit sales to Mohan Rs. 5,000 were recorded in Purchases Book.(e) Goods returned to Ram Rs. 1,000 were recorded in Sales Book.(f) Credit purchases from S & Co. for Rs. 6,000 were recorded in sales

book. However, S & Co. was correctly credited.(g) Credit purchases from M & Co. Rs. 6,000 were recorded in Sales Book

as Rs. 2,000 and posted there from to the credit of M & Co. asRs. 1,000.

(h) Credit sales to Raman Rs. 4,000 posted to the credit of Raghvan asRs. 1,000.

(i) Bill receivable for Rs. 1,600 from Noor was dishonoured and posted todebit of Allowances account.

(j) Cash paid to Mani Rs. 5,000 against our acceptance was debited toManu.

(k) Old furniture sold for Rs. 3,000 was posted to Sales account asRs. 1,000.

(l) Depreciation provided on furniture Rs. 800 was not posted.(m) Material Rs. 10,000 and wages Rs. 3,000 were used for construction

of building. No adjustment was made in the books.Rectify the errors and prepare suspense to ascertain the difference intrial balance.

(Ans : Difference in trial balance Rs. 13,850 excess credit).

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test your understanding - I

Trial Balance Total Rs. 5,17,000

Test your understanding - II

1. Purchases A/c Dr. 5,000To Rajni’s A/c 5,000

Rajni’s A/c Dr. 5,000To Sales A/c 5,000

Rajni’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Sales A/c 5,000To Purchases A/c 5,000

2. Purchases A/c Dr. 8,000To Rao’s A/c 8,000

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225Trial Balance and Rectification of Errors

Furniture A/c Dr. 8,000To Purchases A/c 8,000

3. Cash A/c Dr. 15,000To Commission A/c 15,000

Cash A/c Dr. 15,000To Sales A/c 15,000

Commission A/c Dr. 15,000To Sales A/c 15,000

4. Cash A/c Dr. 6, 000To Nadeem’s A/c 6,000

Cash A/c Dr. 6,000To Karim’s A/c 6,000

Test Your Understanding - III

1. Error of Commission

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 12, 000To Sales A/c 12,000

Mohan’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Sales A/c 10,000

Suspense A/c Dr. 2,000To Mohan’s A/c 2,000

2. Error of Partial omission

xxx A/c Dr. 2,000To Cash A/c 2,000

Neha’s A/c Dr. 2,000To Suspense A/c 2,000

Neha’s A/c Dr. 2,000To Suspense A/c 2,000

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Accountancy226

3. Error of Commission

Sales Return A/c Dr. 1,600To Megha’s A/c 1,600

Sales Returns A/c Dr. 1,600To Megha’s A/c 1,600

Suspense A/c Dr. 600To Megha’s A/c 600

4. Error of Commissionxxx Dr. 1,500

To Furniture A/c 1,500

Depreciation A/c Dr. 1,500To Furniture A/c 1,500

Depreciation A/c Dr. 1,500To Suspense A/c 1,500

Test Your Understanding - IV

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (d)

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Matching principle requires that the revenue ofa given period is matched against the expenses

for the same period. This ensures ascertainment ofthe correct amount of profit or loss. If some cost isincurred whose benefits extend for more than oneaccounting period then it is not justified to chargethe entire cost as expense in the year in which it isincurred. Rather such a cost must be spread overthe periods in which it provides benefits.Depreciation, which is the main subject matter ofthe present chapter, deals with such a situation.Further, it may not always be possible to ascertainwith certainty the amount of some particularexpense. Recall that the principle of conservatism(prudence) requires that instead of ignoring suchitems of expenses, adequate provision must bemade and charged against profits of the currentperiod. Moreover, a part of profit may be retainedin the business in the form of reserves to providefor growth, expansion or meeting certain specificneeds of the business in future. This chapter dealswith two distinct topics and hence is beingpresented in two different sections. First sectiondeals with depreciation and second section dealswith provisions and reserves.

SECTION – I

7.1 Depreciation

Now you are aware that fixed assets are the assetswhich are used in business for more than one

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter,you will be able to :

• explain the meaning ofdepreciation anddistinguish it fromamortisation anddepletion;

• state the need forcharging depreciationand identify its causes;

• compute depreciationusing straight line andwritten down valuemethods;

• record transactionsrelating to depreciationand disposition ofassets;

• explain the meaningand purpose of creatingprovisions and reserves;

• distinguish betweenreserves and provisions;

• explain the nature ofvarious types ofprovisions and reservesincluding secret reserve.

Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves 7

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228 Accountancy

accounting year. Fixed assets (technically referred to as “depreciable assets”)tend to reduce their value once they are put to use. In general, the term“Depreciation” means decline in the value of a fixed assets due to use, passageof time or obsolescence. In other words, if a business enterprise procures amachine and uses it in production process then the value of machine declineswith its usage. Even if the machine is not used in production process, we cannot expect it to realise the same sales price due to the passage of time orarrival of a new model (obsolescence). It implies that fixed assets are subjectto decline in value and this decline is technically referred to as depreciation.

As an accounting term, depreciation is that part of the cost of a fixed assetwhich has expired on account of its usage and/or lapse of time. Hence,depreciation is an expired cost or expense, charged against the revenue of agiven accounting period. For example, a machine is purchased for Rs.1,00,000on April 01, 2005. The useful life of the machine is estimated to be 10 years.It implies that the machine can be used in the production process for next 10years till March 31, 2015. You understand that by its very nature, Rs. 1,00,000is a capital expenditure during the year 2005. However, when income statement(Profit and Loss account) is prepared, the entire amount of Rs.1,00,000 cannot be charged against the revenue for the year 2005, because of the reasonthat the capital expenditure amounting to Rs.1,00,000 is expected to derivebenefits (or revenue) for 10 years and not one year. Therefore, it is logical tocharge only a part of the total cost say Rs.10,000 (one tenth of Rs. 1,00,000)against the revenue for the year 2005. This part represents, the expired costor loss in the value of machine on account of its use or passage of time and isreferred to as ‘Depreciation’. The amount of depreciation, being a charge againstprofit, is debited to the profit and loss account.

7.1.1 Meaning of Depreciation

Depreciation may be described as a permanent, continuing and gradualshrinkage in the book value of fixed assets. It is based on the cost of assetsconsumed in a business and not on its market value.

According to Institute of Cost and Management Accounting, London (ICMA)terminology “ The depreciation is the diminution in intrinsic value of the assetdue to use and/or lapse of time.”

Accounting Standard-6 issued by The Institute of Chartered Accountantsof India (ICAI) defines depreciation as “a measure of the wearing out, consumptionor other loss of value of depreciable asset arising from use, effluxion of time orobsolescence through technology and market-change. Depreciation is allocatedso as to charge fair proportion of depreciable amount in each accounting periodduring the expected useful life of the asset. Depreciation includes amortisationof assets whose useful life is pre-determined”.

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229Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

Box 1

AS-6 (Revised): Depreciation

• Depreciation is “a measure of the wearing out, consumption or other loss ofvalue of depreciable asset arising from use, effluxion of time or obsolescencethrough technology and market-change. Depreciation is allocated so as to chargefair proportion of depreciable amount in each accounting period during theexpected useful life of the asset. Depreciation includes amortisation of assetswhose useful life is pre-determined”.

• Depreciation has a significant effect in determining and presenting the financialposition and results of operations of an enterprise. Depreciation is charged ineach accounting period by reference to the extent of the depreciable amount.

• The subject matter of depreciation, or its base, are ‘depreciable’ assets which.• “are expected to be used during more than one accounting period.• have a limited useful life; and• are held by an enterprise for use in production or supply of goods and services,

for rental to others, or for administrative purposes and not for the purpose ofsale in the ordinary course of business.”

• The amount of depreciation basically depends upon three factors, i.e. Cost, Usefullife and Net realisable value.

• Cost of a fixed asset is “the total cost spent in connection with its acquisition,installation and commissioning as well as for add item or improvement of thedepreciable asset”.

• Useful life of an asset is the “period over which it is expected to be used by theenterprise”.

• There are two main methods of calculating depreciation amount.• straight line method• written down value method

• Selection of appropriate method depends upon the following factors:• type of the asset• nature of the use of such asset• circumstances prevailing in the business.

• The selected depreciation method should be applied consistently from period toperiod. Change in depreciation method may be allowed only under specificcircumstances.

Depreciation has a significant effect in determining and presenting thefinancial position and results of operations of an enterprise. Depreciation ischarged in each accounting period by reference to the extent of the depreciableamount. It should be noted that the subject matter of depreciation, or itsbase, are ‘depreciable’ assets which:• “are expected to be used during more than one accounting period;• have a limited useful life; and• are held by an enterprise for use in production or supply of goods and

services, for rental to others, or for administrative purposes and not forthe purpose of sale in the ordinary course of business.”

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230 Accountancy

Examples of depreciable assets are machines, plants, furnitures, buildings,computers, trucks, vans, equipments, etc. Moreover, depreciation is theallocation of ‘depreciable amount’, which is the “historical cost”, or otheramount substituted for historical cost less estimated salvage value.

Another point in the allocation of depreciable amount is the ‘expected usefullife’ of an asset. It has been described as “either (i) the period over which adepreciable asset is expected to the used by the enterprise, or (ii) the numberof production of similar units expected to be obtained from the use of theasset by the enterprise.”

7.1.2 Features of Depreciation

Above mentioned discussion on depreciation highlights the following featuresof depreciation:1. It is decline in the book value of fixed assets.2. It includes loss of value due to effluxion of time, usage or obsolescence.

For example, a business firm buys a machine for Rs. 1,00,000 on April01, 2000. In the year 2002, a new version of the machine arrives in themarket. As a result, the machine bought by the business firm becomesoutdated. The resultant decline in the value of old machine is caused byobsolescence.

3. It is a continuing process.4. It is an expired cost and hence must be deducted before calculating taxable

profits. For example, if profit before depreciation and tax is Rs. 50,000,and depreciation is Rs. 10,000; profit before tax will be:

(Rs.)Profit before depreciation & tax 50,000 (-) Depreciation (10,000)Profit before tax 40,000

5. It is a non-cash expense. It does not involve any cash outflow. It is theprocess of writing-off the capital expenditure already incurred.

Do it Yourself

Look at your surroundings and identify at least five depreciable assets in your home,school, hospital, printing press and in a bakery.

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231Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

7.2 Depreciation and other Similar Terms

There are some terms—like depletion and amortisation, which are also usedin connection with depreciation. This has been due to the similar treatmentgiven to them in accounting on the basis of similarity of their outcome, sincethey represent the expiry of the usefulness of different assets.

7.2.1 Depletion

The term depletion is used in the context of extraction of natural resourceslike mines, quarries, etc. that reduces the availability of the quantity of thematerial or asset. For example, if a business enterprise is into mining businessand purchases a coal mine for Rs. 10,00,000. Then the value of coal minedeclines with the extraction of coal out of the mine. This decline in the value ofmine is termed as depletion. The main difference between depletion anddepreciation is that the former is concerned with the exhaution of economicresources, but the latter relates to the usage of an asset. In spite of this, theresult is erosion in the volume of natural resources and expiry of the servicepotential. Therefore, depletion and depreciation are given similar accountingtreatment.

7.2.2 Amortisation

Amortisation refers to writing-off the cost of intangible assets like patents,copyright, trade marks, franchises, leasehold mines which have entitlementsto use for a specified period of time. The procedure for amortisation or periodicwrite-off of a portion of the cost of intangible assets is the same as that for thedepreciation of fixed assets. For example, if a business firm buys a patent forRs. 10,00,000 and estimates that its useful life will be 10 years then thebusiness firm must write-off Rs. 10,00,000 over 10 years. The amount sowritten- off is technically referred to as amortisation.

7.3 Causes of Depreciation

These have been very clearly spelt out as part of the definition of depreciationin the Accounting Standard 6 and are being elaborated here.

7.3.1 Wear and Tear due to Use or Passage of Time

Wear and tear means deterioration, and the consequent diminution in anassets value, arising from its use in business operations for earning revenue.It reduces the asset’s technical capacities to serve the purpose for, which ithas been meant. Another aspect of wear and tear is the physical deterioration.An asset deteriorates simply with the passage of time, even though they arenot being put to any use. This happens especially when the assets are exposedto the rigours of nature like weather, winds, rains, etc.

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232 Accountancy

7.3.2 Expiration of Legal Rights

Certain categories of assets lose their value after the agreement governingtheir use in business comes to an end after the expiry of pre-determinedperiod. Examples of such assets are patents, copyrights, leases, etc. whoseutility to business is extinguished immediately upon the removal of legalbacking to them.

7.3.3 Obsolescence

Obsolescence is another factor leading to depreciation of fixed assets. Inordinary language, obsolescence means the fact of being “out-of-date”.Obsolescence implies to an existing asset becoming out-of-date on account ofthe availability of better type of asset. It arises from such factors as:• Technological changes;• Improvements in production methods;• Change in market demand for the product or service output of the asset;• Legal or other description.

7.3.4 Abnormal Factors

Decline in the usefulness of the asset may be caused by abnormal factorssuch as accidents due to fire, earthquake, floods, etc. Accidental loss ispermanent but not continuing or gradual. For example, a car which has beenrepaired after an accident will not fetch the same price in the market even if ithas not been used.

Test Your Understanding - I

1. You are looking at the profit and loss account of three business enterprises. Youfind the term depletion in first case and amortisation in third case. State the typeof business of two enterprises are into.

2. A pharmaceutical manufacturer has just developed and registered a patent for arare medicine. Which term will appear in its profit and loss account regarding thecost of patent written-off.

7.4 Need for Depreciation

The need for providing depreciation in accounting records arises fromconceptual, legal, and practical business consideration. These considerationsprovide depreciation a particular significance as a business expense.

7.4.1 Matching of Costs and Revenue

The rationale of the acquisition of fixed assets in business operations is thatthese are used in the earning of revenue. Every asset is bound to undergo

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233Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

some wear and tear, and hence lose value, once it is put to use in business.Therefore, depreciation is as much the cost as any other expense incurred inthe normal course of business like salary, carriage, postage and stationary,etc. It is a charge against the revenue of the corresponding period and mustbe deducted before arriving at net profit according to ‘Generally AcceptedAccounting Principles’.

7.4.2 Consideration of Tax

Depreciation is a deductible cost for tax purposes. However, tax rules for thecalculation of depreciation amount need not necessarily be similar to currentbusiness practices,

7.4.3 True and Fair Financial Position

If depreciation on assets is not provided for, then the assets will be over valuedand the balance sheet will not depict the correct financial position of thebusiness. Also, this is not permitted either by established accounting practicesor by specific provisions of law.

7.4.4 Compliance with Law

Apart from tax regulations, there are certain specific legislations that indirectlycompel some business organisations like corporate enterprises to providedepreciation on fixed assets.

Test Your Understanding - II

State whether the following statements are true or false:

1. Depreciation is a non-cash expense.

2. Depreciation is also charged on current assets.

3. Depreciation is decline in the market value of tangible fixed assets.

4. The main cause of depreciation is wear and tear caused by its usage.

5. Depreciation must be charged so as to ascertain true profit or loss of thebusiness.

6. Depletion term is used in case of intangible assets.

7. Depreciation provides fund for replacement.

8. When market value of an asset is higher than book value, depreciation is notcharged.

9. Depreciation is charged to reduce the value of asset to its market value.

10. If adequate maintenance expenditure is incurred, depreciation need not becharged.

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234 Accountancy

7.5 Factors Affecting the Amount of Depreciation

The determination of depreciation depends on three parameters, viz. cost,estimated useful life and probable salvage value.

7.5.1 Cost of Asset

Cost (also known as original cost or historical cost) of an asset includes invoiceprice and other costs, which are necessary to put the asset in use or workingcondition. Besides the purchase price, it includes freight and transportationcost, transit insurance, installation cost, registration cost, commission paidon purchase of asset add items such as software, etc. In case of purchase of asecond hand asset it includes initial repair cost to put the asset in workablecondition. According to Accounting Standand-6 of ICAI, cost of a fixed asset is“the total cost spent in connection with its acquisition, installation andcommissioning as well as for addition or improvement of the depreciable asset”.For example, a photocopy machine is purchased for Rs. 50,000 and Rs. 5,000is spent on its transportation and installation. In this case the original cost ofthe machine is Rs. 55,000 (i.e. Rs. 50,000 + Rs.5,000 ) which will be written-off as depreciation over the useful life of the machine.

7.5.2 Estimated Net Residual Value

Net Residual value (also known as scrap value or salvage value for accountingpurpose) is the estimated net realisable value (or sale value) of the asset at theend of its useful life. The net residual value is calculated after deducting theexpenses necessary for the disposal of the asset. For example, a machine ispurchased for Rs. 50,000 and is expected to have a useful life of 10 years. Atthe end of 10th year it is expected to have a sale value of Rs. 6,000 butexpenses related to its disposal are estimated at Rs. 1,000. Then its net residualvalue shall be Rs. 5,000 (i.e. Rs. 6,000 – Rs. 1,000).

7.5.3 Depreciable Cost

Depreciable cost of an asset is equal to its cost (as calculated in point 7.5.1above) less net residual value (as calculated in point 7.5.2,) Hence, in theabove example, the depreciable cost of machine is Rs. 45,000 (i.e., Rs. 50,000– Rs. 5,000.) It is the depreciable cost, which is distributed and charged asdepreciation expense over the estimated useful life of the asset. In the aboveexample, Rs. 45,000 shall be charged as depreciation over a period of 10years. It is important to mention here that total amount of depreciation chargedover the useful life of the asset must be equal to the depreciable cost. If totalamount of depreciation charged is less than the depreciable cost then the

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235Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

capital expenditure is under recovered. It violates the principle of propermatching of revenue and expense.

7.5.4 Estimated Useful Life

Useful life of an asset is the estimated economic or commercial life of theasset. Physical life is not important for this purpose because an asset maystill exist physically but may not be capable of commercially viable production.For example, a machine is purchased and it is estimated that it can be usedin production process for 5 years. After 5 years the machine may still be ingood physical condition but can’t be used for production profitably, i.e., if it isstill used the cost of production may be very high. Therefore, the useful life ofthe machine is considered as 5 years irrespective of its physical life. Estimationof useful life of an asset is difficult as it depends upon several factors such asusage level of asset, maintenance of the asset, technological changes, marketchanges, etc. As per Accounting Standard – 6 useful life of an asset is normallythe “period over which it is expected to be used by the enterprise”. Normally,useful life is shorter than the physical life. The useful life of an asset is expressedin number of years but it can also be expressed in other units, e.g., number ofunits of output (as in case of mines) or number of working hours. Useful lifedepends upon the following factors :• Pre-determined by legal or contractual limits, e.g. in case of leasehold

asset, the useful life is the period of lease.• The number of shifts for which asset is to be used.• Repair and maintenance policy of the business organisation.• Technological obsolescence.• Innovation/improvement in production method.• Legal or other restrictions.

7.6 Methods of Calculating Depreciation Amount

The depreciation amount to be charged for during an accounting year dependsup on depreciable amount and the method of allocation. For this, two methodsare mandated by law and enforced by professional accounting practice inIndia. These methods are straight line method and written down value method.Besides these two main methods there are other methods such as – annuitymethod, depreciation fund method, insurance policy method, sum of yearsdigit method, double declining method, etc. which may be used for determiningthe amount of depreciation. The selection of an appropriate method dependsupon the following :

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236 Accountancy

• Type of the asset;

• Nature of the use of such asset;

• Circumstances prevailing in the business;

As per Accounting Standard-6, the selected depreciation method shouldbe applied consistently from period to period. Change in depreciation methodmay be allowed only under specific circumstances.

7.6.1 Straight Line Method

This is the earliest and one of the widely used methods of providingdepreciation. This method is based on the assumption of equal usage of theasset over its entire useful life. It is called straight line for a reason that if theamount of depreciation and corresponding time period is plotted on a graph,it will result in a straight line (figure 7.1).

It is also called fixed installment method because the amount of depreciationremains constant from year to year over the useful life of the asset. Accordingto this method, a fixed and an equal amount is charged as depreciation inevery accounting period during the lifetime of an asset. The amount annuallycharged as depreciation is such that it reduces the original cost of the asset toits scrap value, at the end of its useful life. This method is also known as fixedpercentage on original cost method because same percentage of the originalcost (infact depreciable cost) is written off as depreciation from year to year.

The depreciation amount to be provided under this method is computedby using the following formula:

asset the of life useful Estimated

value lresidentianet Estimated asset ofCost onDepreciati

−=

Rate of depreciation under straight line method is the percentage of thetotal cost of the asset to be charged as deprecation during the useful lifetimeof the asset. Rate of depreciation is calculated as follows:

100cost nAcquisitio

amount ondepreciati AnnualonDepreciati of Rate ×=

Consider the following example, the original cost of the asset is Rs. 2,50,000.The useful life of the asset is 10 years and net residual value is estimated tobe Rs. 50,000. Now, the amount of depreciation to be charged every year willbe computed as given below:

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237Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

Annual Depreciation Amount

asset of life Estimatedvalue lresidentianet Estimatedasset ofcost Acqusition −

=

20,000 Rs.10

50,000 Rs. 2,50,000 Rs.i.e. =

−=

The rate of depreciation will be calculated as :

(i) 100cost nAcquisitio

amount ondepreciati AnnualonDepreciati of Rate ×=

From point (i), the annual depreciation amounts to Rs. 20,000.

Thus, the rate of depreciation will be = 8% 1002,50,000 Rs.20,000 Rs.

7.6.1.1 Advantages of Straight Line Method

Straight Line method has certain advantages which are stated below:

• It is very simple, easy to understand and apply. Simplicity makes it apopular method in practice;

• Asset can be depreciated upto the net scrap value or zero value. Therefore,this method makes it possible to distribute full depreciable cost over usefullife of the asset;

• Every year, same amount is charged as depreciation in profit and lossaccount. This makes comparison of profits for different years easy;

• This method is suitable for those assets whose useful life can be estimatedaccurately and where the use of the asset is consistent from year to yearsuch as leasehold buildings.

Fig. 7.1 : Depreciation amount under straight line method

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238 Accountancy

7.6.1.2 Limitations of Straight Line Method

Although straight line method is simple and easy to apply it suffers fromcertain limitations which are given below.• This method is based on the faulty assumption of same utility of the asset

in different accounting years;• With the passage of time, work efficiency of the asset decreases and repair

and maintenance expense increases. Hence, under this method totalamount charged against profit on account of depreciation and repair takentogether will not be uniform throughout the life of the asset, rather it willkeep on increasing from year to year.

7.6.2 Written Down Value Method

Under this method, depreciation is charged on the book value of the asset.Since book value keeps on reducing by the annual charge of depreciation, it isalso known as reducing balance method. This method involves the applicationof a pre-determined proportion/percentage of the book value of the asset atthe beginning of every accounting period, so as to calculate the amount ofdepreciation. The amount of depreciation reduces year after year.

For example, the original cost of the asset is Rs. 2,00,000 and depreciationis charged @ 10% p.a. at written down value, then the amount of depreciationwill be computed as follows:

(i) Depreciation (I year) = 20,000 Rs. 10010

20,00,000 Rs. =×

(ii) Written down value = Rs. 2,00,000 – 20,000 = Rs.1,80,000(at the end of the I year)

(iii) Depreciation (II year) = 18,000 Rs. 10010

1,80,000 Rs. =×

(iv) Written down value = Rs. 1,80,000 – Rs.18,000 = 1,62,000(at the end of the II year)

(v) Depreciation (III year) = 16,200 Rs. 10010

1,62,000 Rs. =×

(vi) Written down value = Rs. 1,62,000 – Rs. 16,200 = Rs. 1,45,800(at the end of III year)

As evident from the example, the amount of depreciation goes on reducingyear after year. For this reason, it is also known reducing installment ordiminishing value method. This method is based upon the assumption thatthe benefit accruing to business from assets keeps on diminishing as theasset becomes old (refer figure 7.2). This is due to the reason that a pre-determined percentage is applied to a gradually shrinking balance on the

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239Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

asset account every year. Thus, large amount is recovered depreciation chargein the earlier years than in later years.

Fig. 7.2 : Depreciation amount using written down value method

Under written down value method, the rate of depreciation is computed byusing the following formula:

100cs

n1 R ×⎥⎥⎦

⎢⎢⎣

⎡−=

Where, r = Rate of depreciation n = Expected useful life s = Scrap value

c = Cost of an asset

For example, the original cost of a truck is Rs. 9,00,000 and its net salvagevalue after 16 years of useful life is Rs. 50,000 then the appropriate rate ofdepreciation will be computed as under:

16.6% 100 0.834) (1 100 9,00,00050,000

161 R =×−=×⎥⎥⎦

⎢⎢⎣

⎡−=

7.6.2.1 Advantages of Written Down Value Method

Written down value method has the following advantages:

• This method is based on a more realistic assumption that the benefitsfrom asset go on diminishing with the passage of time. Hence, it calls forproper allocation of cost because higher depreciation is charged in earlieryears when asset’s utility is more as compared to later years when itbecomes less useful;

• It results into almost equal burden on profit or loss account of depreciationand repair expenses taken together every year;

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240 Accountancy

• Income Tax Act accept this method for tax purposes;• As a large portion of cost is written-off in earlier years, loss due to

obsolescence gets reduced;• This method is suitable for fixed assets, which lasts for long and which

require increased repair and maintenance expenses with passage of time.It can also be used where obsolescence rate is high.

7.6.2.2 Limitations of Written Down Value Method

Although this method is based upon a more realistic assumption it suffersfrom the following limitations.• As depreciation is calculated at fixed percentage of written down value,

depreciable cost of the asset cannot be fully written-off. The value of theasset can never be zero;

• It is difficult to ascertain a suitable rate of depreciation.

7.7 Straight Line Method and Written Down Method: A Comparative Analysis

Straight line and written down value methods are generally used for calculatingdepreciation amount in practice. Following are the points of differences betweenthese two methods.

7.7.1 Basis of Charging Depreciation

In straight line method, depreciation is charged on the basis of original cost or(historical cost). Whereas in written down value method, the basis of chargingdepreciation is net book value (i.e., original cost less depreciation till date) ofthe asset, in the beginning of the year.

7.7.2 Annual Charge of Depreciation

The annual amount of depreciation charged every year remains fixed orconstant under straight line method. Whereas in written down value methodthe annual amount of depreciation is highest in the first year and subsequentlydeclines in later years. The reason for this difference, is the difference in thebasis of charging depreciation under both methods. Under straight line methoddepreciation is calculated on original cost while under written down valuemethod it is calculated on written down value.

7.7.3 Total Charge Against Profit and Loss Account on Account ofDepreciation and Repair Expenses

It is a well-accepted phenomenon that repair and maintenance expensesincrease in later years of the useful life of the asset. Hence, total charge against

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241Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

profit and loss account in respect of depreciation and repair expenses increasesin later years under straight line method. This happens because annualdepreciation charge remains fixed while repair expenses increase. On the otherhand, under written down value method, depreciation charge declines in lateryears, therefore total of depreciation and repair charge remains similar orequal year after year.

7.7.4 Recognition by Income Tax Law

Straight line method is not recognised by Income Tax Law while written downvalue method is recognised by the Income Tax Law.

7.7.5 Suitability

Straight line method is suitable for assets in which repair charges are less,the possibility of obsolescence is less and scrap value depends upon the timeperiod involved. Such as freehold land and buildings, patents, trade marks,etc. Written down value method is suitable for assets, which are affected bytechnological changes and require more repair expenses with passage of timesuch as plant and machinery, vehicles, etc.

Basis of Difference Straight Line Method Written Down ValueMethod

1. Basis of charging depre- Original cost Book Value (i.e. originalciation cost less depreciation

charged till date)2. Annual depreciation charge Fixed (Constant) year Declines year after year

3. Total charge against Unequal year after year. Almost equal every year.profit and loss account in It increases in later years.respect of depreciationand repairs

4. Recognition by income Not recognised Recognisedtax law

5. Suitablity It is suitable for assets in It is suitable for assets,which repair charges are which are affected byless, the possibility of technological changesand obsolescence is low and require more repairscrap value depends upon expenses with passage ofthe time period involved. time.

Fig. 7.3 : Comparison of straight line and written down value method

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242 Accountancy

Test Your Understanding - III

There are two dentists Dr. Aggarwal and Dr. Mehta in your locality who arecompetitors. Both of them have recently bought an equipment for treatment ofpatients. Dr. Aggarwal has decided to write-off an equal amount of depreciationevery year while Dr. Mehta wants to write-off a larger amount in earlier years. Theydo not know anything about the methods of depreciation. Can you inform themmore about the methods of depreciation they are applying even without knowinganything about accounting in formal. Who is more wise in your opinion? Give reasonsin support of your answer.

7.8 Methods of Recording Depreciation

In the books of account, there are two types of arrangements for recordingdepreciation on fixed assets:• Charging depreciation to asset account or• Creating Provision for depreciation/Accumulated depreciation account.

7.8.1 Charging Depreciation to Asset account

According to this arrangement, depreciation is deducted from the depreciablecost of the asset ( credited to the asset account) and charged (or debited) toprofit and loss account. Journal entries under this recording method are asfollows:

1. For recording purchase of asset (only in the year of purchase)Asset A/c Dr. (with the cost of asset including

installation, freight, etc.)To Bank/Vendor A/c

2. Following two entries are recorded at the end of every year(a) For deducting depreciation amount from the cost of the asset.

Depreciation A/c Dr. (with the amount of depreciation)To Asset A/c

(b) For charging depreciation to profit and loss account.Profit & Loss A/c Dr. (with the amount of depreciation)

To Depreciation A/c3. Balance Sheet Treatment

When this method is used, the fixed asset appears at its net book value (i.e. costless depreciation charged till date) on the asset side of the balance sheet and not atits original cost (also known as historical cost).

7.8.2 Creating Provision for Depreciation Account/AccumulatedDepreciation Account

This method is designed to accumulate the depreciation provided on an assetin a separate account generally called ‘depreciation provision’ or ‘accumulated

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243Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

depreciation’. Such accumulation of depreciation enables that the asset accountneed not be disturbed in any way and it continues to be shown at its originalcost over the successive years of its useful life. There are some basiccharacteristic of this method of recording depreciation, which are given below:• Asset account continues to appear at its original cost year after year over

its entire life;• Depreciation is accumulated on a separate account instead of being

adjusted into the asset account at the end of each accounting period.The following journal entries are recorded under this method:1. For recording purchase of asset (only in the year of purchase)

Asset A/c Dr. (with the cost of asset includinginstallation, expenses etc.)

To Bank/Vendor A/c (cash/credit purchase)

2. Following two journal entries are recorded at the end of each year:

(a) For crediting depreciation amount to provision for depreciation accountDepreciation A/c Dr. (with the amount of depreciation)

To Provision for depreciation A/c

(b) For charging depreciation to profit and loss accountProfit & Loss A/c Dr. (with the amount of depreciation)

To Depreciation A/c

3. Balance sheet treatment

In the balance sheet, the fixed asset continues to appear at its original cost on theasset side. The depreciation charged till that date appears in the provision for depreciationaccount, which is shown either on the “liabilities side” of the balance sheet or by way ofdeduction from the original cost of the asset concerned on the asset side of the balancesheet.

Illustration 1

M/s Singhania and Bros. purchased a plant for Rs. 5,00,000 on April, 01 2002, andspent Rs. 50,000 for its installation. The salvage value of the plant after its useful life of10 years is estimated to be Rs. 10,000. Record journal entries for the year 2002-03 anddraw up Plant Account and Depreciation Account for first three years given that thedepreciation is charged using straight line method if :

(i) The books of account close on March 31 every year; and(ii) The firm charges depreciation to the asset account.

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244 Accountancy

SolutionBooks of Singhania and Bros.

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2002Apr. 01 Plant A/c Dr. 5,00,000

To Bank A/c 5,00,000(Purchased plant for Rs. 5,00,000)

Apr. 01 Plant A/c Dr. 50,000To Bank A/c 50,000

(Expenses incurred on installation)

2003

Mar. 31 Depreciation A/c Dr. 54,000To Plant A/c 54,000

(Depreciation charged on asset)

Mar. 31 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 54,000To Depreciation A/c 54,000

(Depreciation debited to profit andloss account)

Plant AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2002 2003Apr. 01 Bank 5,00,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 54,000

Balance c/d 4,96,000Bank 50,000(Installationexpenses)

5,50,000 5,50,000

2003 2004Apr. 01 Balance b/d 4,96,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 54,000

Balance c/d 4,42,000

4,96,000 4,96,000

2004 2005Apr. 01 Balance b/d 4,42,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 54,000

Balance c/d 3,88,000

4,42,000 4,42,0002005Apr. 01 Balance b/d 3,88,000

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245Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

Depreciation AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountsRs. Rs.

2003 2003Mar. 31 Plant 54,000 Mar. 31 Profit and Loss 54,0002004 2004Mar. 31 Plant 54,000 Mar. 31 Profit and Loss 54,0002005 2005

Mar. 31 Plant 54,000 Mar. 31 Profit & Loss 54,000

Workings Notes

(1) Calculation of original cost(Rs.)

Purchase cost 5,00,000Add: Installation cost 50,000Original cost 5,50,000Salvage value 10,000Useful life 10 years

(2) Depreciation amount = p.a. 54,000 Rs.10

10,000 Rs.5,50,000 Rs.=

Illustration 2

M/s Mehra and Sons acquired a machine for Rs. 1,80,000 on October 01, 2003, andspent Rs 20,000 for its installation. The firm writes-off depreciation at the rate of 10% onoriginal cost every year. Record necessary journal entries for the year 2003 and draw upMachine Account and Depreciation Account for first three years given that:

(i) The book of accounts closes on March 31 every year; and(ii) The firm charges depreciation to asset account.

SolutionBooks of Mehra and Sons

Journal

Debit CreditDate Particulars L.F. Amount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2003Oct. 01 Machine A/c Dr. 1,80,000

To Bank A/c 1,80,000(Purchased machine for Rs.1,80,000)

Oct. 01 Machine A/c Dr. 20,000To Bank A/c 20,000

(Expenses incurred on installation)

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246 Accountancy

2004Mar. 31 Depreciation A/c Dr. 10,000

To Machine A/c 10,000Depreciation charged on machine)

Mar. 31 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 10,000To Depreciation A/c 10,000

(Depreciation debited to profit and lossaccount)

2005Mar. 31 Depreciation A/c Dr. 20,000

To Machine A/c 20,000(Depreciation charged on machine)

Mar. 31 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 20,000To Depreciation A/c 20,000

(Depreciation debited to profit and lossaccount)

2006Mar. 31 Depreciation A/c Dr. 20,000

To Machine A/c 20,000(Depreciation charged on machine)

Mar. 31 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 20,000To Depreciation A/c 20,000

(Depreciation debited to profit andloss account)

Books of M/s Mehra and SonsMachine Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2003 2004Oct. 01 Bank 1,80,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 10,000Oct. 01 Bank 20,000 (for 6 months)

(Installation Balance c/d 1,90,000expenses) Mar. 31

2,00,000 2,00,0002004Apr. 01 Balance b/d 1,90,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 20,000

1,70,000Balance c/d

1,90,000 1,90,000

2005 2006Apr. 01 Balance b/d 1,70,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 20,000

Balance c/d 1,50,000

1,70,000 1,70,000

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247Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

Depreciation Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2004 2004Mar. 31 Machine 10,000 Mar. 31 Profit & Loss 10,000

10,000 10,0002005

Mar. 31 Machine 20,000 Mar. 31 Profit & Loss 20,00020,000 20,000

2006 2006Dec. 31 Machine 20,000 Dec. 31 Profit & Loss 20,000

20,000 20,000

Working Notes

(1) Calculation of original cost of the machineRs.

Purchase cost 1,80,000Add Installation cost (20,000)

Original cost 2,00,000

(2) Depreciation expense = 10% of Rs. 2,00,000 every year= Rs. 20,000 p.a.

(3) During the year 2003, depreciation shall be charged only for 6 months, asacquisition date is October 01, 2003, i.e. the asset is used only for 6 monthsduring the year 2003-04.

(4) 10,000 Rs. 126

20,000 4)(2003 onDepreciati =×=−

Illustration 3

Based on data given in question number 2 record journal entries and prepare Machineaccount, Depreciation account and Provision for Depreciation account for the first 3 yearsif Provision for depreciation account is maintained by the firm.

Solution

Books of Mehra and SonsMachine Account

Dr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amounts

Rs. Rs.

2003 2004Oct. 1 Bank 1,80,000 Mar. 31 Balance c/d 2,00,000Oct. 1 Bank

(Installation 20,000expenses)

2,00,000 2,00,000

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248 Accountancy

2004 2005Apr. 01 Balance b/d 2,00,000 Mar. 31 Balance c/d 2,00,000

2,00,000 2,00,000

Provision for Depreciation AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountsRs. Rs.

2004 2004Mar. 31 Balance c/d 10,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 10,000

10,000 10,000

2005 2004Mar. 31 Balance c/d 30,000 Apr. 01 Balance b/d 10,000

Mar. 31 Depreciation 20,000

30,000 30,000

2006 2005

Mar. 31 Balance c/d 50,000 Apr. 1 Balance b/d 30,000

2006Mar. 31 Depreciation 20,000

50,000 50,000

Depreciation AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2004 2004Mar. 31 Provision for 10,000 Mar.31 Profit & Loss 10,000

Deprection10,000 10,000

2005 2005Mar. 31 Provision for 20,000 Mar.31 Profit & Loss 20,000

Depreciation20,000 20,000

2006 2006Mar. 31 Provision for 20,000 Mar.31 Profit & Loss 20,000

Depreciation

20,000 20,000

Illustration 4

M/s. Dalmia Textile Mills purchased machinery on April 01, 2001 for Rs. 2,00,000 oncredit from M/s Ahuja and sons and spent Rs. 10,000 for its installation. Depreciation is

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249Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

provided @10% p.a. on written down value basis. Prepare Machinery Account for the firstthree years. Books are closed on March 31, every year.

Solution

Books of Dalmia Textiles millsMachinery Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2001 2002Apr. 01 Bank 2,00,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 21,0001

Bank 10,000 Balance c/d 1,89,000

2,10,000 2,10,000

2002 2003Apr. 01 Balance b/d 1,89,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 18,9002

Balance c/d 1,70,100

1,89,000 1,89,000

2003 2004Apr. 01 Balance b/d 1,70,100 Mar. 31 Depreciation 17,0103

Balance c/d 1,53,090

1,70,100 1,70,100

2004 Balance b/d 1,53,090

Working Notes

1. Calculation of the amount of depreciation (Rs.)Original cost on 01.01.2001 2,10,000 (i.e. 2,00,000 + 10,000)Less: Depreciation for the year 2001(@10% of 2,10,000) (21,000)1

WDV on 31.12.2001/01.01.2002 1,89,000Less: Depreciation for the year 2002(@10% of 1,89,000) (18,900)2

WDV on 31.12.2002/01.01.2003 1,70,100Less: Depreciation for the year 2003(@10% of 1,70,100) (17,010)3

WDV on 31.12.2003 1,53,090

Illustration 5

M/s Sahani Enterprises acquired a printing machine for Rs. 40,000 on July 01, 2001 andspent Rs. 5,000 on its transport and installation. Another machine for Rs. 35,000 waspurchased on January 01, 2003. Depreciation is charged at the rate of 20% on writtendown value. Prepare Printing Machine account for the years ended on March, 31, 2002,2003, 2004 and 2005.

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250 Accountancy

Solution

Books of Sahani EnterprisesPrinting Machine Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2001 2002Jul. 01 Bank 40,000 Mar. 31 Depreciation 6,7501

Bank 5,000 Balance c/d 38,25045,000 45,000

2002 2003

Apr. 01 Balance b/d 38,250 Mar. 31 Depreciation 9,4002

Jan. 01 Bank 35,000 Balance c/d 63,85073,250 73,250

2003 2004Apr. 01 Balance b/d 63,850 Mar.31 Depreciation 12,7703

Balance c/d 51,08063,850 63,850

2004Apr. 01 Balance b/d 51,080

Working Notes

(Rs.)Orignal cost machine purchased on July 01,2001 45,000(–) Depreciation till Mar. 31, 2002 (for 9 months @ 20%) (6,750)1

38,250+ Cost of new machine purchased on Jan. 01,2003 (35,000)

73,250(–) Depreciation for the year 2002-2003(20% of 38,250 + 20% of Rs. 35,000 for 3 month) (9,400)2

WDV on Mar. 31, 2003 63,850(–) Depreciation for the year 2003 – 04 (20% of Rs. 73,850) (12,770)3

WDV on Mar. 31, 2004 51,080

Test Your Understanding - IV

Basaria Confectioner bought a cold storage plant on July 01, 2003 for Rs.1,00,000.Compare the amount of depreciation charged for first three years using:

1. Rate of depreciation @ 10% on original cost basis;2. Rate of depreciation @ on written down value basis;3. Also, plot the computed amount of depreciation on a graph.

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7.9 Disposal of Asset

Disposal of asset can take place either (a) at the end of its useful life or (b)during its useful life (due to obsolescence or any other abnormal factor).

If it is sold at the end of its useful life, the amount realised on account of thesale of asset as scrap should be credited to the asset account and the balanceis transferred to profit and loss account. In this regard the following journalentries are recorded.1. For sale of asset as scrap

Bank A/c Dr.To Asset A/c

2. For transfer of balance in asset account(a) In case of profit

Asset A/c Dr.To Profit and Loss A/c

(b) In case of lossProfit and Loss A/c Dr.

To Asset A/c

In case, however, the provision for depreciation account has been in usefor recording the depreciation, then before passing the above entries transferthe balance of the provision for depreciation account to the asset account byrecording the following journal entry:

Provision for depreciation A/c Dr.To Asset A/c

For example, R.S. Limited purchased a vehicle for Rs. 4, 00,000. After4 years its salvage value is estimated at Rs. 40,000. To find out the amount ofdepreciation to be charged every year based on straight line basis, and showas to how the vehicle account would appear for four years assuming it is soldfor Rs. 50,000 at the end when

(a) depreciation is charged to asset account; and(b) provision for depreciation account is maintained.

Consider the following entries in the book of account of R.S. Limited

(a) When depreciation is charged to assets account

Books of R.S. LimitedVehicle Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

I Bank 4,00,000 End of Depreciation 90,000year the year Balance c/d 3,10,000

4,00,000 4,00,000

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252 Accountancy

II Balance b/d 3,10,000 End of Depreciation 90,000year the year Balance c/d 2,20.000

3,10,000 3,10,000

III Balance b/d 2,20,000 End of Depreciation 90,000year the year Balance c/d 1,30,000

2,20,000 2,20,000IV Balance b/d 1,30,000 Depreciaton 99,000year Profit and 10,000 Bank 50,000

loss (Profit onsale of vehicle)

1,40,000 1,40,000

(b) When Provision for depreciation account is maintained.

Books of R.S. Limited

Vehicle AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

I Bank 4,00,000 End of Balance c/d 4,00,000year the year

4,00,000 4,00,000

II Balance b/d 4,00,000 End of Balance c/d 4,00,000year the year

4,00,000 4,00,000

III Balance b/d 4,00,000 End of Balance c/d 4,00,000year the year

4,00,000 4,00,000

IV Balance b/d 4,00,000 Provison for 3,60,000year Profit and loss 10,000 depreciation

(Profit on Sale Bank 50,000of Vehicle)

4,10,000 4,10,000

Provision for DepreciationDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Ist Balance b/d 90,000 End of Depreciation 90,000year year

90,000 90,000

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253Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

II Balance b/d 1,80,000 End of Balance c/d 90,000year the year Depreciation 90,000

1,80,000 1,80,000

III Balance b/d 2,70,000 End of Balance c/d 1,80,000year the year Depreciation 90,000

2,70,000 2,70,000

IV Machinery 3,60,000 End of Balance c/d 2,70,000year the year Provison for 90,000

Depreciation

3,60,000 3,60,000

7.9.1 Use of Asset Disposal Account

Asset disposal account is designed to provide a complete and clear view of allthe transactions involved in the sale of an asset under one account head. Theconcerned variables are the original cost of the asset, depreciation accumulatedon the asset upto date, sale price of the asset, value of the parts of the assetretained for use, if any and the resultant profit or loss on disposal. The balanceof this amount is transferred to the profit and loss account.

This method is generally used when a part of the asset is sold andprovision for depreciation account exists.

Under this method, a new account titled Asset Disposal Account is opened.The original cost of the asset being sold is debited to the asset disposal accountand accumulated depreciation amount appearing in provision for depreciationaccount relating to that asset till the date of disposal is credited to the assetdisposal account. The net amount realised from the sale of the asset is alsocredited to this account. The balance of asset disposal account shows profitor loss which is transferred to profit and loss account. The advantage of thismethod is that it gives a full picture of all the transactions related to assetdisposal at one place. The journal entries required for the preparation of assetdisposal account is as follows:

1. Asset Disposal A/c Dr. (with the original cost of asset,To Asset A/c being sold)

2. Provision for Depreciation A/c Dr. (with the accumulated balance inTo Asset Disposal A/c provision for depreciation account)

3. Bank A/c Dr. (with the net sales proceeds)To Asset Disposal A/c

Asset Disposal Account may ultimately show a debit or credit balance.The debit balance on the account indicate loss on disposal and would be dealtwith as follows:

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254 Accountancy

Profit and Loss A/c Dr. (with the amount of loss on sale)To Asset Disposal A/c

The credit balance of the account, profit on disposal and would be closedby the following journal entry:

Asset Disposal A/c Dr. (with the amount of profit on sale)To Profit and Loss A/c

For example, Karan Enterprises has the following balances in its booksas on March 31, 2005

Machinery (gross value): Rs. 6,00,000Provision for depreciation: Rs. 2,50,000

A machine purchased for Rs. 1,00,000 on November 01, 2001, havingaccumulated depreciation amounting to Rs. 60,000 was sold on April 1, 2006 forRs. 35,000. The Asset Disposal account will be prepared in the following manner:

Books of Karan EnterprisesMachinery Disposal Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars L.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Apr. 01 Machinery 1,00,000 Apr. 01 Provision for 60,000

depreciation Apr. 01 Bank 35,0002007Mar. 31 Profit & Loss

(Loss on sale) 5,0001

1,00,000 1,00,000

Machinery AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount

Rs. Rs.2005 2005Mar. 31 Balance b/d 6,00,000 Apr. 01 Machine

Disposal 1,00,0002006Mar. 31

6,00,000 6,00,000

Working Notes

(1) Computation of loss on sale of machinery Rs.Original cost of the asset being sold 1,00,000Less: accumulated depreciation (60,000)

40,000

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255Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

(2) Sales value realised (35,000)Loss on sale (i.e. Rs. 40,000 – Rs. 35,000) 5,0001

Illustration 6

On January 01 2001, Khosla Transport Co. purchased five trucks for Rs. 20,000 each.Depreciation has been provided at the rate of 10% p.a. using straight line method andaccumulated in provision for depreciation acount. On January 01, 2002, one truck wassold for Rs. 15,000. On July 01, 2003, another truck (purchased for Rs. 20,000 on Jan01, 2001) was sold for Rs. 18,000. A new truck costing Rs. 30,000 was purchased onOctober 01, 2003. You are required to prepare trucks account, Provision for depreciationaccount and Truck disposal account for the years ended on December 2001, 2002 and2003 assuming that the firm closes its accounts in December every year.

Solution

Book of Khosla Transport Co.Trucks Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F Amount Date Particulars J.F AmountRs. Rs.

2001 2001Jan. 01 Bank 1,00,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 1,00,000

(Purchase oftruck) 1,00,000 1,00,000

2002 2002Jan. 01 Balance b/d 1,00,000 Jan. 01 Truck disposal 20,000

Dec 31 Balance c/d 80,000

1,00,000 1,00,000

2003 2003Jan. 01 Balance b/d 80,000 Jul. 01 Truck disposal 20,000Oct. 01 Bank 30,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 90,000

(Purchase ofnew truck) 1,10,000 1,10,000

Truck Disposal Account

Dr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F Amount Date Particulars J.F Amount

Rs. Rs.

2002 2002Jan. 01 Machinery 20,000 Jan. 01 Provision for 2,000

DepreciationJan. 01 Bank (Sale) 15,000Jan. 01 Profit & Loss 3,0004

(Loss on sale)20,000 20,000

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256 Accountancy

2003 2003Jul. 01 Machinery 20,000 Jul. 01 Provision forJul. 01 Profit & Loss 3,000 Depreciation

(Profit on sale)5 (Rs. 2,000 +2,000 +1,000) 5,000

Jul. 01 Bank (Sale) 18,000

23,000 23,000

Provision for Depreciation Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount Rs. Rs.

2001 2001Dec. 31 Balance c/d 10,000 Dec. 31 Depreciation 10,0001

10,000 10,000

2002 2002Jan. 01 Truck Disposal 2,000 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 10,000Dec. 31 Balance c/d 16,000 Dec. 31 Depreciation 8,0002

18,000 18,000

2003 2003Jan. 01 Truck Disposal 5,000 Jan. 1 Balance b/d 16,000Dec. 31 Balance c/d 18,750 Dec. 31 Depreciation

(Rs. 6000+1000+750) 7,7503

23,750 23,750

Working Notes

1. Calculation of amount of depreciation Rs.Year - 200110% on Rs. 1,00,000 for one year 10,0001

Year - 200210% on Rs. 80,000 for one year 80002

Year – 200310% on Rs. 60,000 for 1 year 6,00010% on Rs. 20,000 for six months 1,00010% on Rs. 30,000 for three months 7,50

7,7503

2. Loss on sale of first truckOriginal cost on January 01, 2001 20,000Less depreciation at 10% (2,000)Book value on January 1, 2002 18,000Sales price realised on 01.01.2002 (15,000)Loss on sale of first machine 3,0004

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257Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

3. Profit on Sale of Second TruckOriginal cost on January 01, 2001 20,000Less Depreciation at 10% for year 2001 (2,000)Depreciation at 10% for 2002 (2,000)Depreciation @10% for 6 months till July, 2003 (1,000)Book value on 1.7.2003 15,000Sale price 18,000Profit on sale 3,0005

Illustration 7

On April 01, 2004, following balances appeared in the books of M/s Kanishka Traders:Furniture account Rs. 50,000, Provision for depreciation on furniture Rs. 22,000. OnOctober 01, 2004 a part of furniture purchased for Rupees 20,000 on April 01, 2000 wassold for Rs. 5,000. On the same date a new furniture costing Rs. 25,000 was purchased.The depreciation was provided @ 10% p.a. on original cost of the asset and no depreciationwas charged on the asset in the year of sale. Prepare furniture account and provision fordepreciation account for the year ending March 31, 2005.

SolutionBooks of Kanishka Traders

Furniture AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F AmountRs. Rs.

2004 2004Apr. 01 Balance b/d 50,000 Oct.01 Bank 5,000Oct. 10 Bank 25,000 Apr. 01 Provision for 8,000

depreciation 7,0001

Profit and Loss(Loss on sale)Balance c/d 55,000

75,000 75,000

Provision for Depreciation on Furniture Account

Dr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particular J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2004 2004Oct. 01 Furniture 8,000 Apr. 01 Balance b/d 22,000

(Accumulateddepreciation onfurniture sold)

2005 2005Mar. 31 Balance c/d 18,250 Mar. 31 Depreciation

(Rs. 3,000 + 4,25026,250 1,250) 26,250

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258 Accountancy

Working Notes

1. Calculation of amount of depreciationCalculation of loss on sale Rs.Original cost of furniture on 01.10.2004 20,000Less: Depreciation for 4 year from 01.04.2000 to31.04.2004 (no depreciation for the year of sale@10% p.a. on original cost 8,000Value as on 01.10.2004 12,000Sale price 5,000

2. Loss on sale 7,0001

Depreciation for the year 2004-0510% of Rs. 30,000 (Rs. 50,000 – Rs. 20,000) for full year 3,00010% of Rs. 25,000 for 6 month 1,250

4,250

Illustration 8

Solve illustration 07, if the firm maintains furniture disposal account prepared alongwith furniture account and provision for depreciation on furniture account.

Books of Anil TradersFurniture Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2004 2004Apr. 01 Balance b/d 50,000 Apr. 01 Furniture 20,000

disposalOct.01 Bank 25,000 2005

Mar. 31 Balance c/d 55,000

75,000 75,000

Provision for Depreciation on Furniture Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particular J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2004 2004Oct.01 Furniture 8,000 Apr.01 Balance b/d 22,000

disposal2005 2005Mar. 31 Balance c/d 18,250 Mar.31 Depreciation 4,250

26,250 26,250

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259Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

Furniture Disposal AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particular J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2004 2004Oct.01 Furniture 20,000 Oct.01 Provision for

Depreciation 8,000Bank 5,000Profit & Loss (Loss on sale) 7,000

20,000 20, 000

Illustration 9

On Jan 01, 2001 Jain & Sons purchased a second hand plant costing Rs. 2,00,000 andspent Rs. 10,000 on its overhauling. It also spent Rs. 5,000 on transportation andinstallation of the plant. It was decided to provide for depreciation @ of 20% on writtendown value. The plant was destroyed by fire on July 31, 2004 and an insurance claim ofRs. 50,000 was admitted by the insurance company. Prepare plant account, accumulateddepreciation account and plant disposal account assuming that the company closes itsbooks on December 31, every year.

Solution

Books of Jain & Sons.

Plant AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2001 2001Jan. 01 Bank 2,15,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 2,15,000

2,15,000 2,15,000

2002 2002Jan. 01 Balance b/d 2,15,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 2,15,000

2,15,000 2,15,000

2003 2003Jan. 01 Balance b/d 2,15,000 Dec. 31 Balance c/d 2,15,000

2,15,000 2,15,000

2004 2004Jan. 01 Balance b/d 2,15,000 Jul. 31 Plant disposal 2,15,000

2,15,000 2,15,000

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260 Accountancy

Accumulated Depreciation AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2001 2001Dec. 31 Balance c/d 43,000 Dec. 31 Depreciation 43,0001

43,000 43,000

2002 2002Jan. 01 Balance c/d 77,400 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 43,000

Depreciation 34,4002

77,400 77,400

2003 2003Dec. 31 Balance c/d 1,04,920 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 77,400

Dec. 31 Depreciation 27,5203

1,04,920 1,04,920

20042004 Jan. 01 Balance b/d 1,04,920Jul. 31 Plant disposal 1,17,763 July 31 Depreciation 12,8434

1,17,763 1,17,763

Plant Disposal Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2004 2004Jul. 31 Plant 2,15,000 Jul. 31 Accumulated 1,17,763

depreciation Insurance Co. 50,000Profit & Loss 47,2375

(Loss on sale)2,15,000 2,15,000

Working Notes:

1. Calculation of Depreciation Amount (Rs.)Original cost on 01.01.2001 2,15,000(2,00,000 + 10,000+ 5,000)Depreciation for the year 2001(@20% of Rs. 2,15,000) (43,0001)

1,72,000

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261Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

Depreciation for the year 2002(@20% of Rs. 1,72,000) (34,4002)

1,37,600

Depreciation for the year 2003(@20% of Rs. 1,37,600) 27,5203

1,10,080

Depreciation till 31.07.04 (12,8434)(@20% of Rs. 1,10,080) 97,237

Insurance claim (50,000)Loss on disposal 47,2375

7.10 Effect of any Addition or Extension to the Existing Asset

An existing asset may require some additions or extensions for being suitablefor operations. Such additions/extensions may or may not become an integralpart of the asset. The amount incurred on such additions/extensions iscapitalised and written off as depreciation over the life of the asset. It isimportant to mention here that the amount so incurred is in addition to usualrepair and maintenance expenses. AS-6 (Revised) mentions that

• Any addition or extension, which becomes an integral part of the existingasset should be depreciated over the useful life of that asset;

• The depreciation on such addition or extension may also be providedat the rate applied to the existing asset;

• Where an addition or extension retains a separate identity and is capableof being used after the existing asset is disposed off, depreciation, shouldbe provided independently on the basis of its own useful life.

Illustration 10

M/s Digital Studio bought a machine for Rs. 8,00,000 on April 01, 2000. Depreciationwas provided on straight-line basis at the rate of 20% on original cost. On April 01,2002a substantial modification was made in the machine to make it more efficient at a cost ofRs. 80,000. This amount is to be depreciated @ 20% on straight line basis. Routinemaintenance expenses during the year 2003-04 were Rs. 2,000.

Draw up the Machine account, Provision for depreciation account and charge to profitand loss account in respect of the accounting year ended on March 31,2003.

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262 Accountancy

Solution

Books of Digital Studio

Machine Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2002 2003Apr 01 Balance b/d 800,000 Mar 31 Balance c/d 8,80,000

Bank 80,000

8,80,000 8,80,000

Provision for Depreciation Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F Amount Date Particulars J.F AmountRs. Rs.

2003 2003Mar 31 Balance c/d 4,96,000 April 01 Balance b/d 3,20,0001

2003Mar 31 Depreciation 1,76,0002

4,96,000 4,96,000

Working Notes

1. Cost of modification is capitalised but routine repair expenses are treated asrevenue expenditure.

2. Calculation of balance of provision for depreciation account on 01.04.2002.Original Cost on 01.04.2000 = Rs. 8,00,000Depreciation for the years 2000-01 and 2001-02 = Rs 3,20,0001

(@ 20% of Rs. 8,00,000 )3. Depreciation for the year 2002-03 is calculated as under:

20% of 8,00,000 = Rs. 1,60,00020% of Rs. 80,000 = Rs. 16,000Total Depreciation for 2002-03 = Rs. 1,76,0002

4. Amount to be charged to profit and loss accountDepreciation Rs. 1,76,000Repair and maintenance Rs. 2,000

Illustration 11

M/s Nishit Printing Press bought a printing machine for Rs. 6,80,000 on April 01, 2001.Depreciation was provided on straight line basis at the rate of 20% on original cost. OnApril 01,2003 a modification was made in the machine to increase its technical reliability,at a cost of Rs. 70,000. However this modification is not expected to increase the usefullife of the machine. At the same time an important component of the machine was replaced

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263Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

at a cost of Rs. 20,000 due to excessive wear and tear. Routine maintenance expensesduring the year 2003-04 were Rs. 5,000.

Show the Machinery account, Provision for depreciation account and charge to profit andloss account in respect of the accounting year ended on March 31, 2004.

Solution

Machinery Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2003 2004Apr.01 Balance b/d 6,80,000 Mar. 31 Balance c/d 7,70,000

Bank 70,000Bank 20,000

7,70,000 7,70,000

Provision for Depreciation Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2004 2003Mar.31 Balance c/d 4,38,000 Apr.01 Balance b/d 2,72,0001

2004Mar.31 Depreciation 1,66,0002

4,38,000 4,38,000

Working Notes

1. Cost of modification and cost of component replaced are capitalised but routinerepair expenses are revenue expenditure.

2. Calculation of balance of Provision for depreciation account on 01. 04. 2003.Original cost on 01.04.2001 = Rs. 6,80,000Depreciation for the years 2001-02 and 2002-03

⎥⎦⎤

⎢⎣⎡

×6,80,000100

20 2 = Rs 2,72,0001

3. Depreciation for the year 2003-04 is calculated as under.20% of Rs. 6,80,000 = Rs. 1,36,0001/3 of Rs. 90,000* = Rs. 30,000Total depreciation for 2003-04 = Rs. 1,66,0002

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264 Accountancy

4. Amount to be charged to profit and loss account

Rs.

Depreciation 1,66,000Repair and Maintenance 5,000

* Computation of depreciation on addition

3

90,000 Rs.

years 2)(5

020,000) Rs.70,000 (Rs.=

−+=

SECTION – II

Provisions and Reserve

7.11 Provisions

There are certain expenses/losses which are related to the current accountingperiod but amount of which is not known with certainty because they are notyet incurred. It is necessary to make provision for such items for ascertainingtrue net profit. For example, a trader who sells on credit basis knows thatsome of the debtors of the current period would default and would not pay orwould pay only partially. It is necessary to take into account such an expectedloss while calculating true and fair profit/loss according to the principle ofPrudence or Conservatism. Therefore, the trader creates a Provision for DoubtfulDebts to take care of expected loss at the time of realisation from debtors. Ina similar way, Provision for repairs and renewals may also be created to providefor expected repair and renewal of the fixed assets. Examples of provisionsare :• Provision for depreciation;• Provision for bad and doubtful debts;• Provision for taxation;• Provision for discount on debtors; and• Provision for repairs and renewals.

It must be noted that the amount of provision for expense and loss is acharge against the revenue of the current period. Creation of provision ensuresproper matching of revenue and expenses and hence the calculation of trueprofits. Provisions are created by debiting the profit and loss account. In thebalance sheet, the amount of provision may be shown either:• By way of deduction from the concerned asset on the assets side. For

example, provision for doubtful debts is shown as deduction from theamount of sundry debtors and provision for depreciation as a deductionfrom the concerned fixed assets;

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265Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

• On the liabilities side of the balance sheet alongwith current liabilities, forexample provision for taxes and provision for repairs and renewals.

7.11.1 Accounting Treatment for Provisions

The accounting treatment of all types of provisions is almost similar. Therefore,the accounting treatment is explained here taking up the case of provision fordoubtful debts.

As already stated that when business transaction takes place on creditbasis, debtors account is created and its balance is shown on the asset-sideof the balance sheet. These debtors may be of three types:

• Good Debtors are those from where collection of debt is certain.• Bad Debts are those debtors from where collection of money is not

possible and the amount of credit given is a certain loss.• Doubtful Debts are those debtors who may pay but business firm is not

sure about the collection of full amount from them. In fact, as a matterof business experience, some percentage of such debtors are not likelyto pay, hence treated as doubtful debts. To consider this possible losson account of non-payment by some debtors, it is a common practice(and necessary also) to make a suitable provision for doubtful debts atthe time of ascertaining true profit or loss. The provision for doubtfuldebts is usually calculated as a certain percentage of the total amountdue from sundry debtors after deducting/writing-off all known baddebts. Provision for doubtful debts is also called ‘Provision for bad anddoubtful debts’. It is created by debiting the amount of required provisionto the profit and loss account and crediting it to provision for doubtfuldebts account.For creating a provision for doubtful debts the following journal entryis recorded:

Profit and Loss A/c Dr. (with the amount of provision)

To Provision for doubtful debts A/c

This is explained with the help of the following exampleObserve an extract of the trial balance from the books of Trehan Traders

on March 31, 2005 is given below:

Date Account title L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Sundry Debtors 68,000

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266 Accountancy

Additional Information

• Bad debts proved bad but not recorded amounted to Rs. 8,000• Provision is to be maintained at 10% of debtors.In order to create the provision for doubtful debts, the following journal

entries will be recorded:

Journal

Date Particulars L. F. Amount AmountRs. Rs.

2005Mar. 31 Bad debts A/c Dr. 8,000

To Sundry debtors A/c 8,000(Bad debts written off)

Mar. 31 Profit & Loss A/c Dr. 8,000 To Bad debts A/c 8,000(Bad debts debited to profit andloss account)

Mar. 31 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 6,0001

To Provision for doubtful debts a/c 6,0001

(For creating provision for doubtful debts)

Working Notes

Provision for doubtful debts @10% of sundry debtors i.e.(Rs. 68,000 – 8000) = Rs. 60001

7.12 Reserves

A part of the profit may be set aside and retained in the business to providefor certain future needs like growth and expansion or to meet futurecontingencies such as workmen compensation. Unlike provisions, reservesare the appropriations of profit to strengthen the financial position of thebusiness. Reserve is not a charge against profit as it is not meant to cover anyknown liability or expected loss in future. However, retention of profits in theform of reserves reduces the amount of profits available for distribution amongthe owners of the business. It is shown under the head Reserves and Surpluseson the liabilities side of the balance sheet after capital.Examples of reservesare:• General reserve;• Workmen compensation fund;• Investment fluctuation fund;• Capital reserve;

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267Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

• Dividend equalisation reserve;• Reserve for redemption of debenture.

7.12.1 Difference between Reserve and Provision

The points of difference between reserve and provision are explained below:

1. Basic nature : A provision is a charge against profit whereas reserve is anappropriation of profit. Hence, net profit cannot be calculated unless allprovisions have been debited to profit and loss account, while a reserve iscreated after the calculation of net profit.

2. Purpose : Provision is made for a known liability or expense pertaining tocurrent accounting period, the amount of which is not certain. On theother hand reserve is created for strengthening the financial position ofthe business. Some reserves are also mandatory under the law.

3. Presentation in balance sheet: Provision is shown either (i) by way ofdeduction from the item on the asset side for which it is created, or (ii) onthe liabilities side along with current liabilities. On the other hand, reserveis shown on the liabilities side after capital.

4. Effect on taxable profits : Provision is deducted before calculating taxableprofits. Hence, it reduces taxable profits. A reserve is created from profitafter tax and therefore it has no effect on taxable profit.

5. Element of compulsion : Creation of provision is necessary to ascertaintrue and fair profit or loss in compliance with ‘Prudence’ or ‘Conservatism’concept. It has to be made even if there are no profits. Whereas creation ofa reserve is generally at the discretion of the management. However, incertain cases law has stipulated for the creation of specific reserves suchas Debenture Redemption Reserve. Reserve cannot be created unless thereare profits.

6. Use for the payment of dividend : Provision cannot be used for distributionas dividends while general reserve can be used for dividend distribution.

Basis of Difference Provision Reserve

1. Basic nature Charge against profit. Appropriation of profit.

2. Purpose It is created for a known It is made for strengtheningliability or expense pertaining the financial position ofto current accounting period, the business.Some reservesthe amount of which is not are also mandatory under law.certain.

3. Effect on taxable It reduces taxable profits. It has no effect on taxableprofits. profit.

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268 Accountancy

4. Presentations in It is shown either (i) by way It is shown on the liabilities.Balance sheet of deduction from the item on side after capital amount.

the asset side for which it iscreated, or (ii) In the liabilitiesside along with currentliabilities.

5. Element of Creation of provision is Generally, creation of a Reservecompulsion necessary to ascertain true is at the discretion of the mana-

and fair profit or loss in gement. Reserve cannot becompliance ‘Prudence’ or created unless there are profits.‘Conservatism’ concept. However, in certain cases lawIt must be made even has stipulated for the creationif there are no profits. of specific reserves such as

‘Debenture’ ‘Redemption ’reserve.

6. Use for the payment It can not be used for It can be used for dividedof dividend dividend distribution. distribution.

Fig. 7.4 : Showing comparison between provisions and reserves

7.12.2 Types of Reserves

A reserve is created by retention of profit of the business can be for either ageneral or a specific purpose.1. General reserve : When the purpose for which reserve is created is not

specified, it is called General Reserve . It is also termed as free reservebecause the management can freely utilise it for any purpose. Generalreserve strengthens the financial position of the business.

2. Specific reserve : Specific reserve is the reserve, which is created for somespecific purpose and can be utilised only for that purpose. Examples ofspecific reserves are given below :(i) Dividend equalisation reserve: This reserve is created to stabilise or

maintain dividend rate. In the year of high profit, amount is transferredto Dividend Equalisation reserve. In the year of low profit, this reserveamount is used to maintain the rate of dividend.

(ii) Workmen compensation fund: It is created to provide for claims of theworkers due to accident, etc.

(iii) Investment fluctuation fund: It is created to make for decline in thevalue of investment due to market fluctuations.

(iv) Debenture redemption reserve: It is created to provide funds forredemption of debentures.

Reserves are also classified as revenue and capital reserves according tothe nature of the profit out of which they are created.

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269Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

(a) Revenue reserves : Revenue reserves are created from revenue profitswhich arise out of the normal operating activities of the business and areotherwise freely available for distribution as dividend. Examples of revenuereserves are:• General reserve;• Workmen compensation fund;• Investment fluctuation fund;• Dividend equalisation reserve;• Debenture redemption reserve;

(b) Capital reserves: Capital reserves are created out of capital profits whichdo not arise from the normal operating activities. Such reserves are notavailable for distribution as dividend. These reserves can be used forwriting off capital losses or issue of bonus shares in case of a company.Examples of capital profits, which are treated as capital reserves, whethertransferred as such or not, are :• Premium on issue of shares or debenture.• Profit on sale of fixed assets.• Profit on redemption of debentures.• Profit on revaluation of fixed asset & liabilities.• Profits prior to incorporation.• Profit on reissue of forfeited shares

7.12.3 Difference between Revenue and Capital Reserve

Revenue reserves and capital reserves are differentiated on the followinggrounds:

1. Source of creation : Revenue reserve is created out of revenue profits, whicharise out of the normal operating activities of the business and areotherwise available for dividend distribution. On the other hand capitalreserve is created primarily out of capital profit, which do not arise fromthe normal operating activities of the business and are not available fordistribution as dividend. But revenue profits may also be used for creationof capital reserves.

2. Purpose : Revenue reserve is created to strengthen the financial position, tomeet unforeseen contingencies or for some specific purposes. Whereas capitalreserve is created for compliance of legal requirements or accounting practices.

3. Usage : A specific revenue reserve can be utilised only for the earmarkedpurpose while a general reserve can be utilised for any purpose includingdistribution of dividend. Whereas a capital reserve can be utilised for specificpurposes as provided in the law in force, e.g. to write off capital losses orissue of bonus shares.

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270 Accountancy

Basic of Difference Revenue Reserve Capital Reserve

1. Source of creation It is created out of revenue It is created primarily out ofprofits which arise out of capital profit which do not arisenormal operating activities out of the normal operatingof the business and are activities of the business and nototherwise available for available for dividend distribution.dividend distribution. But revenue profits may also be

used for this purpose.

2. Purpose It is created to strengthen It is created for compliance ofthe financial position, to legal requirements or accountingmeet unforeseen practices.contingencies or for somespecific purposes.

3. Usage A specific revenue reserve It can be utilised for specificcan be utilised only for the purposes as provided in the lawearmarked purpose while a in force e.g. to write off capitalgeneral reserve can be losses or issue of bonus shares.utilised for any purposeincluding distribution ofdividend.

Fig. 7.5 : Difference between capital reserve and revenue reserve

7.12.4 Importance of Reserves

A business firm may consider it proper to set up some mechanism to protectitself from the consequences of unknown expenses and losses, it may berequired to bear in future. It may also regard it as more appropriate in certaincases to reduce the amount that can be drawn by the proprietors as profit inorder to conserve business resource to meet certain significant demands infuture. An example of such a demand is the much needed expansion in thescale of business operations. This is presented as the justification for reservesin business activities and in accounting. The amount so set aside may bemeant for the purpose of :

• Meeting a future contingency• Strengthening the general financial position of the business;• Redeeming a long-term liability like debentures, etc.

7.13 Secret Reserve

Secret reserve is a reserve which does not appear in the balance sheet. It mayalso help to reduce the disclosed profits and also the tax liability . The secretreserve can be merged with the profits during the lean periods to show improved

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271Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

profits. Management may resort to creation of secret reserve by charging higherdepreciation than required. It is termed as ‘Secret Reserve’, as it is not knownto outside stakeholders. Secret reserve can also be created by way of :

• Undervaluation of inventories/stock• Charging capital expenditure to profit and loss account• Making excessive provision for doubtful debts• Showing contingent liabilities as actual liabilities

Creation of secret reserves within reasonable limits is justifiable on groundsof expediency, prudence and preventing competition from other firms.

Test Your Understanding - V

I State with reasons whether the following statements are True or False ;(i) Making excessive provision for doubtful debits builds up the secret reserve in

the business.(ii) Capital reserves are normally created out of free or distributable profits.(iii) Dividend equalisation reserve is an example of general reserve.(iv) General reserve can be used only for some specific purposes.(v) ‘Provision’ is a charge against profit.(vi) Reserves are created to meet future expenses or losses the amount of which is

not certain.(vii) Creation of reserve reduces taxable profits of the business.

II Fill in the correct words :(i) Depreciation is decline in the value of ...........(ii) Installation, freight and transport expenses are a part of ...........(iii) Provision is a ........... against profit.(iv) Reserve created for maintaining a stable rate of dividend is termed as...........

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Depreciation, Depreciable cost, original cost, useful life;• Depletion, Obsolescence, Amortisation;• Salvage value/Residual value/Scrap value;• Written down value/Reducing balance value/Diminishing value;• Straight Line/Fixed Installment Method;• Asset Disposal Account;• Accumulated Depreciation/Provision for Depreciation Account, Reserve,

Provision, Capital Reserve, Revenue Reserve, General Reserve, SpecificReserve, Secret Reserve, Provision for Doubtful Debts.

Summary With Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Meaning of depreciation : Depreciation is decline in the value of a tangiblefixed asset. In accounting, depreciation is the process of allocating depreciablecost over useful life of a fixed asset.

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272 Accountancy

2. Depreciation and similar terms : Depreciation term is used in the context oftangible fixed assts. Depletion (in the context of extractive industries), andamortisation (in the context of intangible assets) are other related terms.Factors Affecting Depreciation :• Wear and Tear due to use and/or passage of time• Expiration of Legal Rights• Obsolescence

3. Importance of depreciation :• Depreciation must be charged to ascertain true and fair profit or loss.• Depreciation is a non-cash operating expense.

4. Methods of charging depreciation : Depreciation amount can be calculated using :• Straight line method, or• Written down value method

5. Factors affecting the amount of depreciation :Depreciation amount is determined by —• Original cost• Salvage value, and• Useful life of the asset

6. Provisions and Reserves : A provision is a charge against profit. It is createdfor a known current liability the amount of which is uncertain. Reserve onthe other hand, is an appropriation of profit. It is created to strengthen thefinancial position of the business.

7. Types of Reserves : Reserves may be —• General reserve and specific reserve;• Revenue reserve and capital reserve.

8. Secret Reserve : When total depreciation charged is higher than the totaldepreciable cost, Secret reserve’ is created. Secret reserve is not explicitlyshown in the balance sheet.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. What is ‘Depreciation’?2. State briefly the need for providing depreciation.3. What are the causes of depreciation?4. Explain basic factors affecting the amount of depreciation.5. Distinguish between straight line method and written down value method

of calculating depreciation.6. “In case of a long term asset, repair and maintenance expenses are expected

to rise in later years than in earlier year”. Which method is suitable forcharging depreciation if the management does not want to increase burdenon profits and loss account on account of depreciation and repair.

7. What are the effects of depreciation on profit and loss account and balancesheet?

8. Distinguish between ‘provision’ and ‘reserve’ .9. Give four examples each of ‘provision’ and ‘reserves’.

10. Distinguish between ‘revenue reserve’ and ‘capital reserve’.

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273Depreciation, Provisions and Reserves

11. Give four examples each of ‘revenue reserve’ and ‘capital reserves’.12. Distinguish between ‘general reserve’ and ‘specific reserve’.13. Explain the concept of ‘secret reserve’.

Long Answers

1. Explain the concept of depreciation. What is the need for chargingdepreciation and what are the causes of depreciation?

2. Discuss in detail the straight line method and written down value methodof depreciation. Distinguish between the two and also give situations wherethey are useful.

3. Describe in detail two methods of recording depreciation. Also give thenecessary journal entries.

4. Explain determinants of the amount of depreciation.5. Name and explain different types of reserves in details.6. What are ‘provisions’. How are they created? Give accounting treatment in

case of provision for doubtful Debts.

Numerical Problems

1. On April 01, 2000, Bajrang Marbles purchased a Machine for Rs. 2,80,000and spent Rs. 10,000 on its carriage and Rs. 10,000 on its installation. It isestimated that its working life is 10 years and after 10 years its scrap valuewill be Rs. 20,000.(a) Prepare Machine account and Depreciation account for the first four

years by providing depreciation on straight line method. Accounts areclosed on March 31st every year.

(b) Prepare Machine account, Depreciation account and Provision fordepreciation account (or accumulated depreciation account) for the firstfour years by providing depreciation using straight line method accountsare closed on March 31 every year.

(Ans:[a] Balance of Machine account on April 1, 2004 Rs.1,28,000.[b] Balance of Provision for depreciation account as on 1.04.2004

Rs.72,000.)

2. On July 01, 2000, Ashok Ltd. Purchased a Machine for Rs. 1,08,000 andspent Rs. 12,000 on its installation. At the time of purchase it was estimatedthat the effective commercial life of the machine will be 12 years and after 12years its salvage value will be Rs. 12,000.Prepare machine account and depreciation Account in the books of AshokLtd. For first three years, if depreciation is written off according to straightline method. The account are closed on December 31st, every year.(Ans: Balance of Machine account as on 1.01.2003 Rs.97,500).

3. Reliance Ltd. Purchased a second hand machine for Rs. 56,000 on October01, 2001 and spent Rs. 28,000 on its overhaul and installation before puttingit to operation. It is expected that the machine can be sold for Rs. 6,000 atthe end of its useful life of 15 years. Moreover an estimated cost of Rs. 1,000is expected to be incurred to recover the salvage value of Rs. 6,000. Preparemachine account and Provision for depreciation account for the first three

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years charging depreciation by fixed installment Method. Accounts are closedon December 31, every year.(Ans: Balance of provision for depreciation account as on 1.01.04 Rs.18,200).

4. Berlia Ltd. Purchased a second hand machine for Rs. 56,000 on July 01,2001 and spent Rs. 24,000 on its repair and installation and Rs. 5,000 forits carriage. On September 01, 2002, it purchased another machine forRs. 2,50,000 and spent Rs. 10,000 on its installation.(a) Depreciation is provided on machinery @10% p.a on original cost method

annually on December 31. Prepare machinery account and depreciationaccount from the year 2001 to 2004.

(b) Prepare machinery account and depreciation account from the year2001 to 2004, if depreciation is provided on machinery @10% p.a. onwritten down value method annually on December 31.

(Ans:[a] Balance of Machine account as on 1.01.05 Rs.2,54,583.[b] Balance of Machine account as on 1.01.05 Rs.2,62,448).

5. Ganga Ltd. purchased a machinery on January 01, 2001 for Rs. 5,50,000and spent Rs. 50,000 on its installation. On September 01, 2001 it purchasedanother machine for Rs. 3,70,000. On May 01, 2002 it purchased anothermachine for Rs. 8,40,000 (including installation expenses).Depreciation was provided on machinery @10% p.a. on original cost methodannually on December 31. Prepare:(a) Machinery account and depreciation account for the years 2001, 2002,

2003 and 2004.(b) If depreciation is accumulated in provision for Depreciation account

then prepare machine account and provision for depreciation accountfor the years 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004.

(Ans:[a] Balance of machine account as on 01.01.05 Rs. 12,22,666.[b] Balance of provision for dep. account as on 01.01.05 Rs. 5,87,334).

6. Azad Ltd. purchased furniture on October 01, 2002 for Rs. 4,50,000. OnMarch 01, 2003 it purchased another furniture for Rs. 3,00,000. On July01, 2004 it sold off the first furniture purchased in 2002 for Rs. 2,25,000.Depreciation is provided at 15% p.a. on written down value method eachyear. Accounts are closed each year on March 31. Prepare furniture account,and accumulated depreciation account for the years ended on March 31,2003,March 31,2004 and March 31,2005. Also give the above two accounts iffurniture disposal account is opened.(Ans.Loss on sale of furniture Rs.1,14,915,Balance of provision for depreciation account as on 31.03.05 Rs. 85,959.)

7. M/s Lokesh Fabrics purchased a Textile Machine on April 01, 2001 forRs. 1,00,000. On July 01, 2002 another machine costing Rs. 2,50,000 waspurchased . The machine purchased on April 01, 2001 was sold for Rs.25,000 on October 01, 2005. The company charges depreciation @15% p.a.on straight line method. Prepare machinery account and machinery disposalaccount for the year ended March 31, 2006.(Ans. Loss on sale of Machine account Rs.7,500.Balance of machine account as on 1.04.05 Rs.1,09,375).

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8. The following balances appear in the books of Crystal Ltd, on Jan 01, 2005Rs.

Machinery account on 15,00,000Provision for depreciation account 5,50,000On April 01, 2005 a machinery which was purchased on January 01, 2002for Rs. 2,00,000 was sold for Rs. 75,000. A new machine was purchased onJuly 01, 2005 for Rs. 6,00,000. Depreciation is provided on machinery at20% p.a. on Straight line method and books are closed on December 31every year. Prepare the machinery account and provision for depreciationaccount for the year ending December 31, 2005.(Ans. Profit on sale of Machine Rs. 5,000.Balance of machine account as on 31.03.05 Rs. 19,00,000.

Balance of Provision for depreciation account as on 31.03.05 Rs. 4,80,000).

9. M/s. Excel Computers has a debit balance of Rs. 50,000 (original costRs. 1,20,000) in computers account on April 01, 2000. On July 01, 2000 itpurchased another computer costing Rs. 2,50,000. One more computer waspurchased on January 01, 2001 for Rs. 30,000. On April 01, 2004 thecomputer which has purchased on July 01, 2000 became obselete and wassold forRs. 20,000. A new version of the IBM computer was purchased on August01, 2004 for Rs. 80,000. Show Computers account in the books of ExcelComputers for the years ended on March 31, 2001, 2002, 2003 ,2004 and2005. The computer is depreciated @10 p.a. on straight line method basis.(Ans: Loss on sale of computer Rs. 1,36,250.Balance of computers account as on 31.03.05 Rs. 80,583).

10. Carriage Transport Company purchased 5 trucks at the cost of Rs. 2,00,000each on April 01, 2001. The company writes off depreciation @ 20% p.a. onoriginal cost and closes its books on December 31, every year. On October 01,2003, one of the trucks is involved in an accident and is completely destroyed.Insurance company has agreed to pay Rs. 70,000 in full settlement of theclaim. On the same date the company purchased a second hand truck for Rs.1,00,000 and spent Rs. 20,000 on its overhauling. Prepare truck account andprovision for depreciation account for the three years ended on December 31,2003. Also give truck account if truck disposal account is prepared.(Ans: Loss of settlement of Truck Insurance Rs.30,000.Balance of Provision for depreciation A/c as on 31.12.03 Rs.4,46,000.Balance of Trucks account as on 31.12.03 Rs.9,20,000).

11. Saraswati Ltd. purchased a machinery costing Rs. 10,00,000 on January 01,2001. A new machinery was purchased on 01 May, 2002 for Rs. 15,00,000 andanother on July 01, 2004 for Rs. 12,00,000. A part of the machinery whichoriginally cost Rs. 2,00,000 in 2001 was sold for Rs. 75,000 on October 31,2004. Show the machinery account, provision for depreciation account andmachinery disposal account from 2001 to 2005 if depreciation is provided at10% p.a. on original cost and account are closed on December 31, every year.(Ans: Loss on sale of Machine Rs.58,333.

Balance of Provision for dep. A/c as on 31.12.05 Rs. 11,30,000.Balance of Machine A/c as on 31.12.05 Rs.35,00,000).

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12. On July 01, 2001 Ashwani purchased a machine for Rs. 2,00,000 on credit.Installation expenses Rs. 25,000 are paid by cheque. The estimated life is 5years and its scrap value after 5 years will be Rs. 20,000. Depreciation is tobe charged on straight line basis. Show the journal entry for the year 2001and prepare necessary ledger accounts for first three years.(Ans: Balance of Machine A/c as on 31.12.03 Rs.1,22,500).

13. On October 01, 2000, a Truck was purchased for Rs. 8,00,000 by LaxmiTransport Ltd. Depreciation was provided at 15% p.a. on the diminishingbalance basis on this truck. On December 31, 2003 this Truck was sold forRs. 5,00,000. Accounts are closed on 31st March every year. Prepare aTruck Account for the four years.(Ans: Profit on Sale of Truck Rs.55,548).

14. Kapil Ltd. purchased a machinery on July 01, 2001 for Rs. 3,50,000. Itpurchased two additional machines, on April 01, 2002 costing Rs. 1,50,000and on October 01, 2002 costing Rs. 1,00,000. Depreciation is provided@10% p.a. on straight line basis. On January 01, 2003, first machinerybecome useless due to technical changes. This machinery was sold for Rs.1,00,000. prepare machinery account for 4 years on the basis of calendaryear.(Ans: Loss on sale of machine Rs. 1,97,500.Balance of Machine account as on 1.01.05 Rs. 1,86,250).

15. On January 01, 2001, Satkar Transport Ltd, purchased 3 buses forRs. 10,00,000 each. On July 01, 2003, one bus was involved in an accidentand was completely destroyed and Rs. 7,00,000 were received from theInsurance Company in full settlement. Depreciation is writen off @15% p.a.on diminishing balance method. Prepare bus account from 2001 to 2004.Books are closed on December 31 every year.(Ans: Profit on insurance claim Rs. 31,687.Balance of Bus account as on 1.01.05 Rs. 10,44,013).

16. On October 01, 2001 Juneja Transport Company purchased 2 Trucks forRs. 10,00,000 each. On July 01, 2003, One Truck was involved in an accidentand was completely destroyed and Rs. 6,00,000 were received from theinsurance company in full settlement. On December 31, 2003 another truckwas involved in an accident and destroyed partially, which was not insured.It was sold off for Rs. 1,50,000. On January 31, 2004 company purchased afresh truck for Rs. 12,00,000. Depreciation is to be provided at 10% p.a. onthe written down value every year. The books are closed every year on March31. Give the truck account from 2001 to 2004.(Ans: Loss on Ist Truck Insurance claim Rs. 1,41,000.Loss on IInd Truck Rs. 5,53,000.Balance of Truck account as on 31.03.04 Rs. 11,80,000).

17. A Noida based Construction Company owns 5 cranes and the value of thisasset in its books on April 01, 2001 is Rs. 40,00,000. On October 01, 2001it sold one of its cranes whose value was Rs. 5,00,000 on April 01, 2001 ata 10% profit. On the same day it purchased 2 cranes for Rs. 4,50,000 each.

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Prepare cranes account. It closes the books on December 31 and providesfor depreciation on 10% written down value.(Ans: Profit on sale of crane Rs. 47,500.Balance of Cranes account as on 31.12.01 Rs. 41,15000).

18. Shri Krishan Manufacturing Company purchased 10 machines for Rs. 75,000each on July 01, 2000. On October 01, 2002, one of the machines gotdestroyed by fire and an insurance claim of Rs. 45,000 was admitted by thecompany. On the same date another machine is purchased by the companyfor Rs. 1,25,000.The company writes off 15% p.a. depreciation on written down value basis.The company maintains the calendar year as its financial year. Prepare themachinery account from 2000 to 2003.(Ans: Loss on settle of insurance claim Rs. 7,735.Balance of Machine account as on 31.12.03 Rs. 6,30,393).

19. On January 01, 2000, a Limited Company purchased machinery forRs. 20,00,000. Depreciation is provided @15% p.a. on diminishing balancemethod. On March 01, 2002, one fourth of machinery was damaged by fireand Rs. 40,000 were received from the insurance company in full settlement.On September 01, 2002 another machinery was purchased by the companyfor Rs. 15,00,000.Write up the machinery account from 2002 to 2003. Books are closed onDecember 31, every year.(Ans: Loss on settle of insurance claim Rs. 12,219.Balance of Machine account as on 01.01.04 Rs 19,94,260).

20. A Plant was purchased on 1st July, 2000 at a cost of Rs. 3,00,000 andRs. 50,000 were spent on its installation. The depreciation is written off at15% p.a. on the straight line method. The plant was sold for Rs. 1,50,000 onOctober 01, 2002 and on the same date a new Plant was installed at the costof Rs. 4,00,000 including purchasing value. The accounts are closed onDecember 31 every year.Show the machinery account and provision for depreciation account for 3 years.(Ans: Loss on sale of Plant Rs. 81,875.Balance of Machine account as on 01.01.03 Rs. 15,000.Balance of Provision for Depreciation account as on 01.01.03 Rs. 15,000.).

21. An extract of Trial balance from the books of Tahiliani and Sons Enterpriseson December 31 2005 is given below:Name of the Account Debit Amount Credit Amount

Rs. Rs.

Sundry debtors. 50,000Bad debts 6,000Provision for doubtful debts 4,000

Additional Information:• Bad Debts proved bad but not recorded amounted to Rs. 2,000.• Provision is to be maintained at 8% of Debtors.

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Give necessary accounting entries for writing off the bad debts and creatingthe provision for doubtful debts account. Also show the necessary accounts.(Ans: New provision for Bad debts Rs. 3,840, profit and loss account [Dr.]Rs. 7,840.)

22. The following information are extract from the Trial Balance of M/s Nishatraders on 31 December 2005.Sundry Debtors 80,500Bad debts 1,000Provision for bad debts 5,000Additional InformationBad Debts Rs. 500Provision is to be maintained at 2% of Debtors.Prepare bad debts accound, Provision for bad debts account and profit andloss account.(Ans: New provision Rs. 1,600 Profit and loss account [Cr.] Rs. 1,900).

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding - I

1. Fixed assets, exhaustion of natural resources, specific contracted business.2. Amortisation

Test Your Understanding - II

1. T, 2. F, 3. F. 4. T, 5. T 6. F, 7. T, (viii) F, 8. F, 9. F,

Test Your Understanding - III

Written down value method is more appropriate because this method is suitablefor those assets which are affected by technological changes. Moreover, this methodis recognised by income tax hand.

Test Your Understanding - V

1. (i) T, (ii) F, (iii) F, (iv) F,(v) T, (vi) F, (vii) F,

2. (i) Assets (ii) Acquisition cost(iii) Charge (iv) Dividend equilisation fund.

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Dev Prakash Sharma/VIII Proof/22/02/2006

Goods can be sold or bought for cash or oncredit. When goods are sold or bought for

cash, payment is received immediately. On theother hand, when goods are sold/bought on creditthe payment is deferred to a future date. In such asituation, normally the firm relies on the party tomake payment on the due date. But in some cases,to avoid any possibility of delay or default, aninstrument of credit is used through which thebuyer assures the seller that the payment shall bemade according to the agreed conditions. In India,instruments of credit have been in use since timeimmemorial and are popularly known as Hundies.The hundies are written in Indian languages andhave a large variety (refer box1).

Box 1

Hundies and its Types

There are a variety of hundies used in our country.Let us discuss some of the most common ones.Shahjog Hundi: This is drawn by one merchant onanother, asking the latter to pay the amount to aShah. Shah is a respectable and responsible person,a man of worth and known in the bazaar. A shah-joghundi passes from one hand to another till it reachesa shah, who, after reasonable enquiries, presents itto the drawee for acceptance of the payment.

Darshani Hundi: This is hundi payable at sight. Itmust be presented for payment within a reasonabletime after its receipt by the holder. It is similar to ademand bill.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter,you will be able to :

• state the meaning ofbill of exchange and apromissory note;

• distinguish between abill of exchange and apromissory note;

• state the advantagesof bill of exchange;

• explain the meaning ofdifferent terms involved inthe bill transaction,

• record bill of exchangetransactions in journal;

• record transactionsrelating to dishonour,retirement and renewalof bill;

• describe the uses ofbill receivable and billpayable book;

• state the meaning anduse of accommodationbill.

Bill of Exchange 8

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Muddati Hundi: A muddati or miadi hundi is payable after a specified period of time.This is similar to a time bill.There are few other varieties of hundies like Nam-jog hundi, Dhani-jog hundi, Jawabeehundi, Hokhami hundi, Firman-jog hundi, and so on.

Now a days these instruments of credit are called bills of exchange orpromissory notes. The bill of exchange contains an unconditional order to paya certain amount on an agreed date while the promissory note contains anunconditional promise to pay a certain sum of money on a certain date. InIndia these instruments are governed by the Indian Negotiable InstrumentsAct 1881.

8.1 Meaning of Bill of Exchange

According to the Negotiable Instruments Act 1881, a bill of exchange is definedas an instrument in writing containing an unconditional order, signed by themaker, directing a certain person to pay a certain sum of money only to, or tothe order of a certain person or to the bearer of the instrument. The followingfeatures of a bill of exchange emerge out of this definition.

• A bill of exchange must be in writing.• It is an order to make payment.• The order to make payment is unconditional.• The maker of the bill of exchange must sign it.• The payment to be made must be certain.• The date on which payment is made must also be certain.• The bill of exchange must be payable to a certain person.• The amount mentioned in the bill of exchange is payable either on

demand or on the expiry of a fixed period of time.• It must be stamped as per the requirement of law.

A bill of exchange is generally drawn by the creditor upon his debtor. It has tobe accepted by the drawee (debtor) or someone on his behalf. It is just a drafttill its acceptance is made.

For example, Amit sold goods to Rohit on credit for Rs. 10,000 for three months.To ensure payment on due date Amit draws a bill of exchange upon Rohit forRs. 10,000 payable after three months. Before it is accepted by Rohit it will becalled a draft. It will become a bill of exchange only when Rohit writes the word“accepted” on it and append his signature thereto communicate his acceptance.

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8.1.1 Parties to a Bill of Exchange

There are three parties to a bill of exchange:

(1) Drawer is the maker of the bill of exchange. A seller/creditor who is entitledto receive money from the debtor can draw a bill of exchange upon thebuyer/debtor. The drawer after writing the bill of exchange has to sign itas maker of the bill of exchange.

(2) Drawee is the person upon whom the bill of exchange is drawn. Drawee isthe purchaser or debtor of the goods upon whom the bill of exchange isdrawn.

(3) Payee is the person to whom the payment is to be made. The drawer ofthe bill himself will be the payee if he keeps the bill with him till the dateof its payment. The payee may change in the following situations:(a) In case the drawer has got the bill discounted, the person who has

discounted the bill will become the payee;(b) In case the bill is endorsed in favour of a creditor of the drawer, the

creditor will become the payee.Normally, the drawer and the payee is the same person. Similarly, the drawee

and the acceptor is normally the person. For example, Mamta sold goods worthRs.10,000 to Jyoti and drew a bill of exchange upon her for the same amount payableafter three months. Here, Mamta is the drawer of the bill and Jyoti is the drawee. Ifthe bill is retained by Mamta for three months and the amount ofRs. 10,000 is received by her on the due date then Mamta will be the payee. If Mamtagives away this bill to her creditor Ruchi, then Ruchi will be the payee. If Mamta getsthis bill discounted from the bank then the bankers will become the payee.

In the above mentioned bill of exchange, Mamta is the drawer and Jyoti isthe drawee. Since Jyoti has accepted the bill, she is the acceptor. Suppose inplace of Jyoti the bill is accepted by Ashok then Ashok will become the acceptor.

Mamta New DelhiRs.10,000 April 01, 2006

Three months after date pay to me or my order, the sum of Rupees Ten Thousandonly, for value received.

Stamp

Accepted(signed) (Signed)Jyoti Mamta1.4.2006 196, Karol Bagh73-B, Mahipalpur New DelhiNew Delhi 110 037

ToJyoti73-B, MahipalpurNew Delhi 110 037

Figure 8.1 : Showing specimen of bills of exchange

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Test Your Understanding - I

Write ‘Ture’ or ‘False’ against each statement regarding a bill of exchange:

(i) A bill of exchange must be accepted by the payee.

(ii) A bill of exchange is drawn by the creditor.

(iii) A bill of exchange is drawn for all cash transaction.

(iv) A bill payable on demand is called Time bill;

(v) The person to whom payment is to be made in a bill or exchange is calledpayee.

(vi) A negotiable instrument does not require the signature of its maker.

(vii) The hundi Payable at sight is called Darshani hundi.

(viii) A negotiable instrument is not freely transferable.

(ix) Stamping of promissory note is not mandatory.

(x) The time of payment of a negotiable instrument need not be certain.

8.2 Promissory Note

According to the Negotiable Instruments Act 1881, a promissory note is definedas an instrument in writing (not being a bank note or a currency note),containing an unconditional undertaking signed by the maker, to pay a certainsum of money only to or to the order of a certain person, or to the bearer of theinstrument. However, according to the Reserve Bank of India Act, a promissorynote payable to bearer is illegal. Therefore, a promissory note cannot be madepayable to the bearer.

This definition suggests that when a person gives a promise in writing topay a certain sum of money unconditionally to a certain person or accordingto his order the document is called is a promissory note.

Following features of a promissory note emerge out of the above definition:

• It must be in writing

• It must contain an unconditional promise to pay.

• The sum payable must be certain.

• It must be signed by the maker.

• The maker must sign it.

• It must be payable to a certain person.

• It should be properly stamped.

A promissory note does not require any acceptance because the maker of thepromissory note himself promises to make the payment.

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283Bill of Exchange

Ashok Kumar New DelhiRs. 30,000 01 April, 2006

Three months after date I promise to pay Sh. Harish Chander or order a sum of Rupees Thirty Thousand only for value received.

Stamp

ToHarish Chander Ashok Kumar24, Ansari Road 2, Dariba KalanDarya Ganj Candani ChowkNew Delhi 110 002 Delhi 110 006

Fig. 8.2 : Showing specimen of promissory note

8.2.1 Parties to a Promissory Note

There are two parties to a promissory note.• Maker or Drawer is the person who makes or draws the promissory

note to pay a certain amount as specified in the promissory note. He isalso called the promisor.

• Drawee or Payee is the person in whose favour the promissory note isdrawn. He is called the promisee.

Generally, the drawee is also the payee, unless, it is otherwise mentioned inthe promissory note. In the specimen of promissory note(refer figure 8.2),Ashok Kumar is the drawer or maker who promises to pay Rs.30,000 andHarish Chander is the drawee or payee to whom payment is to made. If HarishChander endorses this promissory note in favour of Rohit then Rohit willbecome the payee. Similarly, if Harish Chander gets this promissory notediscounted from the bank then the bank will become the payee.

Box 2Distinction between a Bill of Exchange and Promissory Note

Both a bill of exchange and a promissory note are instruments of credit and are similarin many ways. However, there are certain basic differences between the two.

S. No Basis Bill of Exchange Promissory Note

1 Drawer It is drawn by the creditor It is drawn by the debtor

2 Order or Promise It contains an order to make It contains a promise to makeand Parties payment. There can be three payment. There are only two

parties to it, viz. the drawer, parties to it, viz. the drawerthe drawee and the payee. and the payee.

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3 Acceptance It requires acceptance by the It does not require anydrawee or someone else on his acceptance.behalf.

4. Payee Drawer and payee can be the Drawer cannot be the payeesame party. of it.

5. Notice In case of its dishonour due No notice needs to be giveninnotice of dishonour is to be case of its dishonour.given by the holder to the drawer

Fig. 8.3 Distinction between bills of exchange and promissory note

8.3 Advantages of Bill of Exchange

The bills of exchange as instruments of credit are used frequently in businessbecause of the following advantages:

• Framework for relationships: A bill of exchange represents a device, whichprovides a framework for enabling the credit transaction between the seller/creditor and buyer/debtor on an agreed basis.

• Certainty of terms and conditions: The creditor knows the time when hewould receive the money so also debtor is fully aware of the date by whichhe has to pay the money. This is due to the fact that terms and conditionsof the relationships between debtor and creditor such as amount requiredto be paid; date of payment; interest to be paid, if any, place of paymentare clearly mentioned in the bill of exchange.

• Convenient means of credit: A bill of exchange enables the buyer to buy thegoods on credit and pay after the period of credit. However, the seller of goodseven after extension of credit can get payment immediately either bydiscounting the bill with the bank or by endorsing it in favour of a third party.

• Conclusive proof: The bill of exchange is a legal evidence of a credittransaction implying thereby that during the course of trade buyer hasobtained credit from the seller of the goods, therefore, he is liable to pay tothe seller. In the event of refusal of making the payment, the law requiresthe creditor to obtain a certificate from the Notary to make it a conclusiveevidence of the happening.

• Easy transferability: A debt can be settled by transferring a bill ofexchange through endorsement and delivery.

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Test Your Understanding - II

Fill in the blanks with suitable word(s)

(i) The person to whom the amount mentioned in the promissory note ispayable is known as _____________.

(ii) Transfer of a negotiable instrument to another person by signing on it, isknown as _____________.

(iii) In a promissory note, the person who makes the promise to pay is calledas ____________.

(iv) A person who endorses the promissory note in favour of another is knownas____________.

8.4 Maturity of Bill

The term maturity refers the date on which a bill of exchange or a promissorynote becomes due for payment. In arriving at the maturity date three days,known as days of grace, must be added to the date on which the period ofcredit expires instrument is payable. Thus, if a bill dated March 05 is payable30 days after date it, falls due on April 07, i.e. 33 days after March 05 If itwere payable one month after date, the due date would be April 08, i.e. onemonth and 3 days after March 05. However, where the date of maturity is apublic holiday, the instrument will become due on the preceding businessday. In this case if April 08, falls on a public holiday then the April 07 will bethe maturity date. But when an emergent holiday is declared under theNegotiable Instruments Act 1881, by the Government of India which mayhappen to be the date of maturity of a bill of exchange, then the date ofmaturity will be the next working day immediately after the holiday. Forexample, the Government declared a holiday on April 08 which happened tobe the day on which a bill of exchange drawn by Gupta upon Verma forRs.20,000 became due for payment, Since April 08, has been declared aholiday under the Negotiable Instruments Act, therefore, April 08, will be thedate of maturity for this bill.

8.5 Discounting of Bill

If the holder of the bill needs funds, he can approach the bank for encashmentof the bill before the due date. The bank shall makes the payment of the billafter deducting some interest (called discount in this case). This process ofencashing the bill with the bank is called discounting the bill. The bank getsthe amount from the drawee on the due date.

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8.6 Endorsement of Bill

Any holder may transfer a bill unless its transfer is restricted, i.e. the bill hasbeen negotiated containing words prohibiting its transfer. The bill can beinitially endorsed by the drawer by putting his signatures at the back of thebill along with the name of the party to whom it is being transferred. The actof signing and transferring the bill is called endorsement.

8.7 Accounting Treatment

For the person who draws the bill of exchange and gets it back after its dueacceptance, it is a bill receivable. For the person who accepts the bill, same,it is a bills payable. In case of a promissory note for the maker it is a billspayable and for the person in whose favour the promissory note is drawn it isa bills receivable. Bills receivables are assets and Bills payable are liabilities.Bills and Notes are used interchangeably.

8.7.1 In the Books of Drawer/Promissor

A bill receivable can be treated in the following four ways by its receiver.1. He can retain it till the date of maturity, and

(a) get it collected on date of maturity directly, or(b) get it collected through the banker.

2. He can get the bill discounted from the bank.

3. He can endorse the bill in favour of his Creditor.

The accounting treatment in the books of receiver under all the fouralternatives is given below under the assumption that the bill is duly honouredon maturity by the acceptor.

(1) When the bill of exchange is retained by the receiver with him till date of

its maturity:On receiving the bill

Bills Receivable A/c Dr.To Debtors A/c

On maturity of the billCash/Bank A/c Dr.

To Bills Receivable A/c

However, when the bill of exchange is retained by the receiver with himand sent to bank for collection a few days before maturity, the followingtwo entries are recorded:On sending the bill for collection

Bills Sent for Collection A/c Dr.To Bills Receivable A/c

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On receiving the advice from the bank that the bill has been collected

Bank A/c Dr.To Bills Sent for Collection A/c

(2) When the receiver gets the bill discounted from the bank:On receiving the bill

Bills Receivable A/c Dr.To Debtors A/c

On discounting the billBank A/c Dr.Discount A/c Dr.

To Bills Receivable A/c

On Maturity

No entry is recorded because the bill becomes the property of the bank,therefore, the bank collects the amount of the bill from the acceptor andno journal entry is recorded in the books of the drawer.

(3) When the bill is endorsed by the receiver in favour of his creditor:On receiving the bill

Bills Receivable A/c Dr.To Debtor’s A/c

On endorsing the billCreditor’s A/c Dr.

To Bills Receivable A/c

On Maturity

No entry is recorded because the bill has been transferred in favour of thecreditor, therefore the creditor becomes its owner and will receive thepayment on maturity. Hence, no entry is recorded in the books of draweror endorser.

8.7.2 In the Books of Acceptor/Promissor

The following journal entries are recorded in the books of the acceptor orpromisesor under all the four alternatives. It makes no difference whether thebill is retained discounted, endorsed or pledged.

On accepting the billCreditor’s A/c Dr.

To Bills Payable A/c

On Maturity of the bill

Bills Payable A/c Dr.To Bank A/c

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Box 3

1. When the drawer retains the bill with him till the date of its maturity andgets the same collected directly

Transaction Books of Creditor/Drawer Books of Debtor/Acceptor

Sale/Purchase of goods Debtor’s A/c Dr. Purchases A/c Dr.To Sales A/c To Creditor’s A/c

Receiving/Accepting the bill Bills Receivable A/c Dr. Creditor’s A/c Dr.To Debtor’s A/c To Bills Payable A/c

Collection of the bill Cash/Bank A/c Dr. Bills Payable A/c Dr.To Bills Receivable A/c To Cash/Bank A/c

2. When the bill is retained by the drawer with him and sent to bank for collectiona few days before maturity

Transaction Books of Creditor/Drawer Books of Debtor/Acceptor

Sale/Purchase of goods Debtor’s A/c Dr. Purchases A/c Dr.To Sales A/c To Creditor’s A/c

Receiving /Accepting the bill Bills Receivable A/c Dr. Creditor’s A/c Dr.To Debtor’s A/c To Bills Payable A/c

Sending the bill for collection Bills sent forcollection A/c Dr. No entry

To Bill Receivable A/c

On Receiving from the bank Bank A/c Dr. Bills Payable A/c Dr.advice that the bill has been To Bill Sent for To Bank A/ccollected Collection A/c

3. When the drawer gets the bill discounted from the bank

Transaction Books of Creditor/Drawer Books of Debtor/Acceptor

Sale/Purchase of goods Debtor’s A/c Dr. Purchases A/c Dr.To Sales A/c To Creditor’s A/c

Receiving /Accepting the bill Bills Receivable A/c Dr. Creditor’s A/c Dr.To Debtor’s A/c To Bills payable A/c

Discounting the bill Bank A/c Dr. No entryDiscount A/c Dr.

To Bills Receivable A/c

On maturity of the bill No entry Bills payable A/c Dr.To Bank A/c

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4. When the bill is endorsed by the drawer in favour of his creditor

Transaction Books of Creditor/Drawer Books of Debtor/Acceptor

Sale/Purchase of goods Debtor’s A/c Dr. Purchase A/c Dr.To Sales A/c To Creditor’s A/c

Receiving /Accepting the bill Bills Receivable A/c Dr. Creditor’s A/c Dr.To Debtor’s A/c To Bills payable A/c

Endorsing the bill Creditor’s A/c Dr. No entryTo Bills Receivable A/c

On maturity of the bill No entry Bills payable A/c Dr.To Bank A/c

The journal entries to be recoded in the books of the drawer and the acceptorunder all the four cases have been summarised below.

Illustration 1

Amit sold goods for Rs.20,000 to Sumit on credit on Jan 01, 2006. Amit drew a bill ofexchange upon Sumit for the same amount for three months. Sumit accepted the bill andreturned it to Amit. Sumit met his acceptance on maturity. Record the necessary journalentries under the following circumstances:

(i) Amit retained the bill till the date of its maturity and collected directly

(ii) Amit discounted the bill @ 12% p.a from his bank

(iii) Amit endorsed the bill to his creditor Ankit

(iv) Amit retained the bill and on March, 31 2006 Amit sent the bill for collection toits bank. On April 05, 2006 bank advice was received.

Solution

Books of AmitJournal

(i) When the bill was retained till its maturity.

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan 01 Sumit’s A/c Dr. 20,000

To Sales A/c 20,000(Sold goods to Sumit’s on credit)

Jan 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 20,000To Sumit’s A/c 20,000

(Received Sumit’s acceptance payableafter three months)

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290 Accountancy

Apr.05 Bank A/c Dr. 20,000To Bills Receivable A/c 20,000

(Sumit met his acceptance on maturity)

(ii) When the bill was discounted from the book.

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2006Jan 01 Sumit’s A/c Dr. 20,000

To Sales A/c 20,000(Sold goods to Sumit’s)

Jan 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 20,000To Sumit’s A/c 20,000

(Received Sumit’s acceptance three months)

Jan 01 Bank A/c Dr. 19,400Discount A/c Dr. 600

To Bills Receivable A/c 20,000(Sumit’s acceptance discounted with the bank)

(iii) When Amit endorsed the bill in favour of his creditor Ankit.

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan. 01 Sumit’s A/c Dr. 20,000

To Sales A/c 20,000(Sold goods to Sumit’s on credit)

Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 20,000To Sumit’s A/c 20,000

(Received Sumit’s acceptance forthree months)

Jan. 01 Ankit’s A/c Dr. 20,000To Bills Receivable A/c 20,000

(Sumit acceptance endorsed in favour of Ankit)

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291Bill of Exchange

(iv) When the bill was sent for collection by Amit to the bank.

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan. 01 Sumit’s A/c Dr. 20,000

To Sales A/c 20,000(Sold goods to Sumit’s on credit)

Jan. 02 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 20,000To Sumit’s A/c 20,000

(Received Sumit’s acceptance payableafter three months)

Mar. 31 Bills Sent for Collection A/c Dr. 20,000To Bills Receivable A/c 20,000

(Bills sent for collection)

Apr. 05 Bank A/c Dr. 20,000To Bills sent for collection A/c 20,000

(Bills sent for collection collected by the bank)

The following journal entries will be made in the books of Sumit under all the fourcircumstances:

In the books of SumitJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan. 01 Purchases A/c Dr. 20,000

To Amit’s A/c 20,000(Purchases goods from Amit on credit)

Jan. 01 Amit’s A/c Dr. 20,000To Bill’s Payable A/c 20,000

(Accepted bill drawn by Amit payable afterthree months)

Apr. 04 Bills payable A/c Dr. 20,000To Bank A/c 20,000

(Met acceptance maturity)

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Illustration 2

On March 15, 2006 Ramesh sold goods for Rs. 8,000 to Deepak on credit. Deepak accepteda bill of exchange drawn upon him by Ramesh payable after three months. On April, 15Ramesh endorsed the bill in favour of his creditor Poonam in full settlement of her debt ofRs. 8,250. On May 15, Poonam discounted the bill with her bank @ 12% p.a. On the duedate Deepak met the bill. Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Ramesh,Deepak, Poonam.

Books of RameshJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Mar.15 Deepak A/c Dr. 8,000

To Sales A/c 8,000(Sold goods to Deepak on credit)

Mar.15 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 8,000To Deepak A/c 8,000

(Received Deepak’s acceptance for three months)

Apr.15 Poonam’s A/c Dr. 8,250To Bills Receivable A/c 8,000To Discount Received A/c 250

(Bill endorsed in favour of Poonam in fullsettlement of her debt of Rs. 8,250)

Book of DeepakJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Mar.05 Purchases A/c Dr. 8,000

To Ramesh A/c 8,000(Sold goods to Deepak on credit)

Mar.05 Ramesh’s A/c Dr. 8,000To Bills Payable A/c 8,000

(Accepted Ramesh’s draft payableafter three months)

Jun.18 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 8,000To Bank A/c 8,000

(Met the acceptance in favour of Rameshon maturity)

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293Bill of Exchange

Books of PoonamJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Mar.15 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 8,000

Discount Allowed A/c Dr. 250To Ramesh’s A/c 8,250

(Ramesh endorsed Deepak’s acceptance inour favour for discharge his dept ofRs. 8,250 in full settlement)

Mar.15 Bank A/c Dr. 7,920Discount Allowed A/c Dr. 80

To Bills Receivable A/c 8,000(Biils receivable encashed on maturity)

8.8 Dishonour of a Bill

A bill is said to have been dishonoured when the drawee fails to make thepayment on the date of maturity. In this situation, liability of the acceptor isrestored. Therefore, the entries made on the receipt of the bill should bereversed. For example, Anju received bill of exchange duly accepted by Manju,which was dishonoured. The entries of dishonour will be as follows in thebooks of Anju (receiver):When the bill was kept by Anju with her till maturity

Manju’s A/c Dr.To Bill Receivables A/c

When the bill had been endorsed by Anju in favour of SandhyaManju’s A/c Dr.

To Sandhaya’s A/cWhen the bill was discounted by Anju with his bank

Manju’s A/c Dr.To Bank A/c

When the bill was sent for collection by AnjuManju’s A/c Dr.

To Bill Sent for Collection A/c

Illustration 3

On Jan 01,2006 Shieba sold goods to Vishal for Rs. 10,000 and drew upon him a bill ofexchange for 2 months. Vishal accepted the bill and returned it to Shieba. On the date ofmaturity the bill was dishonoured by Vishal. Record the necessary entries in all the caseslisted below in the books of Shieba and Vishal:

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294 Accountancy

(i) When the bill kept by Shieba till its maturity;(ii) When the bill is discounted by Shieba for Rs. 200;(iii) When the bill is endorsed to Lal Chand by Shieba.

Solution

(i) When the bill was kept by Shieba till its maturity.

Books of ShiebaJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan.01 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000(Sold goods to Vishal)

Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000To Vishal’s A/c 10,000

(Received Vishal’s acceptance)

Mar. 04 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Bills Receivable A/c 10,000

(Vishal dishonoured his acceptance)

(ii) When the bill was discounted by shieba

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan.01 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000(Sold goods to Vishal)

Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000To Vishal’s A/c 10,000

(Received Vishal’s acceptance)

Jan. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 9,800Discount A/c Dr. 200

To Bills Receivable A/c 10,000(Vishal’s Bill dishonoured his acceptance)

Mar.04 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Bank A/c 10,000

(Discounted bill dishonoured by Vishal)

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295Bill of Exchange

(iii) When the bill was endorsed by Shieba to Lal Chand

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan.01 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000(Sold goods to Vishal)

Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000To Vishal’s A/c 10,000

(Received Vishal’s acceptance)

Jan. 01 Lal Chand A/c Dr. 10,000To Bills Receivable A/c 10,000

(Vishal’s acceptance endorsedin favour of Lal Chand)

Mar.04 Vishal’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Lal Chand A/c 10,000

(Endorsed bill dishonoured by Vishal)

Whereas, in the book of Vishal, the following entries will be recorded

Books of VishalJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan.01 Purchases A/c Dr. 10,000

To Shieba’s A/c 10,000(Purchased good from shieba)

Jan. 01 Shieba’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Bills Payable A/c 10,000

(Accepted Shieba’s draft)

Jan. 04 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 10,000To Shieba’s A/c 10,000

(Acceptance in favour of shieba dishonoured)

8.8.1 Noting Charges

A bill of exchange should be duly presented for payment on the date of itsmaturity. The drawee is absolved of his liability if the bill is not duly presented.

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296 Accountancy

Proper presentation of the bill means that it should be presented on the dateof maturity to the acceptor during business working hours. To establish beyonddoubt that the bill was dishonoured, despite its due presentation, it maypreferably to be got noted by Notary Public. Noting authenticates the fact ofdishonour. For providing this service, a fees is charged by the Notary Publicwhich is called Noting Charges.

The following facts are generally noted by the Notary:• Date, fact and reasons of dishonour;• If the bill is not expressly dishonoured, the reasons why he treats it

as dishonoured and;• The amount of noting charges.

The entries recorded for noting charges in the drawers book are as follows:When Drawer himself pays

Drawee’s A/c Dr.To Cash A/c

Where endorsee paysDrawee’s A/c Dr.

To Endorsee A/c

When the bank pays on discounted billDrawee’s A/c Dr.

To Bank A/c

When the bank pays in the event of sending the bill for collection to the bankDrawee’s A/c Dr.

To Bank A/c

It may be noticed that whosoever pays the noting charges, ultimately thesehave to be borne by the drawee. That is why the drawee is invariably debitedin the drawer’s books. This is because he is responsible for the dishonour ofthe bill and, hence, he has to bear these expenses. For recording the notingcharges in his book the drawee opens Noting Charges Acccount. He debitsthe Noting Charges Account and credits the Drawer’s Account. For example,Azad sold goods for Rs. 15,000 to Bunty and immediately drew a bill uponhim on Jan. 01, 2006 payable after 3 months. On maturity the bill wasdishonoured and Rs. 50 were paid by the holder of the bill as noting charges.The journal entries will be recorded in the books of Azad and Bunty as givenbelow under the following circumstances:

(a) When the bill was kept by Azad till maturity.

(b) When the bill was discounted by Azad with his bank immediately@ 12% p.a.

(c) When the bill was endorsed by Azad in favour of his creditor Chitra.

In the books of Azad, entries will be recorded as:

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297Bill of Exchange

(i) When the bill was retained till its maturity

Books of AzadJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan.01 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,000

To Sales A/c 15,000(Sold goods to Bunty)

Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000To Bunty’s A/c 15,000

(Received Bunty’s acceptance)

Apr. 04 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,050To Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000To Cash A/c 50

(Bunty dishonoured his acceptance andpaid Rs. 50 as noting charges)

(ii) When the bill was discounted with the bank.

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan.01 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,000

To Sales A/c 15,000(Sold goods to Bunty)

Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000To Bunty’s A/c 15,000

(Received Bunty’s acceptance payableafter three months)

Jan. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 14,550Discount A/c Dr. 450

To Bills Receivable A/c 15,000(Bunty’s acceptance discounted)

Apr. 04 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,050To Bank A/c 15,050

(Bunty dishonoured his acceptance on maturityand bank paid noting charges)

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298 Accountancy

(iii) When the bill was endorsed to Chitra

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan. 01 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,000

To Sales A/c 15,000(Sold goods to Bunty)

Jan.01 Bill’s Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000To Bunty’s A/c 15,000

(Received Bunty’s acceptance)

Jan. 01 Chitra’s A/c Dr. 15,000To Bills Receivable A/c 15,000

(Bunty’s acceptance endorsed in favourof Chitra)

Apr. 04 Bunty’s A/c Dr. 15,050To Chitra’s A/c 15,050

(Bunty dishonoured his acceptance onmaturity and chitra paid Rs. 50 asnoting charges)

The following journal entries will be made in the books of Bunty in all the three cases.

Book of BuntyJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan.01 Purchases A/c Dr. 15,000

To Azad’s A/c 15,000(Purchase goods from Azad)

Jan. 01 Azad’s A/c Dr. 15,000To Bills Payable A/c 15,000

(Accepted Azad’s draft)

Apr. 04 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 15,000Noting charges A/c Dr. 50

To Azad’s A/c 15,050(Acceptance in favour of Azed dishonoured)

8.9 Renewal of the Bill

Sometimes, the acceptor of the bill foresees that it may be difficult to meet theobligation of the bill on maturity and may, therefore, approach the drawerwith the request for extension of time for payment. If it is so, the old bill is

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cancelled and the fresh bill with new terms of payment is drawn and dulyaccepted and delivered. This is called renewal of the bill. Since the cancellationof bill is mutually agreed upon noting of the bill is not required.

The dreawee may have to pay interest to the drawer for the extendedperiod of credit. The interest is paid in cash or may be included in the amountof the new bill. Sometimes, a part of the amount due may be paid and the newbill may be drawn only for the balance. For example, a bill of Rs. 10,000 iscancelled on a cash payment of Rs. 3,000 and acceptance of a new bill for thebalance of Rs. 7,000 plus interest as agreed between the parties. The journalentries in the books of the drawer and the drawee will be the same as that ofdishonour of bill. As for the interest invalued, if it is not paid in cash, thedrawer debits the drawee’s account and credits the interest account, and thedrawee debits the interest and credits the drawer’s account in his books.

The journal entries recorded in case of renewal for the cancellation of theold bill, for interest and for the acceptance of the new bill in the books of thedrawer and drawee are given below:

Transaction Books of Drawer Books of Drawee

Cancellation of old bill Drawee’s A/c Dr. Bills Payable A/c Dr.To Bills Receivable A/c To Drawer’s A/c

Interest Drawee’s A/c Dr. Interest A/c Dr.To Interest A/c To Drawer’s A/c

New bill Bill Receivable A/c Dr. Drawer’s A/c Dr.To Drawee’s A/c To Bills Payable A/c

For example on February 01, 2006 Ravi sold goods to Mohan for Rs.18,000;Rs. 3,000 were paid by Mohan immediately and for the balance he acceptedthree months bill drawn upon him by Ravi. On the date of maturity of the billMohan requested Ravi to cancel the old bill and a new bill upon him for aperiod of 2 months. He further agreed to pay interest in cash to Ravi @ 12%p.a. Ravi agreed to Mohan’s request and cancelled the old bill and drew a newbill. The new bill was met on maturity by Mohan. In this case, the followingentries will be recorded in the books of Ravi and Mohan.

Books of RaviJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2006Feb. 01 Mohan’s A/c Dr. 18,000

To Sales A/c 18,000(Sold goods to Mohan)

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300 Accountancy

Feb. 01 Cash A/c Dr. 3,000Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000

To Mohan’s A/c 18,000(Received Rs. 3,000 in cash from Ravi andan acceptance for the balance)

May 01 Mohan’s Account Dr. 15,300To Bills Receivable A/c 15,000To Interest A/c 300

(Cancelled old bill on renewalRs. 300 as interest)

May 04 Bill’s Receivable A/c Dr. 15,000Cash A/c Dr. 300

To Mohan’s A/c 15,300(Received new acceptance from Mohan)

Jul. 07 Bank A/c Dr. 15,000To Bills Receivable A/c 15,000

(Mohan met his new acceptance)

Book of MohanJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Feb. 01 Purchases A/c Dr. 18,000

To Ravi A/c 18,000(Purchased goods from Ravi)

Feb.01 Ravi’s A/c Dr. 18,000To Cash’s A/c 3,000Bills Payable A/c 15,000

(Received cash from Ravi and his acceptance)

May 04 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 15,000Interest A/c Dr. 300

To Ravi A/c 15,300(Old bill cancelled on renewal,Rs. 300 charged as interest)

May 04 Ravi’s A/c Dr. 15,300To Bills Payable A/c 15,000To Cash A/c 300

(Accepted new bill and paid cash for interest)

Jul. 07 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 15,000Bank A/c 15,000

(Met acceptance of the new bill on maturity)

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8.10 Retiring of the Bill

There are instances when a bill of exchange is arranged to be retired beforethe due date by mutual understanding between the drawer and the drawee.This happens when the drawee of the bill has funds at his disposal and makesa request to the drawer or holder to accept the payment of the bill before itsmaturity. If the holder agrees to do so, the bill is said to have been retired.

The retiring of a bill draws a curtain on the bill transactions before theexpiry of its normal term. To encourage the retirement of the bill, the holderallows some discount called Rebate on bills for the period between date ofretirement and maturity. The rebate is calculated at a certain rate of interest.

The accounting treatment on the retirement of a bill is similar to theaccounting treatment when a bill is honoured by the acceptor on the due datein the ordinary course. The only difference between the two relates to thegranting of rebate. The following journal entries are recorded:In the books of the holder

On retiring the acceptance and rebate allowedCash A/c Dr.Rebate on bills A/c Dr.

To Bills Receivables A/c

In the books of the draweeBills Payable A/c Dr.Cash A/c Dr.

To Rebate on Bills A/c

Amit sold goods Rs. 10,000 to Babli on Jan. 01, 2006 and immediately drewa bill on Babli for three month for the same amount, Babli accepted the billand returned it to Amit. On March 04, 2006 Babli retired her acceptanceunder rebate of 6% per annum.

In the books of AmitJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2006Jan. 01 Babli’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Sales A/c 10,000(Sold goods to Babli)

Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000To Babli’s A/c 10,000

(Received Babli’s acceptance for three months)

Mar. 04 Bank A/c Dr. 9,950Rebate on bills A/c Dr. 50

To Bills Receivable A/c 10,000(Babli retired her acceptance and rebateallowed to him)

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302 Accountancy

The recorded entries will be posted to the following ledger acounts

Babli’s AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 01 Sales 10,000 Jan 06 Bills Receivable 10,000

10,000 10,000

Bill Receivable Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 01 Sales 10,000 Mar 04 Cash 9,950

Rebate on bill 50

10,000 10,000

Book of BabliJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan. 01 Purchases A/c Dr. 10,000

To Amit A/c 10,000(Purchased goods from Amit)

Jan.01 Amit’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Bills Payable A/c 10,000

(Accepted Amit’s draft payable afterthree months)

Mar. 04 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 10,000To Cash A/c 9,950To Rebate on bills A/c 50

(Acceptance in favour of Amit retiredand rebate received)

Amit’s AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 01 Bills Payable 10,000 Jan. 04 Purchases 10,000

10,000 10,000

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303Bill of Exchange

Bills Payable Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 01 Cash 9950 Jan. 01 Amit 10,000

Rebate on bills 50

10,000 10,000

8.11 Bills Receivable and Bills Payable Books

When large number of bills are drawn and accepted, their recording by meansof journal entry for every transaction relating to the bills become a verycumbersome and time consuming exercise. It is then advisable to record themseparately in special subsidiary books, the bills receivables in the BillsReceivable Book and the bills payable in the Bills Payable Book. The reasonfor the use of subsidiary books for recording bill transactions is the same asthat in the case of other subsidiary books for cash, purchases, etc. An importantpoint in connection with bill receivables and bills payable books is that theyonly record the transactions relating to drawing and acceptance of bills, allother transactions do not record the entire range of transactions relating tothe bills, e.g. relating to bills discounted, endorsement, retirement, renewaletc.; simply have a passing reference in these books and the entries relatingthereto are recorded as usual in the journal. It may be noted that the entryrelating to honouring of bills appear in cash book.

8.11.1 Bills Receivable Book

It has been designed as a summary of information regarding a duly acceptedbill received by a drawer. All the details of the bill-date, acceptor’s name,amount, term, place of payment, etc. are entered in the bills receivable bookfor presentation and further reference.The performa of a bills receivable book is given in Figure 8.3:

BillsReceivable Book

No. Date Date From Drawer Acceptor Where Term Due Ledger Amount Cash Remarksof Received of Whom payable Date Folio BookBill Bill received Folio

Fig. 8.3: Showing Format of Bills Receivable Book

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304 Accountancy

The bills receivable book, like any other subsidiary book, is totaled periodically.This total is debited to the “Bills Receivable Account” whereas the account ofevery individual debtor whom the bills received is credited in the ledger. TheBills Receivable Account is the account of an asset and would always have adebit balance. This balance on any date would represent the amount of billsreceivable unmatured and on hand.

8.11.2 Bills Payable Book

It is maintained like a bills receivable book. It is meant to record all the details,relating to the bills accepted by a person or a party, which are retained forbeing use in the future, in case of need.The proforma of a bills payable book is given in Fig.8.4

Bills Payable Book

No. Date To Drawer Payee Where Term Due Ledger Amount Date Cash Remarksof of Whom payable date Folio paid BookBill Bill given Folio

Fig. 8.4: Showing specimen Bills Payable Book

The posting from this books are made to the debit of the account of everycreditor to whom acceptance has been given and the periodical total of thebooks is credited to the ‘Bills Payable Account’ in the ledger. The bills payableaccount representing the liability of the acceptor in respect of bills acceptedby him, always has a credit balance, if any. The credit balance of this accounton any particular date must be the same as the total amount worth of billspayable yet to be presented for payment as ascertained from the bills payablebook. For example, consider the following transactions and observe how theseare recorded in bill receivable and bills payable book along with postings inthe ledger accounts.

2006(i) Jan. 07

Received from S. Mitra bill duly accepted for Rs. 1,32,500 datedJanuary 04, payable three months after date.

(ii) Jan. 09Accepted S. Warden’s draft for Rs. 9,70,000 at two months.

(iii) Jan. 13Pradhan drew on his trader at three months date and the same was accepted forRs. 39,000.

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305Bill of Exchange

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Page 312: 11th Accountancy

306 Accountancy

(iv) Jan. 14Drew on R. Rakesh at one month for Rs.25,000 and he accepted the next day.

(v) Jan. 18Gave acceptance at two months for Rs.42,000 to S. Parkar.

(vi) Jan. 21Received from G.Ghosh his acceptance for Rs.31,000 at two months.

(vii) Jan. 22Received from D.Dhiman, A.Vakil’s acceptance for Rs.20,000 at three months fromJan. 17.

(viii) Jan. 23K. Kanga accepted my draft at one month for Rs.30,000.

(ix) Jan. 27Received from C.Shah bill for Rs. 35,000 dated January 20, accepted byP. Parson and drawn by M.Meyers., payable two months after date.

(x) Jan. 31Gave acceptance for Rs. 21,500 at one month to A. Roberts.

Posting of recorded entries are as follow:

S. Mitra’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 01 Sales 1,32,500 Jan. 07 Bills Receovable 1,32,500

1,32,500 1,32,500

R. Rakesh’s AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 14 Sales 25,000 Jan. 15 Bill Receivable 25,000

25,000 25,000

G. Ghosh’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 21 Sales 31,000 Jan. 21 Bills Receivable 31,000

31,000 31,000

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307Bill of Exchange

D. Dhiman’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 17 Sales 20,000 Jan. 22 Bills Receivable 20,000

20,000 20,000

K. Kanga’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 23 Sales 30,000 Jan. 23 Bills Receivable 30,000

30,000 30,000

C. Shah’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 20 Sales 35,000 Jan. 27 Bill Receivable 35,000

35,000 35,000

Bill Receivables Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 31 Sundries 2,73,500 Jan. 31 Balance c/f 2,73,500

2,73,500 2,73,500

S. Warden’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 09 Bills payable 97,000 Jan. 09 Purchases 97,000

97,000 97,000

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308 Accountancy

Pradhan’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 13 Bills payable 39,000 Jan. 13 Purchases 39,000

39,000 39,000

S. Parkar’s AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 18 Bills payable 42,000 Jan. 18 Purchases 42,000

42,000 42,000

A. Robert’s AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 31 Bills payable 21,500 Jan. 31 Purchases 21,500

21,500 21,500

Bill Payables AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2006 2006Jan. 01 Balance c/d 1,99,500 Jan. 04 Sundries

Receivable 1,99,5001,99,500 1,99,5000

Note: The drawing and acceptance of a bill always pre-supposes some background of saleor purchase transaction. Therefore, in posting bill transactions from the two books to theaccounts of debtors and creditors, it is supposed that the necessary sales and purchasesentries have been duly recorded.

Illustration 4

On Jan. 15, 2006 Sachin sold goods Rs.30,000 to Narain and drew upon the later a billfor the same amount payable after 3 months. The bill was accepted by Narain. The billwas discounted by Sachin from his bank for Rs.29,250 on Jan. 31, 2006. on maturity thebill was dishonoured. He further agreed to pay Rs.10,500 in cash including Rs. 500 interestand accept a new bill for two months for the remaining Rs.20,000. the new bill was

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309Bill of Exchange

creditor Kapil for settling a debt of Rs. 20,800. The new bill was endorsed by sachin infavour of his creditor Kapil for settling a debt of Rs. 20,800. The new bill was duly met byNarain on maturity.Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Sachin and Narain.

Solution

Books of Sachin

Journal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2006Jan. 15 Narain A/c Dr. 30,000

To Sales A/c 30,000(Sold goods to Narain)

Jan.15 Bill’s Receivable A/c Dr. 30,000To Narain’s A/c 30,000

(Received Bunty’s acceptance)

Jan. 31 Bank A/c Dr. 29,250Discount A/c 750

To Bill receivable A/c 30,000(Narains’ acceptance discounted with bank)

Apr. 19 Narain’s A/c Dr. 30,500To Bank A/c 30,000To Interest A/c 500

(Narain’s acceptance cancelled)

Apr.19 Bank A/c Dr. 10,500Bills Receivavble A/c Dr. 20,000

To Narain A/c 30,500(Received cash from Narain and a newacceptance for the balace)

Apr.19 Kapil A/c Dr. 20,800To Bill Receivable A/c 20,000To Discount Receivable A/c 800

(Narain’s acceptance endorsed in favour ofkapil and he allowed discount)

Books of NarainJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2006Jan. 15 Purchases A/c Dr. 30,000

To Sachin A/c 30,000(Purchased goods from sachin)

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310 Accountancy

Jan.15 Sachin A/c Dr. 30,000To Bills Payable A/c 30,000

(Accepted Sachin’s draft)

Jan.19 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 30,000Interest A/c 500

To Sachin A/c 30,500(Cancelled old bill & Sachin charged interest)

Apr. 19 Sachin’s A/c Dr. 30,500To Bank A/c 10,500To Bill Payable A/c 20,000

(Paid Sachin and accepted a new draftfor the balance)

Apr.22 Bills Receivavble A/c Dr. 20,000To Bank A/c 20,000

(Met new acceptance on Maturity)

Illustration 5.

Ashok sold goods Rs.14,000 to Bishan on October 30, 2005 and drew three bills forRs.2,000, Rs.4,000 & Rs.8,000 payable after two, three, and four months respectively.The first bill was kept by Ashok with him till maturity. He endorsed the second bill infavour of his creditor Chetan. The third bill was discounted on December 03, 2005 at 12%p.a. The first and second bills were duly met on maturity but the third bill was dishonouredand the bank paid Rs.50 as noting charges. On March 03, 2006 Bishan paid Rs.4,000and noting charges in cash and accepted a new bill at two months after date for thebalance plus interest Rs.100. The new bill was met on maturity by Bishan.You are required to give the journal entries in the books of both Ashok ans Bishan andprepare Bishan’s account in Ashok’s books and Ashok’s account in Bishan’s books.

Solution

Books of AshokJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Oct. 30 Bishan’s A/c Dr. 14,000

To Sales A/c 14,000(sold goods to Bishan on credit)

Oct. 30 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 14,000To Bishan’s A/c 14,000

(Received three acceptances from Bishan.First for Rs. 2,000 payable after two months,second for Rs. 4,000 payable after three monthsand the third for Rs. 8,000 payable afterfour months)

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311Bill of Exchange

Oct. 30 Chetan’s A/c Dr. 4,000To Bills receivable A/c 4,000

(Endorsed second bills in favour ofcreditor Chetan)

Apr. 03 Bank A/c Dr. 7,760Discount A/c 240

To Bill receivable A/c 8,000(Third bill discounted at 12% p.a.)

2006Apr.02 Bank A/c Dr. 2,000

Bills receivable A/c 2,000(Bishan met his first acceptance on due date)

Mar. 03 Bishan A/c Dr. 8,050To Bank A/c 8,050

(Bishan dishonoured his third acceptanceand bank paid Rs.50 as noting charges)

Mar. 03 Cash A/c Dr. 4,050To Bishan’s A/c 4,050

(Cash received from Bishan)

Mar. 03 Bishan’s A/c Dr. 100To Interest A/c 100

(Interest charged from Bishan for theextended period)

Mar. 03 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 4,100To Bishan’s A/c 4,100

(Received new acceptance from Bishan fortwo months)

May 12 Bank A/c Dr. 4,100To bills Receivable A/c 4,100

(Bishan met his new acceptance on maturity)

Bishan’s Account

Dr. Cr.Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.2005 2005Oct. 30 Sales 14,000 Oct. 30 Bills 14,0002006 2006Mar. 03 Bank 8,050 Mar. 03 Cash 4,050Mar. 09 Interest 100 Mar. 03 Bills Receivable 4,100

22,150 22,150

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312 Accountancy

Books of BishanJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Jan. 30 Purchases A/c Dr. 14,000

To Ashok’s A/c 14,000(Purchases goods on credit from Ashok)

Jan.30 Ashok’s A/c Dr. 14,000To Bills Payable A/c 14,000

(Accepted three drafts of Ashok, the first forRs. 2,000 payable after 2 months, second forRs. 4,000 Payable after 3 months and the thirdfor Rs. 8,000 Payable after 4 months)

2006Jan. 02 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 2,000

To Bank A/c 2,000(Met first acceptance for Rs. 2,000 infavour of Ashok.)

Feb.02 Bill Payabale A/c Dr. 4,000To Bank A/c 4,000

(Met second acceptance for Rs. 4,000 infavour of Ashok on maturity)

Mar. 03 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 8,050Noting charges A/c Dr. 50

To Ashok A/c 8,050(Third acceptance in favour of Ashokdishonoured and noting charges Rs. 50)

Mar. 09 Ashok’s A/c Dr. 4,050To Cash A/c 4,050

(Paid to Ashok Rs. 4,000 plus noting charges)Mar. 09 Interest A/c Dr. 100

To Ashok’s A/c 100(Interest allowed to Ashok)

Mar. 09 Ashok’s A/c Dr. 4,100To Bills Payable A/c 4,100

(New draft of Ashok for two months accepted)

May 12 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 4,100To Bank A/c 4,100

(Met new acceptance for Rs. 4,100 in favourof Ashok on maturity)

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313Bill of Exchange

Ashok’s Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J. F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Oct. 30 Bills payable 14,000 Oct. 30 Purchases 14,0002006 2006Mar. 03 Cash 4,050 Mar. 03 Bills Payable 8,000

Noting charges 50Mar. 09 Bills Payable 4,100 Mar. 09 Interest 100

22,150 22,150

Illustration 6.

Aashirwad draws on Aakarshak a Bill of exchange for 3 months for Rs.10,000 whichAakarshak accepts on January 01, 2006. Aashirwad endorses the bill in favour of Aakarti.Before maturity Aakarshak approaches Aashirwad with the request that the bill be renewedfor a further period of 3 months at 18 per cent per annum interest. Aashirwad pays thesum to Prateek on the due date and agrees to the proposal of Aakarshak. Record journalentries in the books of Aashirwad, assuming that the second bill is duly met.

Solution

Book of AshirwadJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2006Jan. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000

To Aakarshak’s A/c 10,000(The Bill of exchange received from Aakarshak)

Jan.01 Aakarati’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Bills payable A/c 10,000

(The bill of exchange received from Aakarshak,endorsed to Aakarati)

Apr. 04 Aakarshak’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Aakarati’s A/c 10,000

(Cancellation of the bill of exchange receivedfrom Aakarshak now with Aakarati)

Apr. 04 Aakarati’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Bank A/c 10,000

(Payment of the amount due to Aakarati)

Apr. 04 Aakarshak’s A/c Dr. 450To Interest A/c 450

(Interest due from Aakarshak on Rs.10,000for 3 months at 18% p.a.)

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314 Accountancy

Apr. 04 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,450To Aakarshak’s A/c 10,450

(The new bill received from Aakarshak forthe amountdue for him)

July 07 Bank A/c Dr. 10,450To Bills Receivable A/c 10,450

(The amount received from Aakarshak inrespect of the renewed bill)

Illustration 7.

Ankit owes Nikita a sum of Rs.6,000. On April 01, 2006 Ankit gives a promissory note forthe amount for 3 months to Nikita who gets it discounted with her bankers for Rs.5,760.on the due date the bill is dishonoured, the bank paid Rs.15 as noting charges. Ankitthen pays Rs.2,000 in cash and accepts a bill of exchange drawn on him for the balancetogether with Rs.100 as interest. This bill of exchange is for 2 months and on the due datethe bill is again dishonoured, Nikita paid Rs.15 as noting charges.Draft the journal entries to be recorded in Nikita’s books.

Solution

Books of NikitaJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Apr. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 6,000

To Ankit’s A/c 6,000(Ankit’s promissory note received insettlement of his account)

Jan. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 5,760Discount A/c Dr. 240

To Bills Payable A/c 6,000(Ankit’s Promissory note discounted for Rs.5,760)

July 04 Ankit A/c Dr. 6,015To Bank A/c 6,015

(The promissory note dishonoured by Ankitthe amount of the bill and the noting chargesrecoverable from Ankit and payable to bank)

July 04 Cash A/c Dr. 2,000To Ankit’s A/c 2,000

(The amount received from Ankit)

July 04 Ankit’s A/c Dr. 100To Interest A/c 100

(Interest due from Ankit for the second bill)

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315Bill of Exchange

July 04 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 4,115To Ankit’s A/c 4,115

(Ankit’s acceptance for 2 monthsinsettlement of amount due)

Sept.07 Ankit’s A/c Dr. 4,115To Bills Receivable A/c 4,115

(The dishonour by Ankit of his acceptance)

Sept.07 Ankit’s A/c Dr. 15To Cash A/c 15

(Payment of noting charges, recoverablefrom Ankit)

Illustraion 8.

On May 2005 Mohit sends his promissory note of Rs. 6000 for 3 months to Rohit. Rohitgets it discounted with his bankers at 18 percent per annum on May 04. On the due datethe bill is dishonoured, the bank paying Rs.10 as noting charges. Rohit agrees to acceptRs.2,130 in cash (including Rs.130 for noting charges and interest) and another promissorynote for Rs.4,000 at 2 months. On the due date, Mohit approaches Rohit again and asksfor renewal of the bill for a further period of 3 months. Rohit agrees to the request, providedMohit pays Rs.200 as interest in cash. This last bill is paid on maturity.Draft journal entries in the books of Mohit and Rohit.

Solution

Books of MohitJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005May 01 Rohit’s A/c Dr. 6,000

To Bills Payable A/c 6,000(The amount of the promissory note sentto Rohit)

Aug.04 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 6,000Noting charges A/c Dr. 10

To Rohit’s A/c 6,010(The dishonour of the promissory note andRs.10 being payable as noting charges to Rohit)

Aug. 04 Interest A/c Dr. 120Rohit’s A/c 120

(Interest due to Rohit from part renewal ofthe promissory)

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316 Accountancy

Aug.04 Rohit’s A/c Dr. 6,130To Bills Payable A/c 4,000To Cash A/c 2,130

(Payment of Rs. 2,130 in cash and a newpromissory note for Rs. 4,000 sent to Rohit tosettle his account)

Oct.07 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 4,000To Rohit’s A/c 4,000

(Cancellation of the bill due today)

Oct.07 Interest A/c Dr. 200To Rohit’s A/c 200

(The amount due as interest ot Rohit on therenewed bill)

Oct.07 Rohit’s A/c Dr. 4,200To Cash A/c 200To Bills Payable A/c 4,000

(The new acceptance and cash sent to Rohit)2001Jan.09 Bills Payable A/c Dr. 4,000

To Cash A/c 4,000(Payment made to meet the bill due this day)

Book of RohitJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005May 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 6,000

To Mohit’s A/c 6,000(Mohit’s promissory note received this day)

May 04 Bank’s A/c Dr. 5,730Discount A/c Dr. 270

To Bills Receivable A/c 6,000(The discounting of the promissory note byMohit at 18% on Rs. 6,000 for 3 months)

Aug.04 Mohit’s A/c Dr. 6,000To Bank A/c 6,010

(The dishonour of the promissory not by MohitRs. 10 being charged by bank for noting charges)

Aug.04 Mohit’s A/c Dr. 120Interest A/c 120

(The amount agreed to be paid as interestby Mohit)

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317Bill of Exchange

Aug.04 Cash A/c Dr. 2,130Bills Receivable A/c 4,000

To Mohit’s A/c 6,130(Cash and promissory note received fromMohit for the amount due from him)

Oct.07 Mohit’s A/c Dr. 4,000To Bills Receivable A/c 4,000

(Cancellation of the bill due today)

Oct.07 Mohit’s A/c Dr. 200To Interest A/c 200

(The amount due from Mohit as interest)

Oct.07 Cash A/c Dr. 200Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 4,000

To Mohit’s A/c 4,200

(Cash and promissory not received from Mohit)2006Jan. 10 Cash/Bank A/c Dr. 4,000

To Bills Receivable A/c 4,000(Mohit met his acceptance on maturity)

Test Your Understanding - III

Fill in the blanks:

(i) A bill of exchange is a ___________________________________instrument. (ii) A bill of exchange is drawn by the ________________upon his___________. (iii) A promissory note is drawn by ______________in favour of his__________. (iv) There are ____________________parties to a bill of exchange.

(v) There are ____________________parties to a promissory note.(vi) Drawer and ______________can not be the same parties in case of a bill of

exchange.(vii) Bill of exchange in India languages is called _____________(viii) __________days of grace are added in terms of the bill to calculate the date

of its__________.

8.12 Accommodation Bills

Normally, bills of exchange or promissory notes are drawn to finance theactual transactions in goods, i.e., an acceptance is made to settle a trade debtowing to the drawer by the drawee in case of a bill of exchange and the bill iscalled a trade bill. As it originates from genuine trade transaction it is forvalue received and is enforceable. For example, Ankit buys goods from Bishan,he may postpone the payment by accepting a draft drawn by Bindu uponhim. Bindu can if he wants, get the money immediately by getting Ankit’s

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318 Accountancy

acceptance discounted with his bank. But, apart from financing transaction ingoods, bills of exchange promissory notes may also be used for raising fundstemporarily. Such a bill is called an ‘accommodation bill’ as it is accepted by thedrawee to accommodate the drawer. Hence, the drawee is called the‘accommodating party’ and the drawer is called the ‘accommodation party’.For example, Raj draws upon Pal a bill for Rs.10,000 on April 01, 2006 for threemonths and the latter accepts the same to accommodate Raj. Raj discounts itwith his bank at 6% per annum on the same date. Raj remitted the amount oneday before the maturity of the bill to Pal. Pal met the bill on the date of its maturity.The journal entries in the books of Raj and Pal will be recorded as follows:

Book of RajJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2006Apr. 01 Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 10,000

To Pal’s A/c 10,000(Received Pal’s acceptance)

Apr. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 9,850Discount A/c Dr. 150

To Bills Receivables A/c 10,000(Discount Pal acceptance)

Jul. 03 Pal’s A/c Dr. 10,000To Bank A/c 10,010

(Remittance to Pal for paying offaccommodation bill)

Books of PalJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Apr.01 Raj’s A/c Dr. 10,000

To Bill Payable A/c 10,000(Acceptance of accommodation bill drawn by Raj)

Jul.03 Bank A/c Dr. 10,000To Raj’s A/c 10,000

(Received Raj’s remittance)

Jul.03 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 10,000To Bank A/c 10,000

(Discharge of accommodation)

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319Bill of Exchange

Sometimes, the accommodation parties agree to raise the funds through anaccommodation bill for mutual benefits. It can be done in any of the followingtwo ways:

(a) The drawer and the drawee share the proceeds in an agreed ratio(b) Each draws a bill and each accepts a bill

In the case (a) the discounting changes are shared by drawer and drewee in theratio in which they share the proceeds. But in the case (b) the discount is notshared as each party retains the entire proceeds of the bill drawn and discountedby him. On maturity, each party meets his acceptance out of his own resourcesif everyone draws and accepts bills of the same denomination and tenure. Butwhere they share the proceeds of the same bill, the drawer should remit, justbefore maturity, the balance due to the drawee, so that the latter could dulymeet his acceptance. Based upon the above discussion, it can be stated that anaccommodation bill helps both the parties to the instrument to temporarilyraise the necessary funds from discounting institutions.

Illustaration 9

Ashu and Mudit were in need of funds. On October 01, 2005 Ashu drew upon a bill forRs. 9,000 for 2 months. Mudit accepted the bill and returned to Ashu. Ashu got itdiscounted at 5% from Bank same day. Half of the amount were remitted to Mudit. On thedue date Ashu sent the required sum to Mudit, who met the bill. Journalise the transactionsin the books of Ashu and Mudit.

Books of AshuJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Oct. 01 Raj’s A/c Dr. 9,000

To Bills Payable A/c 9,000(Mutual accommodation bill receiptsfrom Mudit)

Oct. 03 Bank A/c Dr. 8,925Discount A/c Dr. 75

To Bill Receivable A/c 9,000(Bill discounted from bank)

Oct. 03 Mudit’s A/c Dr. 4,500To Cash A/c 4,462.50To Discount A/c 37.50

(Half the proceeds remitted to Mudit)

Oct. 01 Mudit’s A/c Dr. 4,500To Cash A/c 4,500

(Half amount of the bill sent to Mudit toenable him to meet it)

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320 Accountancy

Books of MuditJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Oct. 01 Ashu’s A/c Dr. 9,000

To Bills Payable A/c 9,000(Mutual Accommodation bill accepted)

Oct. 01 Cash A/c Dr. 4,462.50Discount A/c Dr. 37.50

To Ashu’s A/c 4,500(half amount of Discounted Bill receivedfrom Ashu)

Dec. 04 Cash A/c Dr. 4,500To Auhu’s A/c 4,500

(Amount retained by Ashu now received from him)

Dec. 05 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 9,000To Bank A/c 9,000

(Acceptance honoured)

Illustration 10

Rohan and Rohit were both in need to temporary accommodation. On November 01,2005, Rohan accepted Rohit draft for Rs. 5,000 for 3 months and Rohit accepted Rohandraft for Rs. 4,000 for 3 months. The both bills were discounted at the respected banksfor Rs 4,800 and Rs. 3,850. Before maturity of the bill Rohit sent Rs. 1,000 to Rohan fordifference in accommodation bill. Rohan and Rohit met his acceptance on the due date.Records the transaction in the journal of Rohan and Rohit.

Books of RohanJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005Nov. 01 Rohit’s A/c Dr. 5,000

To Bills Payable A/c 5,000(Rohan accepted bill accommodation)

Nov. 01 Bill Receivable A/c Dr. 4,000To Rohit’s A/c 4,000

(Accommodated bill received)

Nov. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 3,850Discount A/c Dr. 150

To Bill Receivable A/c 4,000(Bill discounted by bank)

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321Bill of Exchange

Feb. 04 Cash A/c Dr. 1,000To Rohit’s A/c 1,000

(Cash received for meet the bill)

Feb. 04 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 5,000To Bank A/c 5,000

(Bill met on maturity)

Books of RohitJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.2005Nov. 01 Rohan’s A/c Dr. 4,000

To Bills Payable A/c 4,000(Rohit accepted bill accommodation)

Nov. 01 Bill Receivable A/c Dr. 5,000To Rohan’s A/c 5,000

(Accommodated bill received)

Nov. 01 Bank A/c Dr. 4,800Discount A/c Dr. 200

To Bill Receivable A/c 5,000(Bill discounted by bank)

Feb. 04 Rohan’s A/c Dr. 1,000To cash A/c 1,000

(Sent cash to Rohan)

Feb. 04 Bill Payable A/c Dr. 4,000To Bank A/c 4,000

(Bill met on due date)

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

(a) Drawer(b) Drawee(c) Payee(d) Bill Receivable(e) Bill Payable(f) Drawing of a Bill(g) Acceptance of a Bill(h) Payment of a bill

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Bill of exchange as an Instrument : A bill of exchange is a device bywhich the purchaser or debtor in a credit transaction is not required to

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322 Accountancy

make immediate payment but satisfies the seller or creditor by acceptingin writing the liability to pay the amount due from him.

2. Meaning of bill of exchange and promissory note: A bill of exchange is anacknowledgement of debt given by one person to another, incorporatingall the terms and conditions of payments. A promissory note is anundertaking in writing given by the debtor to the creditor to pay thelatter a certain sum of money in accordance with the conditions statedtherein.

3. Difference between a bill and a note.(a) A bill is prepared by the creditor and accepted by the debtor; a note

is prepared by the debtor.(b) There are three parties to a bill; there are only two parties to a note.(c) A bill requires acceptance to acquire financial status; a note in

itself has financial status.4. Features and advantages of a bill : A bill is a written unconditional

order; it is signed by the creditor and accepted by the debtor; the amountof the bill is payable either on demand or at a fixed or 5. Briefly explainthe purpose and benefits of retiring a bill of exchange to the debtor and

the creditor.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. Name any two types of commonly used negotiable instruments.

2. Write two points of distinction between bills of exchange and promissorynote.

3. State any four essential features of bill of exchange.

4. State the three parties involved in a bill of exchange.

5. What is meant by maturity of a bill of exchange?

6. What is meant by dishonour of a bill of exchange?7. Name the parties to a promissory note8. What is meant by acceptance of a bill of exchange?9. What is Noting of a bill of exchange.

10. What is meant by renewal of a bill of exchange?11. Give the performa of a Bills Receivable Book.12. Give the performa of a Bills Payable Book.13. What is retirement of a bill of exchange?14. What is meant by insolvency?15. Give the meaning of rebate.16. Give the performa of a Bill of Exchange.

Long Answers

1. A bill of exchange must contain “an unconditional promise to pay” Doyou agree with a statement?

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323Bill of Exchange

2. Briefly explain the effects of dishonour and noting of a bill of exchange.3. Explain briefly the procedure of calculating the date of maturity of a bill

of exchange? Give example.4. Distinguish between bill of exchange and promissory note.5. Briefly explain the purpose and benefits of retiring a bill of exchange to

the debtor and the creditor.6. Explain briefly the purpose and advantages of maintaining of a Bills

Receivable Book.7. Briefly explain the benefits of maintaining a Bills Payable Book and

state how is its posting is done in the ledger?

Numerical Questions

1. On Jan 01, 2006 Rao sold goods Rs.10,000 to Reddy. Half of the paymentwas made immediately and for the remaining half Rao drew a bill ofexchange upon Reddy payable after 30 days. Reddy accepted the billand returned it to Rao. On the due date Rao presented the bill to Reddyand received the payment.Journalise the above transactions in the books Rao and prepare ofRao’s account in the books of Reddy.

2. On Jan 01,2006, Shankar purchased goods from Parvati for Rs.8,000and immediately drew a promissory note in favour of Parvati payableafter 3 months. On the date of maturity of the promissory note, theGovernment of India declared holiday under the Negotiable InstrumentAct 1881. Since, Parvati was unaware about the provision of the lawregarding the date of maturity of the bill, she handed over the bill toher lawyer, who duly presented the bill and received the payment. Theamount of the bill was handed over by the lawyer to Parvati immediately.Recore the necessary Journal entries in the books of Parvati andShankar.

3. Vishal sold goods for Rs.7,000 to Manju on Jan 05, 2006 and drewupon her a bill of exchange payable after 2 months. Manju acceptedVishal’s draft and handed over the same to Vishal after acceptance.Vishal immediately discounted the bill with his bank@12% p.a. On thedue date Manju met her acceptance.Journalise the above transactions in the books of Vishal and Manju.

4. On Feb 01, 2006, John purchased goods for Rs.15,000 from Jimmi. Heimmediately made a payment of Rs.5,000 by cheque and for the balanceaccepted the bill of exchange drawn upon him by Jimmi. The bill ofexchange was payable after 40 days. Five days before the maturity ofthe bill, Jimmi sent the same to his bank for collection. The bank dulypresented the bill to John on the due date who met the bill. The bankinformed the same to Jimmi.Prepare John’s account in the books of Jimmi and Jimmi account inthe books of John.

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324 Accountancy

5. On Jan 15, 2006, Kartar Sold goods for Rs.30,000 to Bhagwan anddrew upon him three bills of exchanges of Rs.10,000 each payable afterone month, two month, and three months respectively. The first billwas retained by Kartar till its maturity. The second bill was endorsedby him in favour of his creditor Ratna and the third bill was discountedby him immediately @ 6% p.a. All the bills were met by Bhagwan.Journalise the above transactions in the books of Kartar and Bhagwan.Also prepare ledger accounts in books of Kartar and Bhagwan.

6. On Jan. 01, 2006 Arun sold goods for Rs.30,000 to Sunil. 50% of thepayment was made immediately by Sunil on which Arun allowed a cashdiscount of 2%. For the balance Sunil drew a promissory note in favourof Arun payable after 20 days. Since, the date of maturity of bill was apublic holiday, Arun presented the bill on a day, as per the provisionsof Negotiable Instrument Act which was met by Sunil. State the date onwhich the bill was presented by Arun for payment and Jounalise theabove transactions in the books of Arun and Sunil.

7. Darshan sold goods for Rs. 40,000 to Varun on 8.1.2006 and drewupon him a bill of exchange payable after two months. Varun acceptedthe bill and returned the same to Darshan. On the due date the bill wasmet by Varun. Record the necessary Journal entries in the books ofDarshan and Varun in the following circumstances.• When the bill was retained by Darshan till the date of its maturity.• When Darshan immediately discounted the bill @ 6% p.a. with

his bank.• When the bill was endorsed immediately by Darshan in favour of

his creditor Suresh.• When three days before its maturity, the bill was sent by Darshan

to his bank for collection.8. Bansal Traders allow a trade discount of 10% on the list price of the

goods purchased from them. Mohan traders, who runs a retail shopmade the following purchases from Bansal Traders.

Date Amount(Rs.)

Dec. 21, 2005 1,000Dec. 26, 2005 1,200Dec. 18, 2005 2,000Dec. 31, 2005 5,000

For all the purchases Mohan Traders drew promissory note in favour ofBansal Traders payable after 30 days. The promissory note for the saleof Dec. 21, 2005 was retained by Bansal Traders with them till the dateof its maturity. The promissory note drawn on 26.12.2005 wasdiscounted by Bansal Traders from their bank at 12% p.a. Thepromissory note drawn on Dec. 28, 2005 was endorsed by BansalTraders in favour of their creditor Dream Soaps in full settlement of apurchase amounting to Rs. 1,900. On 25.1.2006 Bansal Traders sentthe promissory note drawn on Dec. 31, 2005 to their bank for collection.

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325Bill of Exchange

All the promissory notes were met by Mohan Traders. Record thenecessary journal entries for the above transactions in the books ofBansal Traders and Mohan Traders and prepare Mohan Traders accountin the books of Bansal Traders and Bansal Traders account in the booksof Mohan Traders.

9. Narayanan purchased goods for Rs.25,000 from Ravinderan on Feb.01, 2006. Ravinderan drew upon Narayanan a bill of exchange for thesame amount payable after 30 days. On the due date Narayanandishonoured his acceptance.Pass the necessary journal entries in the books of Ravinderan andNarayanan in following cases:• When the bill was retained by Ravinderan with him till the date of

its maturity.• When the bill was discounted by Ravinderan immediately with his

bank @ 6% p.a.• When the bill was endorsed to his creditor Ganeshan.• When the bill was sent by Ravinderan to his bank for collection a

few days before it maturity.10. Ravi sold goods for Rs.40,000 to Sudershan on Feb 13, 2006. He drew

four bills of exchange upon Sudershan. The first bill was for Rs.5,000payable after one month. The second bill was for Rs.10,000 payable after40 days; the third bill was for Rs.12,000 payable after three months andfourth bill was for the balance amount payable after 19 days. Sudershanaccepted all the bills and returned the same to Ravi. Ravi discounted thefirst bill with his bank at 6% p.a. He endorsed the second bill to hiscreditor Mustaq for the full settlement of a debt of Rs.10,200. The thirdbill was kept by Ravi with him till the date of maturity. Five days beforethe maturity of the fourth bill, Ravi sent the bill to his bank for collection.All the four bills were dishounoured by Sudarshan on maturity. Sudershansettled Ravi’s claim in cash three days after the dishonour of each billalong with interest @ 12% p.a. for the terms of the bills.You are requested to record the necessary journal entries in the booksto Ravi, Sudershan, Mustaq and bank for the above transaction. Alsoprepare Sudershan’s account and Mustaq’s account in the booksof Ravi.

11. On Jan 01, 2006 Neha sold goods for Rs.20,000 to Muskan and drewupon her a bill of exchange payable after two months. One month beforethe maturity of the bill Muskan approached Neha to accept the paymentagainst the bill at a rebate @ 12% p.a. Neha agreed to the request ofMuskan and Muskan retired the bill under the agreed rate of rebate.Journalise the above transaction in the books of Neha and Muskan.

12. On Jan 15, 2006 Raghu sold goods worth Rs. 35,000 to Devendra anddrew upto the latter three bills of exchanges. The first bill was forRs.5,000 payable after one month, the second bill was for Rs.20,000payable after three months and third bill for balance amount for 4months. Raghu endorsed the first bill in favour of his creditor Dewan infull settlement of a debt of Rs.5,200. The second bill was discounted by

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Raghu @ 6 % p.a. and the third bill was retained by Raghu till the dateof maturity. Devendra dishonoured the bill on maturity and the bankpaid Rs. 30 as noting charges. Four days before the maturity of thethird bill Raghu, sent the same for collection to his bank. The third billwas also dishonored by Devendra and the bank paid Rs.200 as notingcharges. Five days after the dishonour of the bill Devendra paid theentire amount due to Raghu along with interest Rs.1,000 for this purposeDevendra obtained a short term loan from his bank.You are requested to record the necessary journal entries in the booksof Raghu Devendra and Dewan and also prepare Devendra’s account inRaghu’s books and Raghu’s account in Devendra’s account.

13. Viaml purchased goods Rs.25,000 from Kamal on Jan 15, 2006 andaccepted a bill of exchange drawn upon him by Kamal payable aftertwo months. On the date of the maturity the bill was duly presented forpayment. Vimal dishonoured the bill.record the necessary journal entries in the books of Kamal and Vimalwhen.• The bill was retained by Kamal till the date of its maturity.• The bill was immediately discounted by Kamal with his bank @ 6% p.a.• The bill was endorsed by Kamal in favour of his creditor Sharad.• Five days before its maturity the bill was sent by Kamal to his bank

for collection.14. Abdula sold goods to Tahir on Jan 17, 2006 for Rs.18,000. He drew a

bill of exchange for the same amount on Tahir for 45 days. On the samedate Tahir accepted the bill and returned it to Abdulla. On the duedate Abdulla presented the bill to Tahir which was dishonoured. Abdullapaid Rs.40 as noting charges. Five days after the dishonour of hisacceptance Tahir settled his debt by making a payment of Rs.18,700including interest and noting charges.Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Abdulla and Tahir.Also prepare Tahir’s account in the books of Abdulla and Abdulla’saccount in the books of Tahir.

15. Asha sold goods worth Rs.19,000 to Nisha on March 02, 2006. Rs.4,000were paid by Nisha immediately and for the balance she accepted a billof exchange drawn upon her by Asha payable after three months. Ashadiscounted the bill immediately with her bank. On the due date Nishadishonoured the bill and the bank paid Rs.30 as noting charges.Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Asha and Nisha.

16. On Feb. 02, 2006, Verma purchased from Sharma goods for Rs.17,500.Verma paid Rs.2,500 immediately and for the balance gave a promissorynote to Sharma payable after 60 days. Sharma immediately endorsedthe promissory note in favour of his creditor.Gupta for the full settlement of a debt of Rs.15,400. On the due date ofthe bill Gupta presented the bill to Verma which the latter dishonouredand Gupta paid Rs.5,000 noting charges. On the same date Guptainformed Sharma about the dishonour of the bill. Sharma settled his

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debt to Gupta by cheque for Rs.15,500 which includes noting chargesand interest. Verma settled Sharma’s claim by cheque for the sameamount.

Record the necessary journal entries is the books of Sharma, Gupta

and Verma for the above transaction and prepare Verma’s and Gupta’saccounts in the books of Sharma. Sharma’s account in the books ofVerma. And also Sharma’s account in the books of Gupta.

17. Lilly sold goods to Methew on 1.3.2006 for Rs.12,000 and drew uponMethew a bill of exchange for the same amount payable after two months.Lilly immediately discounted the bill with her bank at 9% p.a. Thematurity date of the bill was a non business day (holiday), therefore,Lilly had to present the bill as per the provisions of the IndianInstruments Act.1881. The bill was dishonoured by Methew and Lillypaid Rs.45 as noting charges. Methew settled the claim of Lilly fivedays after the disonour of the bill by a cheque, whch includes interest@ 12% for the term of the bill.Journalise the above transactions in the books of Lilly and Methewand prepare Mathew’s account in the books of Lilly and Lilly’s accountin the books of Mathew.

18. Kapil purchased goods for Rs.21,000 from Gaurav on 1.2.2006 andaccepted a bill of exchange drawn by Gaurav for the same amount. Thebill was payable after one month. On 25.2.2002 Gaurav sent the bill tohis bank for collection. The bill was duly presented by the bank. Kapildishonoured the bill and the bank paid Rs.100 as noting charges.Record the necessary journal entries for the above transactions in thebooks of Kapil and Gourav.

19. On Feb. 14, 2006 Rashmi sold good Rs.7,500 to Alka. Alka paid Rs.500in cash and for the bank balance accepted a bill of exchange drawnupon her by Rashmi payable after two months. On Apr.10, 2006 Alkaapproached Rashmi to cancel the bill since she was short of funds. Shefurther requested Rashmi to accept Rs.2,000 in cash and draw a newbill for the balance including interest Rs.500. Rashmi accepted Alka’srequest and drew a new bill for the amount due payable after 2 months.The bill was accepted by Alka. The new bill was duly met by Alka onmaturity.Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Rashmi and Alkaand prepared Alka’s account in the books of Rashmi’s and Rashmi’saccount in the books of Alka’s

20. Nikhil sold goods for Rs.23,000 to Akhil on Dec. 01, 2005. He drewupon Akhil a bill of exchange for the same amount payable after 2months. Akhil accepted the bill and sent it back to Nikhil. Nikhildiscounted the bill immediately with his bank @12 p.a. On the duedate Akhil dishonoured the bill of exchange and the bank paid Rs.100as noting charges. Akhil requested Nikhil to draw a new bill upon himwith interest @10% p.a. which he agreed. The new bill was payableafter two months. A week before the maturity of the second bill Akhil

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requested Nikhil to cancel the second bill. He further requested to acceptRs.10,000 in cash immediately and drew a third bill upon him includinginterest of Rs.500. Nikhil agreed to Akhil’s request. The third bill waspayable after one month. Akhil met the third bill on its maturity. recordthe necessary journal entries in the books of Nikhil and Akhil and alsoprepare Akhil’s account in the books of Nikhil and Nikhil’s account inthe books of Akhil.

21. On Jan 01, 2006 Vibha sold goods worth Rs.18,000 to Sudha and drewupon the latter a bill of exchange for the same amount payable aftertwo months. Sudha accepted Vibha’s draft and returned the same toVibha after acceptance. Vibha endorsed the bill immediately in favourof her creditor Geeta. Five days before the maturity of the bill Sudharequested Vibha to cancel the bill since she was short of funds. Shefurther requested to draw a new bill upon her including interest ofRs.200. Vibha accepted Sudha’s request. Vibha took the bill from Geetaby making the payment to her in cash and cancelled the same. Thenshe drew a new bill upon Sudha as agreed. The new bill was payableafter one month. The new bill was duly met by Sudha on maturity.Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Vibha.

22. Following was the position of debtor and creditor of Gautam ason 1.1.2006.

Debtors CreditorsRs. Rs.

Babu 5,000 -Chanderkala 8,000 -Kiran 13,500 -Anita 14,000 -Anju - 5,000Sheiba - 12,000Manju - 6,000

The following transactions took place in the month of Jan 2006:Jan 2Drew on Babu at two months after date at full settlement for Rs.4,800.Babu accepted the bill and returned it on 5.1.2006.Jan. 04Babu’s bill discounted for Rs.4,750.Jan. 08Chanderkala sent a promissory note for Rs.8,000 payable three monthsafter date.Jan. 10Promissory note received from Chanderkala discounted for Rs.7,900.Jan. 12Accepted Sheiba draft for the amount due payable two months afterdate.Jan. 22

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Anita sent his promissory note payable after two months.Jan. 23Anita’s promissory note endorsed in favour of Manju.Jan. 25Accepted Anju’s draft payable after three months.Jan. 29Kiran sent Rs.2,000 in cash and a promissory note for the balancepayable after three months.Record the above transactions in the proper subsidiary books.

23. On Jan. 01, 2006 Harsh accepted a months bill for Rs. 10,000 drawnon him by tanu for latter’s benefit. Tanu discounted the bill on sameday @ 8% p.a On the due date tanu sent a cheque to Harsh for honourthe bill. Harsh duly honoured his acceptance.Record the journal entries in the Books of Tanu and Harsh.

24. Ritesh and Naina were in need of funds temporarily. On August 012005 Ritesh drew upon Naina a bill for Rs. 12,000 for 4 months. NainaAccepted the bill and returned to Ritesh. Ritesh discounted the Bill @8% p.a. Half amount of the discounted bill remitted to Naina. On duedate, Ritesh sent the required sum to Naina, who met the bill. Journalisethe transaction in the books of both the parties.

25. On Jan. 01, 2006, bhanu and Naman drew on each other a bill for Rs.8,000 payable 3 months after the due date for their Mutual benefit. OnJanuary 02 they discounted with their bank each other’s bill at 5% p.a.on the due date each met his Own’s acceptance. Give journal entry inthe books of Bhanu and Naman.

26. On Nov. 01, 2005 Sonia drawn a bill on sunny for Rs. 15,000 for 3months for mutual accommodation. Sunny accepts the bill and returnit to sonia. Sonia discounted the same with his bankers @ 6% p.a. Theproceeds are shared between sonia and sunny in proportion of 2/3rd,1/3rd respectively. On the due date sonia remits his proportion to sunnywho fails to met the bill and as a result sonia has to meet it. Sunny Givea fresh acceptance for the amount due to sonia plus interest of Rs. 100sunny meet his second acceptance on due date. Record the necessaryjournal entries in the books of sonia and sunny.

Checklist to test Your Understanding

Test your understanding-I

(i) False (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False (v) True(vi) False (vii) True (viii) False (ix) False (x) False

Test Your Understanding-II

(i)Promise (ii) Endorsement (iii) Promissor (iv) Endorser

Test Your Understanding-III

(i) Negotiable, (ii) Drawer, Drawee (iii) Debtor, Creditor (iv) Three(v) Two. (vi) Drawee (vii) Hundi (viii) Maturity

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Financial Statements - I 9

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter,you will be able to :• state the nature of the

financial statements;• identify the various

stakeholders and theirinformation require-ments;

• distinguish betweenthe capital and reve-nue expenditure andreceipts;

• explain the concept oftrading and profit andloss account and itspreparation;

• State the nature ofgross profit, net profitand operating profit;

• describe the concept ofbalance sheet and itspreparation;

• explain grouping andmarshalling of assetsand liabilities;

• prepare profit and lossaccount and balancesheet of a sole prop-rietory firm; and

• make an openingentry.

You have learnt that financial accounting is awell-defined sequential activity which begins

with Journal (Journalising), Ledger (Posting), andpreparation of Trial Balance (Balancing andSummarisation at the first stage). In the presentchapter, we will take up the next step, namely,preparation of financial statements, and discuss thetypes of information requirements of variousstakeholders, the distinction between capital andrevenue items and its importance and the natureof financial statements and the preparation thereof.

9.1 Stakeholders and TheirInformation Requirements

Recall from chapter I (Financial Accounting Part I)that the objective of business is to communicatethe meaningful information to various stakeholdersin the business so that they can make informeddecisions. A stakeholder is any person associatedwith the business. The stakes of variousstakeholders can be monetary or non-monetary. Thestakes can be active or passive; or can be direct orindirect. The owner and persons advancing loan tothe business would have monetary stake. Thegovernment, consumer or a researcher will havenon-monetary stake in the business. Thestakeholders are also called users who are normallyclassified as internal and external depending uponwhether they are inside the business or outside thebusiness. All users have different objectives for

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joining business and consequently different types of information requirementsfrom it. In nutshell, the various users have diverse financial informationrequirements from the business.

For example we have classified the following into the category of internaland external users specifying their objectives and consequent informationrequirements.

Name Internal/ Objective for participating Accounting Information requirementsExternal in businessusers

Current Internal To make investment in the Likes to know extent of profit in theowners business and wealth grow. last accounting period, current

position of the assets/liabilities of thebusiness.

Manager Internal For a career. They essenti- Accounting information in the formally act as the agent of of financial statements is like theirowners (their employers). report card and they are interested

in information about both profits andfinancial position.

Government External Its role is regulatory and Its concerns are that the rights of alltries to lay down the rules stakeholders are protected. Since thein the best public interest. government levies taxes on the

business, they are interested ininformation about profitability inparticular besides lot of otherinformation.

Prospective External He is expecting to make He is interested in information aboutowner investments in the business past profits and financial position as

with a view to make his indicative of likely future performance.investment and wealth grow.

Bank External Bank is interested in safty Bank is interested in adequacy ofof the principal as well as profits only as an assurance of thethe periodic return return of principal and interest back(interest). in time. Bank is equally concerned

about the form in which the assetsare held by the business. When moreassets are held in cash or near cashform, the aspect is knnown asliquidity.

Fig. 9.1 : Analysis of various users of accounting information

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333Financial Statements - I

Box 1

Accounting Process (up to Trial balance) :1. Identify the transactions, which that are recorded.2. Record transactions in journal. Only those transactions are recorded which are

measured in money terms. The system followed for recording is called double entrysystem whereby two aspects (debit and credit) of every transaction are recorded.Repeated transactions of same nature are recorded in subsidiary books, also calledspecial journals. Instead of recording all transactions in journal, they are recorded insubsidiary books and the journal proper. For example, the business would record allcredit sales in sales book and all credit purchases in purchases book. The otherexamples of subsidiary books are return inwards book, return outwards book. Another important special book is cash book, in which all cash and bank transactionsare recorded. The entries, which are not recorded in any of these books, are recordedin a residual journal called journal proper.

3. The entries appearing in the above books are posted in the respective accounts in the ledger.4. The accounts are balanced and listed in a statement called trial balance. If the total

amounts of debit and credit balances agree, accounts are taken as free fromarithmetical errors.

5. The trial balance forms the basis for making the financial statements, i.e. tradingand profit and loss account and balance sheet.

9.2 Distinction between Capital and Revenue

A very important distinction in accounting is between capital and revenueitems. The distinction has important implications for making of the tradingand profit and loss account and balance sheet. The revenue items form partof the trading and profit and loss account, the capital items help in thepreparation of a balance sheet.

9.2.1 Expenditure

Whenever payment and/or incurrence of an outlay are made for a purposeother than the settlement of an existing liability, it is called expenditure. Theexpenditures are incurred with a viewpoint they would give benefits to thebusiness. The benefit of an expenditure may extend up to one accountingyear or more than one year. If the benefit of expenditure extends up to oneaccounting period, it is termed as revenue expenditure. Normally, they areincurred for the day-to-day conduct of the business. An example can bepayment of salaries, rent, etc. The salaries paid in the current period will notbenefit the business in the next accounting period, as the workers have putin their efforts in the current accounting period. They will have to be paid thesalaries in the next accounting period as well if they are made to work. If thebenefit of expenditure extends to more than one accounting period, it is termed

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as capital expenditure. An example can be payment to acquire furniture foruse in the business. Furniture acquired in the current accounting period willgive benefits for many accounting periods to come. The usual examples ofcapital expenditure can be payment to acquire fixed assets and/or to makeadditions/extensions in the fixed assets.

Following points of distinction between capital expenditure and revenueexpenditure are worth noting :

(a) Capital expenditure increases earning capacity of business whereasrevenue expenditure is incurred to maintain the earning capacity.

(b) Capital expenditure is incurred to acquire fixed assets for operation ofbusiness whereas revenue expenditure is incurred on day-to-day conductof business.

(c) Revenue expenditure is generally recurring expenditure and capitalexpenditure is non-recurring by nature.

(d) Capital expenditure benefits more than one accounting year whereasrevenue expenditure normally benefits one accounting year.

(e) Capital expenditure (subject to depreciation) is recorded in balance sheetwhereas revenue expenditure (subject to adjustment for outstandingand prepaid amount) is transferred to trading and profit and loss account.

Sometimes, it becomes difficult to correctly demarcate the expendituresinto revenue and capital category. In normal usage, the advertising expenditureis termed as revenue expenditure. However, a heavy expenditure on advertisingon launching a product is likely to give benefit for more than one accountingperiod, as people are likely to remember the advertisement for a slightly longerperiod. Such revenue expenditures, which are likely to give benefit for morethan one accounting period, are termed as deferred revenue expenditure.

It must be understood that expenditure is a wider term and includesexpenses as well as assets. There is a difference between expenditure andexpense. Expenditure is any outlay made/incurred by the business firm. Thepart of the expenditure, which is perceived to have been used or consumed inthe current year, is termed as expense of the current year.

Revenue expenditure is treated as expenses of the current year and isshown in trading and profit and loss account. Hence, salary paid by thebusiness firm is treated as an expense of the current year. Capital expendituresare also ultimately charged to income statement and are spread over to morethan one accounting period. Hence, furniture of Rs. 50,000 if expected to beused for 5 years will be treated as expense @ Rs. 10,000 per year. The namegiven for the expense is depreciation. The treatment of deferred revenueexpenditure is same as of capital expenditure. They are also written-off overtheir expected period of benefit.

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9.2.2 Receipts

The similar treatment is given the receipts of the business. If the receiptsimply an obligation to return the money, these are capital receipts. The examplecan be an additional capital brought in by the owner or a loan taken from thebank. Both receipts are leading to obligations, the first to the owner (calledequity) and the other to the outsiders (called liabilities). Another example on acapital receipt can be the sale of a fixed asset like old machinery or furniture.However, if a receipt does not incur an obligation to return the money or isnot in the form of a sale of fixed asset, it is termed as revenue receipt. Theexamples of such receipts sales made by the firm and interest on investmentreceived by the firm.

9.2.3 Importance of Distinction between Capital and Revenue

As stated earlier, the distinction between capital and revenue items hasimportant implications for the preparation of trading and profit and lossaccount and the balance sheet as all items of revenue value are to the shownin the trading and profit and loss account and the items of capital nature inthe balance sheet. If any item is wrongly classified, i.e. if any item of revenuenature is treated as capital item or vice-versa, the ascertainment of profit orloss will be incorrect. For example, the revenues earned during an accountingperiod are Rs. 10,00,000 and the expenses shown are Rs. 8,00,000, the profitshall work out as Rs. 2,00,000. On scrutiny of the details, you find that arevenue item of Rs. 20,000 (an expenditure on repairs of machinery) has beentreated as capital expenditure (added to the cost of machinery and debited tomachinery account, not to repairs account), and hence, does not form part ofthe expenses for the period. It means the actual expenses for the period areRs. 8,20,000 and not Rs. 8,00,000. So, the correct profit is Rs. 1,80,000, notRs. 2,00,000. In other words, the profit has been over stated. Similarly, if anycapital expenditure is wrongly shown as revenue expenditure (for example,purchase of furniture shown as purchases), it will result in under statementof profits, and also an under statement of assets. Thus, the financial statementswill not reflect the true and fair view of the affairs of the business. Hence, it isnecessary to identify the correct nature of each item and treat it accordinglyin the book of accounts. It is also important from taxation point of view becausecapital profits are taxed differently from revenue profits.

9.3 Financial Statements

It has been emphasised that various users have diverse informationalrequirements. Instead of generating particular information useful for specificusers, the business prepares a set of financial statements, which in generalsatisfies the informational needs of the users.

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The basic objectives of preparing financial statements are :(a) To present a true and fair view of the financial performance of the

business;(b) To present a true and fair view of the financial position of the business;

andFor this purpose, the firm usually prepares the following financial statements:

1. Trading and Profit and Loss Account2. Balance SheetTrading and Profit and Loss account, also known as Income statement,

shows the financial performance in the form of profit earned or loss sustainedby the business. Balance Sheet shows financial position in the form of assets,liabilities and capital. These are prepared on the basis of trial balance andadditional information, if any.

Example 1

Observe the following trial balance of Ankit and signify correctly the various elements ofaccounts and you will notice that the debit balances represent either assets or expenses/losses and the credit balance represent either equity/liabilities or revenue/gains.[This trial balance of Ankit will be used throughout the chapter to understand the process ofpreparation of financial statements]

Trial Balance of Ankit as on March 31, 2005

Account Title L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Cash 1,000Capital 12,000Bank 5,000Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000Creditors 15,000Salaries 25,00010% Long term loan (raised on April 01, 2004) 5,000Furniture 15,000Commission received 5,000Rent of building 13,000Debtors 15,500Bad debts 4,500Purchases 75,000

1,62,000 1,62,000

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Analysis of Trial Balance of Ankit as on March 31, 2005

Account Title Elements L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Cash Asset 1,000Capital Equity 12,000Bank Asset 5,000Sales Revenue 1,25,000Wages Expense 8,000Creditors Liability 15,000Salaries Expense 25,00010% Long-term loan Liability 5,000(raised on April 01, 2004)Furniture Asset 15,000Commission received Revenue 5,000Rent of building Expense 13,000Debtors Asset 15,500Bad debts Expense 4,500Purchases Expense 75,000

1,62,000 1,62,000

9.4 Trading and Profit and Loss Account

Trading and Profit and Loss account is prepared to determine the profit earnedor loss sustained by the business enterprise during the accounting period. Itis basically a summary of revenues and expenses of the business and calculatesthe net figure termed as profit or loss. Profit is revenue less expenses. Ifexpenses are more than revenues, the figure is termed as loss. Trading andProfit and Loss account summarises the performance for an accounting period.It is achieved by transferring the balances of revenues and expenses to thetrading and profit and loss account from the trial balance. Trading and Profitand Loss account is also an account with Debit and Credit sides. It can beobserved that debit balances (representing expenses) and losses are transferredto the debit side of the Trading and a Profit and Loss account and creditbalance (representing revenues/gains) are transfered to its credit side.

9.4.1 Relevant Items in Trading and Profit and Loss Account

The different items appearing in the trading and profit and loss account areexplained hereunder:

Items on the debit side

(i) Opening stock : It is the stock of goods in hand at the beginning of theaccounting year. This is the stock of goods which has been carried forward

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from the previous year and remains unchanged during the year andappears in the trial balance. In the trading account it appears on thedebit side because it forms the part of cost of goods sold for the currentaccounting year.

(ii) Purchases less returns : Goods, which have been bought for resaleappears as purchases on the debit side of the trading account. Theyinclude both cash as well as credit purchases. Goods which are returnedto suppliers are termed as purchases return. It is shown by way ofdeduction from purchases and the computed amount is known as Netpurchases.

(iii) Wages : Wages refer to renumeration paid to workers who are directlyengaged in factory for loading, unloading and production of goods andare debited to trading account.

(iv) Carriage inwards/Freight inwards: These expenses are the items oftransport expenses, which are incurred on bringing materials/goodspurchased to the place of business. These items are paid in respect ofpurchases made during the year and are debited to the trading account.

(v) Fuel/Water/Power/Gas : These items are used in the production processand hence are part of expenses.

(vi) Packaging material and Packing charges : Cost of packaging materialused in the product are direct expenses as it refers to small containerswhich form part of goods sold. However, the packing refers to the bigcontainers that are used for transporting the goods and is regarded asan indirect expense debited to profit and loss account.

(vii) Salaries : These include salaries paid to the administration, godownand warehouse staff for the services rendered by them for running thebusiness. If salaries are paid in kind by providing certain facilities (calledperks) to the employees such as rent free accommodation, meals,uniform, medical facilities should also be regarded as salaries anddebited to the profit and loss account.

(viii) Rent paid : These include office and godown rent, municipal rates andtaxes, factory rent, rates and taxes. The amount of rent paid is shownon the debit side of the profit and loss account.

(ix) Interest paid : Interest paid on loans, bank overdraft, renewal of bills ofexchange, etc. is an expense and is debited to profit and loss account.

(x) Commission paid: Commission paid or payable on business transactionsundertaken through the agents is an item of expense and is debited toprofit and loss account.

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(xi) Repairs : Repairs and small renewals/ replacements relating to plantand machinery, furniture, fixtures, fittings, etc. for keeping them inworking condition are included under this head. Such expenditure isdebited to profit and loss account.

(xii) Miscellaneous expenses : Though expenses are classified and bookedunder different heads, but certain expenses being of small amountclubbed together and are called miscellaneous expenses. In normalusage these expenses are called Sundry expenses or Trade expenses.

Items on the credit side

(i) Sales less returns : Sales account in trial balance shows gross totalsales(cash as well as credit) made during the year. It is shown on thecredit side of the trading account. Goods returned by customers arecalled return inwards and are shown as deduction from total sales andthe computed amount is known as net sales.

(ii) Other incomes : Besides salaries and other gains and incomes are alsorecorded in the profit and loss account. Examples of such incomes arerent received, dividend received, interest received, discount received,commission received, etc.

9.4.2 Closing Entries

The preparation of trading and profit and loss account requires that thebalances of accounts of all concerned items are transferred to it for itscompilation.• Opening stock account, Purchases account, Wages account, Carriage

inwards account and direct expenses account are closed by transferringto the debit side of the trading and profit and loss account.

This is done by recording the following entry :Trading A/c Dr.

To Opening stock A/cTo Purchases A/cTo Wages A/cTo Carriage inwards A/cTo All other direct expenses A/c

• The purchases returns or return outwards are closed by transferring itsbalance to the purchases account. The following entry is recorded for thispurpose :

Purchases return A/c Dr.Purchases A/c

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• Similarly, the sales returns or returns inwards account is closed bytransferring its balance to the sales account as :

Sales A/c Dr.To Sales return A/c

• The sales account is closed by transferring its balance to the credit side ofthe trading and profit and loss account by recording the following entry:

Sales A/c Dr.To Trading A/c

Items of expenses, losses, etc. are closed by recording the following entries:Profit and Loss A/c Dr.

To Expenses (individually) A/cTo Losses (individually) A/c

Items of incomes, gains, etc. are closed by recording the following entry:Incomes (individually) A/c Dr.Gains (individually) A/c Dr.

To Profit and Loss A/cThe posting for closing the seven accounts of expenses and revenues as theyappear in the trial balance (in our example 1) are given below:

(i) For closing the accounts of expensesTrading A/c Dr. 83,000

To Purchases A/c 75,000To Wages A/c 8,000

(ii) Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 43,500To Salaries 25,000To Rent of building 13,000To Bad debts 4,500

(i) For closing the accounts of revenuesSales A/c Dr. 1,25,000

To Trading A/c 1,25,000(ii) Commission received A/c Dr. 5,000

To Profit and Loss A/c 5,000The posting done in ledger will appear as follows :

Purchases Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d 75,000 Trading 75,000

75,000 75,000

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341Financial Statements - I

Wages AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.Balance b/d 8,000 Trading 8,000

8,000 8,000

Salaries AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

Balance b/d 25,000 Profit and Loss 25,000

25,000 25,000

Rent of Building AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

Balance b/d 13,000 Profit and Loss 13,000

13,000 13,000

Bad Debts AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

Balance b/d 4,500 Profit and Loss 4,500

4,500 4,500

Sales AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

Trading 1,25,000 Balance b/d 1,25,000

1,25,000 1,25,000

Commission Received AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

Profit and Loss 5,000 Balance b/d 5,000

5,000 5,000

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As the result of the foregoing discussion, we will now learn how the tradingand profit and loss account can be prepared from the trial balance, the formatof which is shown in figure 9.2. However, this list is not exhaustive.In real sense, there can be many more of other items, which we will be dealingat the later stage and there you will notice how this format undergoes a changewith respect to each one of them.

Trading and Profit and Loss Account of ABCfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock ..... Sales .....Purchases .....Wages .....Carriage inwards/ .....Freight inwards/cartageGross profit c/d1

Gross loss b/d2

xxx xxx

Gross loss c/d1 .....Gross profit b/d .....

Rent/rates and taxes ..... Inerest received .....Salaries ..... .....Repairs and renewals ..... Net loss2

Bad debts .....Net profit2 (transfered to .....capital account)

xxx xxx

1,2only one item will be shown

Fig. 9.2 : A format trading and profit and loss account

9.4.3 Concept of Gross Profit and Net Profit

The trading and profit and loss can be seen as combination of two accounts,viz. Trading account and Profit and Loss account. The trading account or thefirst part ascertains the gross profit and profit and loss account or the secondpart ascertains net profit.

Trading Account

The trading account ascertains the result from basic operational activities ofthe business. The basic operational activity involves the manufacturing,purchasing and selling of goods. It is prepared to ascertain whether the selling

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of goods and/or rendering of services to customers have proved profitable forthe business or not. Purchases is one of the main constituents of expenses inbusiness organisation. Besides purchases, the remaining expenses are dividedinto two categories, viz. direct expenses and indirect expenses.

Direct expenses means all expenses directly connected with the manufacture,purchase of goods and bringing them to the point of sale. Direct expensesinclude carriage inwards, freight inwards, wages, factory lighting, coal, waterand feul, royalty on production, etc. In our example-1, besides purchases,four more items of expenses are listed. These are wages, salaries, rent ofbuilding and bad debts. Out of these items, wages is treated as direct expensewhile the other three are treated as indirect expenses.

Similarly, sales constitute the main item of revenue for the business. Theexcess of sales over purchases and direct expenses is called gross profit. Ifthe amount of purchases including direct expenses is more than the salesrevenue, the resultant figure is gross loss. The computation of gross profitcan be shown in the form of equation as :

Gross Profit = Sales – (Purchases + Direct Expenses)

The gross profit or the gross loss is transferred to profit and loss account.

The indirect expenses are transferred to the debit side of the second part,viz. profit and loss account. All revenue/gains other than sales are transferredto the credit side of the profit and loss account. If the total of the credit side ofthe profit and loss account is more than the total of the debit side, the differenceis the net profit for the period of which it is being prepared. On the other hand,if the total of the debit side is more than the total of the credit side, thedifference is the net loss incurred by the business firm. In an equation form,it is shown as follows :

Net Profit = Gross Profit + Other Incomes – Indirect ExpensesNet profit or net loss so computed is transferred to the capital account in

the balance sheet by way of the following entry :(i) For transfer of net profit

Profit and Loss A/c Dr.To Capital A/c

(ii) For transfer of net lossCapital A/c Dr.

To Profit and Loss A/cWe are now redrafting the trading and profit and loss account to show gross

profit and net profit of Ankit for the year ended March 31, 2005. The redraftedtrading and profit and loss account will look like as shown is shown in figure 9.3.

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344 Accountancy

Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000Gross profit c/d 42,000

1,25,000 1,25,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 42,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000Bad debts 4,500Net Profit (transfered to 4,500capital account)

47,000 47,000

Fig. 9.3 : Showing the computation of gross profit and net profit of Ankit

Gross profit, which represents the basic operational activity of the businessis computed as Rs. 42,000. The gross profit is transferred from trading accountto profit and loss account. Besides gross profit, business has earned an incomeof Rs. 5,000 as commission received and has spent Rs. 42,500 (Rs. 25,000 +Rs.13,000 + Rs.4,500) on expenses/losses including salaries, rent and baddebts. Therefore, the net profit is calculated as Rs. 4,500.

Illustration 1

Prepare a trading account from the following particulars for the year ended March 31, 2006:Rs.

Opening stock 37,500Purchases 1, 05000Sales 2,70,000Wages 30,000

SolutionTrading Account

for the year ended March 31, 2006Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 37,500 Sales 2,70,000Purchases 1,05,000Wages 30,000Gross profit 97,500

2,70,000 2,70,000

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Illustration 2

Prepare a trading account of M/s Prime Products from the following particulars pertainingto the year 2005-06.

Rs.Opening stock 50,000Purchases 1,10,000Return inwards 5,000Sales 3,00,000Return outwards 7,000Factory rent 30,000Wages 40,000

Solution

Books of Prime ProductsTrading Account

for the year ended March 31, 2006Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 50,000 Sales 3,00,000Purchases 1,10,000 Less : Return (5,000) 2,95,000Less : Return (7,000) 1,03,000 inwards outwardsFactory rent 30,000Wages 40,000Gross profit 72,000

2,95,000 2,95,000

Illustration 3.

Prepare a trading account of M/s Anjali from the following information related to 2005-06.Rs.

Opening stock 60,000Purchases 3, 00,000Sales 7, 50,000Purchases return 18,000Sales return 30,000Carriage on purchases 12,000Carriage on sales 15,000Factory rent 18,000Office rent 18,000Dock and Clearing charges 48,000Freight and Octroi 6,500Coal, Gas and Water 10,000

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SolutionBooks of Anjali

Trading Accountfor the year ended 2005-06

Dr. Cr.Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains Amount

Rs. Rs.Opening stock 60,000 Sales 7,50,000Purchases 3,00,000 Less : Sales return (30,000) 7,20,000Less : Purchases return (18,000) 2,82,000Carriage on purchases 12,000Factory rent 18,000Dock and Clearing charges 48,000Freight and Octroi 6,500Coal, Gas and Water 10,000Gross profit 2,83,500

7,20,000 7,20,000

Illustration 4

From the following information, prepare a profit and loss account for the year ending March31, 2005.

Rs.Gross profit 60,000Rent 5,000Salary 15,000Commission paid 7,000Interest paid on loan 5,000Advertising 4,000Discount received 3,000Printing and stationery 2,000Legal charges 5,000Bad debts 1,000Depreciation 2,000Interest received 4,000Loss by fire 3,000

Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains Amount

Rs. Rs.

Rent 5,000 Gross profit 60,000Salary 15,000 Discount received 3,000Commission 7,000 Interest received 4,000Interest paid on loan 5,000Advertising 4,000Printing and Stationery 2,000Legal charges 5,000

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Bad debts 1,000Depreciation 2,000Loss by fire 3,000Net profit (transferred to the 18,000capital account)

67,000 67,000

Test Your Understanding - I

I State True or False :

(i) Gross profit is total revenue.(ii) In trading and profit and loss account, opening stock appears on the debit side

because it forms the part of the cost of sales for the current accounting year.(iii) Rent, rates and taxes is an example of direct expenses.(iv) If the total of the credit side of the profit and loss account is more than the total

of the debit side, the difference is the net profit.

II Match the items given under ‘A’ with the correct items under ‘B’

(i) Closing stock is credited to (a) Trial balance(ii) Accuracy of book of account is tested by (b) Trading account(iii) On returning the goods to seller, the buyer sends (c) Credit note(iv) The financial position is determined by (d) Balance sheet(v) On receiving the returned goods from the (e) Debit note

buyer, the seller sends

9.4.4 Cost of Goods Sold and Closing Stock–Trading Account Revisited

The trading and profit and loss account prepared in figure 9.3 presents usefulinformation as to the profitability from the basic operations of the businessenterprise. It is reproduced for further perusal.

Trading Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000Gross profit 42,000

1,25,000 1,25,000

Fig. 9.4 : An illutrative trading account of Ankit

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If there is no opening or closing stock, the total of purchases and directexpenses is taken as Cost of goods sold. In our example, notice that purchasesamount to Rs. 75,000 and wages amounts to Rs. 8,000. Hence, the cost ofgoods sold will be computed using the following formula :

Cost of Goods Sold = Purchases + Direct Expenses= Rs.75, 000 + Rs. 8,000= Rs. 83,000

As there is no unsold stock,the presumption here is that all the goodspurchased have been sold. But in practice, there is some unsold goods at theend of the accounting period.

In our example, let us assume that out of the goods purchased amountingto Rs. 75,000 in the current year, Ankit is able to sell goods costing Rs. 60,000only. In such a situation, the business will have an unsold stock of goodscosting Rs. 15,000 in hand, also called closing stock. The amount of cost ofgoods sold will be computed as per the following equation :

Cost of Goods Sold = Purchases + Direct Expenses – Closing Stock = Rs. 75,000 + Rs. 8,000 – Rs. 15,000

As a result, the amount of gross profit will also change with the existenceof closing stock in business from Rs. 42,000 (as computed in figure 9.4) toRs. 57,000 ( refer figure 9.5).

Trading Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000 Closing stock 15,000Gross profit c/d 57,000

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 57,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000Bad debts 4,500 Net Profit (transfered to 19,500capital account)

62,000 62,000

Fig. 9.5 : The trading account of Ankit

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It may be noted that closing stock does not normally form part of trialbalance, and is brought into books with the help of the following journalentry :

Closing stock A/c Dr.To Trading A/c

This entry opens a new account of asset, i.e. closing stock Rs. 15,000which is transferred to the balance sheet. The closing stock shall be an openingstock for the next year and shall be sold during the year. In most cases,therefore, the business shall have opening stock as well as closing stock everyyear, and the cost of goods sold should be worked as per the following equation:

Cost of Goods Sold = Opening Stock+Purchases Direct Expenses–Closing Stock

Look at Illustration 5 and see how it has been computed.

Illustration 5

Compute cost of goods sold for the years 2005 with the help of the following informationand prepare trading account

Rs.

Sales 20, 00,000Purchases 15, 00,000Wages 1, 00,000Stock (Apr. 01, 2004) 3, 00,000Stock (March 31, 2005) 4,00,000Freight inwards 1,00,000

Solution

Computation of Cost of Goods Sold

Particulars AmountRs.

Opening stock 3,00,000Add Purchases 15,00,000 Direct expenses : Freight inwards 1,00,000 Wages 1,00,000

20,00,000Less Closing stock (4,00,000)

Cost of goods sold 16,00,000

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Trading Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 3,00,000 Sales 20,00,000Purchases 15,00,000 Closing stock 4,00,000Freight inwards 1,00,000Wages 1,00,000Gross profit 4,00,000

24,00,000 24,00,000

Illustration 6

From the following balances obtained from the few accounts of Mr. H. Balaram. Prepare theTrading and Profit and Loss Account.

Rs. Rs.Stock on Apr. 01, 2004 8,000 Bad debts 1,200Purchases for the year 22,000 Rent 1,200Sales for the year 42,000 Discount allowed 600Purchase expenses 2,500 Commission paid 1,100Salaries and wages 3,500 Sales expenses 600Advertisement 1,000 Repairs 600

Closing stock on March 31, 2005 is Rs. 4,500

Books of H. BalaramTrading Account

for the year ended March 31, 2005Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 8,000 Sales 42,000Purchases 22,000 Closing stock 4,500Purchase expenses 2,500Gross profit c/d 14,000

46,500 46,500

Salaries and Wages 3,500 Gross profit b/d 14,000Rent 1,200Advertisement 1,000Commission 1,100Discount allowed 600Bad debts 1,200Sales expenses 600Repairs 600Net profit 4,200(transferred to capital account)

14,000 14,000

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9.5 Operating Profit (EBIT)

It is the profit earned through the normal operations and activities ofthe business. Operating profit is the excess of operating revenue overoperating expenses. While calculating operating profit, the incomes andexpenses of a purely financial nature are not taken into account. Thus,operating profit is profit before interest and tax (EBIT). Similarly,abnormal items such as loss by fire, etc. are also not taken into account.It is calculated as follows :

Operating profit = Net Profit +Non Operating Expenses – Non Operating Incomes

Refer to the trial balance of Ankit in example 1, you will notice that itdepicts an item relating to 10 % interest on long-term loan raised onApril 01, 2004. The amount of interest works out to Rs. 500 (Rs. 5,000× 10/100), which has been shown on the debit side of the trading and profitand loss account (figure 9.6).

Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000 Closing stock 15,000Gross profit c/d 57,000

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 57,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000Bad debts 4,500Interest 500Net Profit (transfered to 19,000capital account)

62,000 62,000

Fig. 9.6 : Showing the treatment of interest on profit

The operating profit will be :

Operating profit = Net profit + Non-operating expenses – Non-operating incomesOperating profit = Rs. 19,000 + 500 – nil

= Rs. 19,500

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Test Your Understanding - II

Choose the correct option in the following questions :1. The financial statements consist of:

(i) Trial balance(ii) Profit and loss account(iii) Balance sheet(iv) (i) & (iii)(v) (ii) & (iv)

2. Choose the correct chronological order of ascertainment of the following profits fromthe profit and loss account :

(i) Operating Profit, Net Profit, Gross Profit(ii) Operating Profit, Gross Profit, Net Profit(iii) Gross Profit, Operating Profit, Net Profit(iv) Gross Profit, Net Profit, Operating Profit

3. While calculating operating profit, the following are not taken into account.(i) Normal transactions(ii) Abnormal items(iii) Expenses of a purely financial nature(iv) (ii) & (iii)(v) (i) & (iii)

4. Which of the following is correct :(i) Operating Profit = Operating profit – Non-operating expenses – Non-operating

incomes(ii) Operating profit = Net profit + Non-operating Expenses + Non-operating incomes(iii) Operating profit = Net profit + Non-operating Expenses – Non-operating incomes(iv) Operating profit = Net profit – Non-operating Expenses + Non-operating incomes

Illustration 7

Following balance is extracted from the books of a trader ascertain gross profit, operatingprofit and net profit for the year ended March 31, 2005.

Particulars AmountRs.

Sales 75,250Purchases 32,250Opening stock 7,600Sales return 1,250Purchases return 250Rent 300Stationary and printing 250Salaries 3,000Misc. expenses 200Travelling expenses 500Advertisement 1,800

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353Financial Statements - I

Commission paid 150Office expenses 1,600Wages 2,600Profit on sale of investment 500Depreciation 800Dividend on investment 2,500Loss on sale of old furniture 300

Closing stock (March 31, 2005) valued at Rs. 8,000

Trading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 7,600 Sales 75,250Purchases 32,250 Less : Sales return (1,250) 74,000Less: Purchases return (250) 32,000 Closing stock 8,000Wages 2,600Gross profit c/d 39,800

82,000 82,000

Rent 300 Gross profit b/d 39,800Stationary and printing 250Salaries 3,000Misc. expenses 200Travelling expenses 500Advertisement expenses 1,800Commission paid 150Office expenses 1,600Depreciation 800Operating profit c/d 31,200

39,800 39,800

Loss on sale of old furniture 300 Operating profit b/d 31,200Net Profit (transferred to capital 33,900 Profit on sale of investment 500account) Dividend on investment 2,500

34,200 34,200

9.6 Balance Sheet

The balance sheet is a statement prepared for showing the financial positionof the business summarising its assets and liabilities at a given date. Theassets reflect debit balances and liabilities (including capital) reflect creditbalances. It is prepared at the end of the accounting period after the trading

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and profit and loss account have been prepared. It is called balance sheetbecause it is a statement of balances of ledger accounts that have not beentransferred to trading and profit and loss account and are to be carried forwardto the next year with the help of an opening entry made in the journal at thebeginning of the next year.

9.6.1 Preparing Balance Sheet

All the account of assets, liabilities and capital are shown in the balancesheet. Accounts of capital and liabilities are shown on the left handside, known as Liabilities. Assets and other debit balances are shownon the right hand side, known as Assets. There is no prescribed form ofBalance sheet, for a proprietary and partnership firms. However, ScheduleVI Part I of the Companies Act 1956 prescribes the format and the orderin which the assets and liabilities of a company should be shown. Thenormal format in which the balance sheet is prepared is shown in thefigure 9.7.

Balance Sheet of ...........as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Capital ..... Furniture .....Add Profit ..... ..... Cash .....Long-term loan ..... Bank .....Short-term loan Goodwill .....Sundry creditors ..... Sundry debtors .....Bills payable Closing stockBank overdraft Land and Buildings

xxxx xxxx

Fig. 9.7 : Format of a balance sheet

Refer to our example -1 you will observe that the trial balance of Ankitdepicts 14 accounts, out of which 7 accounts have been transferred to thetrading and profit and loss account (refer figure 9.3). These are the accountsof revenues and expenses. The analysis of figure 9.3 shows that the businesshas incurred total expenses of Rs. 1, 25,500 and revenues generated areRs. 1, 30,000 making a profit of Rs. 4,500. The remaining seven items in thetrial balance reflects the capital, assets and liabilities. We are reproducing thetrial balance (example -1) to show how the accounts of assets and liabilities ofAnkit would be presented in the balance sheet.

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Trial Balance of Ankit as on March 31, 2005

Account Title L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Cash 1,000Capital 12,000Bank 5,000Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000Creditors 15,000Salaries 25,00010% Long-term loan 5,000(raised on April 01, 2004)Furniture 15,000Commission received 5,000Rent of building 13,000Debtors 15,500Bad debts 4,500Purchases 75,000

1,62,000 1,62,000

Fig. 9.8 : Showing the accounts of assets and liabilities in the trial balance of Ankit

Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Capital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Profit 4,500 16,500 Cash 1,00010 % Long-term loan 5,000 Bank 5,000Creditors 15,000 Debtors 15,500

36,500 36,500

Fig. 9.9 : Showing the balance sheet of Ankit

9.6.2 Relevant Items in the Balance Sheet

Items which are generally included in a balance sheet are explained below :(1) Current Assets: Current assets are those which are either in the form of

cash or a can be converted into cash within a year. The examples ofsuch assets are cash in hand/bank, bills receivable, stock of rawmaterials, semi-finished goods and finished goods, sundry debtors, shortterm investments, prepaid expenses, etc.

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(2) Current Liabilities: Current liabilities are those liabilities which areexpected to be paid within a year and which are usually to be paid out ofcurrent assets. The examples of such liabilities are bank overdraft, billspayable, sundry creditors, short-term loans, outstanding expenses, etc.

(3) Fixed Assets: Fixed assets are those assets, which are held on a long-termbasis in the business. Such assets are not acquired for the purpose of resale,e.g. land, building, plant and machinery, furniture and fixtures, etc. Sometimes the term ‘Fixed Block’ or ‘Block Capital’ is also used for them.

(4) Intangible Assets : These are such assets which cannot be seen or touched.Goodwill, Patents, Trademarks are some of the examples of intangible assets.

(5) Investments: Investments represent the funds invested in governmentsecurities, shares of a company, etc. They are shown at cost price. If, onthe date of preparation the balance sheet, the market price of investmentsis lower than the cost price, a footnote to that effect may be appended tothe balance sheet.

(6) Long-term Liabilities : All liabilities other than the current liabilities areknown as long-term liabilities. Such liabilities are usually payable afterone year of the date of the balance sheet. The important items of longterm liabilities are long-term loans from bank and other financialinstitutions.

(7) Capital: It is the excess of assets over liabilities due to outsiders. Itrepresents the amount originally contributed by the proprietor/ partnersas increased by profits and interest on capital and decreased by lossesdrawings and intrest on drawings.

(8) Drawings : Amount withdrawn by the proprietor is termed as drawingsand has the effect of reducing the balance on his capital account.Therefore, the drawings account is closed by transferring its balance tohis capital account. However it is shown by way of deduction from capitalin the balance sheet.

9.6.3 Marshalling and Grouping of Assets and Liabilities

A major concern of accounting is about preparing and presenting the financialstatement. The information so provided should be decision useful for the users.Therefore, it becomes necessary that the items appearing in the balance sheetshould be properly grouped and presented in a particular order.

Marshalling of Assets and Liabilities

In a balance sheet, the assets and liabilities are arranged either in theorder of liquidity or permanence. Arrangement of assets and liabilities in aparticular order is known as Marshalling.

In case of permanence, the most permanent asset or liability is put on thetop in the balance sheet and thereafter the assets are arranged in their reducinglevel of permanence.

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In the balance sheet of Ankit you will find that furniture is the mostpermanent of all the assets. Out of debtors, bank and cash, debtors will takemaximum time to convert back into cash. Bank is less liquid than cash. Cashis the most liquid of all the assets. Similarly, on the liabilities side, the capital,being the most important source of finance will tend to remain in the businessfor a longer period than the long-term loan. Creditors being a liquid liabilitywill be discharged in the near future. The balance sheet of Ankit in the orderof permanence is shown in figure 9.10(a).

Balance Sheet of Ankit as on March 31, 2005 (in order of permanence)

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Capital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Profit 4,500 16,500 Debtors 15,50010 % Long-term loan 5,000 Bank 5,000Creditors 15,000 Cash 1,000

36,500 36,500

Fig. 9.10 (a) : Items of balance sheet shown in the order of permanance

In case of liquidity, the order is reversed. The information presented inthis manner would enable the user to have a good idea about the life of thevarious accounts. The assets account of the relatively permanent nature wouldcontinue in the business for a longer time whereas the less permanent ormore liquid accounts will change their forms in the near future and are likelyto become cash or cash equivalent.The balance sheet of Ankit in the order of liquidity is shown in figure 9.10(b)

Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March31,2005(in order of liquidity)

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Creditors 15,000 Cash 1,00010 % Long-term loan 5,000 Bank 5,000Capital 12,000 Debtors 15,500Add Profit 4,500 16,500 Furniture 15,000

36,500 36,500

Fig. 9.10 (b) : Items of balance sheet shown in the order of liquidity

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Grouping of Assets and Liabilities

The items appearing in the balance sheet can also be properly grouped. Theterm grouping means putting together items of similar nature under a commonheading. For example, the balance of accounts of cash, bank, debtors, etc.can be grouped and shown under the heading of ‘current assets’ and thebalances of all fixed assets and long-term investment under the heading of‘non-current assets’.

Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March 31, 2005(in order of permanence)

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Owners Funds Non Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Profit 4,500 16,500 Current AssetsNon-Current Liabilities Debtors 15,500Long-term loan 5,000 Bank 5,000Current Liabilities Cash 1,000Creditors 15,000

36,500 36,500

Fig. 9.10 (c): Showing assets and liabilities arranged in logical groups

Do it Yourself

Arrange the following items in the order of both permanenceand liquidity. Also group them under logical heads :

Liabilities Assets

Long-term loans BuildingBank overdraft Cash in handBills payable Cash at bankOwner’s equity Bills receivableShort-term loans Sundry debtorsSundry creditors Land

Finished goodsWork in progressRaw material

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Illustration 8

From the following balances prepare a trading and profit and loss account and balancesheet for the year ended March 31, 2006

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Carriage on goods 8,000 Cash in hand 2,500purchased Bank overdraft 30,000Carriage on goods sold 3,500 Motor car 60,000Manufacturing expenses 42,000 Drawings 8,000Advertisement 7,000 Audit fees 2,700Excise duty 6,000 Plant 1,53,900Factory lighting 4,400 Repairs to plant 2,200Debtors 80,000 Stock at the end 76,000Creditors 61,000 Purchases less return 1,60,000Dock and Clearing charges 5,200 Commission on purchases 2,000Postage and Telegram 800 Incidental trade expenses 3,200Fire Insurance Premium 3,600 Investment 30,000Patents 12,000 Interest on investment 4,500Income tax 24,000 Capital 1,00,000Office expenses 7,200 Sales less return 5,20,000

Salest tax paid 12,000Discount allowed 2,700Discount on purchases 3,400

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Trading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2006

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases less return 1,60,000 Sales less return 5,20,000Commission on purchases 2,000Carriage on goods purchasesd 8,000Manufacturing expenses 42,000Factory lighting 4,400Dock and Clearing charges 5,200Gross profit c/d 2,98,400

5,20,000 5,20,000

Carriage on sales 3,500 Gross profit b/d 2,98,400Advertisement 7,000 Interest on investment 4,500Excise duty 6,000 Discount on purchases 3,400Postage and telegram 800Fire Insurance premium 3,600Office expenses 7,200Audit fees 2,700Repairs to plant 2,200Incidental trading expenses 3,200Sales tax paid 12,000Discount allowed 2,700Net profit 2,55,400(transferred to capitalaccount)

3,06,300 3,06,300

Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2006

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Bank overdraft 30,000 Cash in hand 2,500Creditors 61,000 Debtors 80,000Capital 1,00,000 Closing stock 76,000Add Net profit 2,55,400 Investment 30,000

3,55,400 Motor car 60,000Less Drawings (8,000) Plant 1,53,900

3,47400 Patents 12,000Less Income tax (24,000) 3,23,400

4,14,400 4,14,400

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Illustration 9

From the following balances prepare trading and profit and loss account and balance sheetfor the year ended March 31, 2006

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 15,310 Capital 2,50,000Purchases 82,400 Drawings 48,000Sales 256,000 Sundry debtors 57,000Returns (Dr.) 4,000 Sundry creditors 12,000Returns (Cr.) 2,400 Depreciation 4,200Factory rent 18,000 Charity 500Custom duty 11,500 Cash balance 4,460Coal, gas & power 6,000 Bank balance 4,000Wages and salary 36,600 Bank charges 180Discount (Dr.) 7,500 Establishment expenses 3,600Commission (Cr.) 1,200 Plant 42,000Bad debts 5,850 Leasehold building 1,50,000Bad debts recovered 2,000 Sales tax collected 2,000Apprenticeship premium 4,800 Goodwill 20,000Production expenses 2,600 Patents 10,000Adminstrative expenses 5,000 Trademark 5,000Carriage 8,700 Loan (Cr.) 25,000

Interest on loan 3,000

The value of closing stock on March 31, 2006 was Rs. 25,400

Solution

Trading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2006

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 15,310 Sales: 2,56,000Purchases: 82,400 Less Returns (4,000) 2,52,000Less Returns : (2,400) 80,000Factory rent 18,000 Closing stock 25,400Custom duty 11,500Coal, gas, power 6,000Wages and salary 36,600Production expenses 2,600Carriage 8,700Gross profit c/d 98,690

2,77,400 2,77,400

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Discount (Dr.) 7,500 Gross profit b/d 98,690Bad debts 5,850 Commission 1,200Administrative expenses 5,000 Bad debts recovered 2,000Depreciation 4,200 Apprenticeship premium 4,800Charity 500Bank charges 180Establishment expenses 3,600Interest on loan 3,000Net profit 76,860(transferred to capital account)

1,06,690 1,06,690

Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2006

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Sales tax collected 2,000 Cash balance 4,460Sundry creditors 12,000 Bank balance 4,000Loan 25,000 Sundry debtors 57,000Capital 2,50,000 Closing stock 25,400Add Net profit 76,860 Leasehold building 1,50,000

3,26,860 Plant 42,000Patents 10,000

Less Drawings (48,000) 2,78,860 Goodwill 5,000Trade mark 20,000

3,17,860 3,17,860

9.7 Opening Entry

The balances of various accounts in balance sheet are carried forward fromone accounting period to another accounting period. In fact, the balance sheetof an accounting period becomes the opening trial balance of the nextaccounting period. Next year an opening entry is made which opens theseaccounts contained in the balance sheet.

Refer the balance sheet shown in figure 9.10(c). The opening entry withregard to it will be recorded as follows :

Furniture A/c Dr. 15,000Debtors A/c Dr. 15,500Bank’s A/c Dr. 5,000Cash A/c Dr. 1,000

To Capital A/c 16,500To 10 % Long-term loan A/c 5,000To Creditors A/c 15,000

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Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Balance sheet • Bank overdraft• Bills payable • Bills receivable• Capital • Capital expenditure• Capital receipts • Carriage inwards• Carriage outwards • Cash at bank• Closing entries • Closing stock• Current assets • Currents liabilities• Purchases return • Rent• Return inwards • Return outwards• Revenue expenditure • Depreciation• Discount allowed • Discount received• Cash • Trade expenses• Factory expenses • Financial statements• Fixed assets • Freight• Gross Profit • Gross Loss• Income tax • Interest on capital• Interest on drawings • Net loss• Net profit • Order of liquidity• Order of performance • Revenue expenditure• Revenue receipt • Salaries• Sales • Sales return• Grouping and Marshalling

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1 Meaning, usefulness and types of financial statements : After the agreement ofthe trial balance, a business enterprise proceeds to prepare financial statements.Financial statements are the statements, which present periodic reports on theprocess of business enterprises and the results achieved during a given period.

Financial statements includs trading and profit and loss account, balance sheetand other statements and explanatory notes, which form part thereof.Information provided by financial statements is useful to management to planand control the business operations. Financial statement are also useful tocreditors, shareholders and employees of the enterprise.

2 Meaning need and preparation of trading and profit and loss account : The profitand loss account highlights the profit earned or loss sustained by the businessentity in the course of business operation during a given period.

The need for preparing the trading and profit and loss account is to ascertainthe net result of business operations during a given period. The profit and lossaccount shows the items of revenue expenses and losses on the debit side,while items of gain and gross profit are shown on the credit side. For thepreparation of the trading and profit and loss account, closing entries arerecorded to transfer balances of account of items of expenses and revenues.Net profit or net loss shown by the profit and loss account is transferred to thecapital account.

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3 Meaning, characteristic, need and structure of the balance sheet : The balancesheet is a statement of assets and liabilities of a business enterprise and showsthe financial position at a given date Informations contained in a balance sheetis true only on that date. The balance sheet is a part of the final account. But itis not an account, it is only a statement. In a balance sheet the totals of assetsand liabilities are always equal. It portrays the accounting equation.

A balance sheet has to be prepared to know the financial position of thebusiness, and the nature and values of its assets and liabilities. All the accountswhich have not been closed till the preparation of the profit and loss accountare shown in the balance sheet. Assets and liabilities shown in the balancesheet are marshalled in order of liquidity or in order of permanence.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. What are the objectives of preparing financial statements ?2. What is the purpose of preparing trading and profit and loss account?3. Explain the concept of cost of goods sold?4. What is a balance sheet. What are its characteristics?5. Distinguish between capital and revenue expenditure and state whether the

following statements are items of capital or revenue expenditure :(a) Expenditure incurred on repairs and whitewashing at the time of

purchase of an old building in order to make it usable.(b) Expenditure incurred to provide one more exit in a cinema hall in

compliance with a government order.(a) Registration fees paid at the time of purchase of a building(b) Expenditure incurred in the maintenance of a tea garden which will

produce tea after four years.(c) Depreciation charged on a plant.(d) The expenditure incurred in erecting a platform on which a machine will

be fixed.(e) Advertising expenditure, the benefits of which will last for four years.

6. What is an operating profit?

Long Answars

1. What are financial statements? What information do they provide.2. What are closing entries? Give four examples of closing entries.3. Discuss the need of preparing a balance sheet.4. What is meant by Grouping and Marshalling of assets and liabilities. Explain

the ways in which a balance sheet may be marshalled.

Numerical Questions

1. From the following balances taken from the books of Simmi and Vimmi Ltd.for the year ending March 31, 2003, calculate the gross profit.

(Rs.)Closing stock 2,50,000Net sales during the year 40,00,000Net purchases during the year 15,00,000

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Opening stock 15,00,000Direct expenses 80,000(Ans. Gross profit Rs.11,70,000)

2. From the following balances extracted from the books of M/s Ahuja andNanda. Calculate the amount of :(a) Cost of goods available for sale(b) Cost of goods sold during the year(c) Gross Profit

Rs.Opening stock 25,000Credit purchases 7,50,000Cash purchases 3,00,000Credit sales 12,00,000Cash sales 4,00,000Wages 1,00,000Salaries 1,40,000Closing stock 30,000Sales return 50,000Purchases return 10,000

(Ans. (a) Rs. 11,65,000 ; (b) Rs.11,35,000 ; (c) Rs.4,15,0003. Calculate the amount of gross profit and operating profit on the basis of the

following balances extracted from the books of M/s Rajiv & Sons for the yearended March 31, 2005.

Rs.Opening stock 50,000Net sales 11,00,000Net purchases 6,00,000Direct expenses 60,000Administration expenses 45,000Selling and distribution expenses 65,000Loss due to fire 20,000Closing stock 70,000

(Ans. Gross profit Rs.4,60,000, Operating profit Rs.3,50,000)4. Operating profit earned by M/s Arora & Sachdeva in 2005-06 was

Rs.17,00,000. Its non-operating incomes were Rs.1,50,000 and non-operatingexpenses were Rs.3,75,000. Calculate the amount of net profit earned by thefirm.(Ans. Net profit Rs.14,75,000)

5. The following are the extracts from the trial balance of M/s Bhola & Sons ason March 31, 2005

Account title Debit CreditRs. Rs.

Opening stock 2,00,000Purchases 8,10,000Sales 10,10,000

10,10,000 10,10,000

(only relevant items)Closing Stock as on date was valued at Rs.3,00,000.

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You are required to record the necessary journal entries and show how theabove items will appear in the trading and profit and loss account and balancesheet of M/s Bhola & Sons.

6. Prepare trading and profit and loss account and balance sheet as onMarch 31, 2005 :

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Machinery 27,000 Capital 60,000Sundry debtors 21,600 Bills payable 2,800Drawings 2,700 Sundry creditors 1,400Purchases 58,500 Sales 73,500Wages 15,000Sundry expenses 600Rent & taxes 1,350Carriage inwards 450Bank 4,500Openings stock 6,000

Closing stock as on March 31, 2005 Rs.22,400

[Ans. Gross profit Rs.15,950, Net profit Rs.14,000, Total balance sheetRs.75,500]

7. The following trial balance is extracted from the books of M/s Ram on March31, 2005. You are required to prepare trading and profit and loss accountand the balance sheet as on date :

Account title Amount Account title AmountRs. Rs.

Debtors 12,000 Apprenticeship premium 5,000Purchases 50,000 Loan 10,000Coal, gas and water 6,000 Bank overdraft 1,000Factory wages 11,000 Sales 80,000Salaries 9,000 Creditors 13,000Rent 4,000 Capital 20,000Discount 3,000Advertisement 500Drawings 1,000Loan 6,000Petty cash 500Sales return 1,000Machinery 5,000Land and building 10,000Income tax 100Furniture 9,900

(Ans. Gross profit: Rs. 12,000, Net profit: Rs. 500, Total balance sheet: Rs. 43,400)

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8. The following is the trial balance of Manju Chawla on March 31, 2005. Youare required to prepare trading and profit and loss account and a balancesheet as on date :

Account title Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Opening stock 10,000Purchases and sales 40,000 80,000Returns 200 600Productive wages 6,000Dock and Clearing charges 4,000Donation and charity 600Delivery van expenses 6,000Lighting 500Sales tax collected 1,000Bad debts 600Misc. incomes 6,000Rent from tenants 2,000Royalty 4,000Capital 40,000Drawings 2,000Debtors and Creditors 6,0000 7,000Cash 3,000Investment 6,000Patents 4,000Land and Machinery 43,000

Closing stock Rs. 2,000.(Ans. Gross Profit: Rs. 18,400, Net profit: Rs. 18,700, Total balance sheet:Rs. 64,700)

9. The following is the trial balance of Mr. Deepak as on March 31, 2005. Youare required to prepare trading account, profit and loss account and a balancesheet as on date :

Account title Debit Account title CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Drawings 36,000 Capital 2,50000Insurance 3,000 Bills payable 3,600General expenses 29,000 Creditors 50,000Rent and taxes 14,400 Discount recived 10,400Lighting (factory) 2,800 Purchases return 8,000Travelling expenses 7,400 Sales 4,40,000Cash in hand 12,600Bills receivable 5,000

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Sundry debtors 1,04,000Furniture 16,000Plant and Machinery 1,80,000Opening stock 40,000Purchases 1,60,000Sales return 6,000Carriage inwards 7,200Carriage outwards 1,600Wages 84,000Salaries 53,000

Closing stock Rs. 35,000.(Ans. Gross profit: Rs.1,83,000, Net profit : Rs. 85,000, Total balance sheet:Rs. 3,52,600)

10. Prepare trading and profit and loss account and balance sheet from thefollowing particulars as on March 31, 2005.

Account Title Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Purchases and Sales 3,52,000 5,60,000Return inwards and Return outwards 9,600 12,000Carriage inwards 7,000Carriage outwards 3,360Fuel and power 24,800Opening stock 57,600Bad debts 9,950Debtors and Creditors 1,31,200 48,000Capital 3,48,000Investment 32,000Interest on investment 3,200Loan 16,000Repairs 2,400General expenses 17,000Wages and salaries 28,800Land and buildings 2,88,000Cash in hand 32,000Miscellaneous receipts 160Sales tax collected 8,350

Closing stock Rs. 30,000.(Ans. Gross profit: Rs. 1,22,200, Net profit : Rs.92,850, Total balance sheet:Rs.5,13,200)

11. From the following trial balance of Mr. A. Lal, prepare trading, profit and lossaccount and balance sheet as on March 31, 2005

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369Financial Statements - I

Account Title Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Stock as on April 01, 2005 16,000Purchases and Sales 67,600 1,12,000Returns inwards and outwards 4,600 3,200Carriage inwards 1,400General expenses 2,400Bad debts 600Discount received 1,400Bank over draft 10,000Interest on bank overdraft 600Commission received 1,800Insurance and taxes 4,000Scooter expenses 200Salaries 8,800Cash in hand 4,000Scooter 8,000Furniture 5,200Building 65,000Debtors and Creditors 6,000 16,000Capital 50,000

Closing stock Rs. 15,000.(Ans. Gross profit : Rs. 40,600, Net profit: Rs. 27,200, Total balance sheet:Rs. 1,03,200)

12. Prepare trading and profit and loss account and balance sheet of M/s RoyalTraders from the following balances as on March 31, 2005.

Debit balances Amount Credit balances AmountRs. Rs.

Stock 20,000 Sales 2,45,000Cash 5,000 Creditors 10,000Bank 10,000 Bills payable 4,000Carriage on purchases 1,500 Capital 2,00,000Purchases 1,90,000Drawings 9,000Wages 55,000Machinery 1,00,000Debtors 27,000Postage 300Sundry expenses 1,700Rent 4,500Furniture 35,000

Closing stock Rs.8,000(Ans. Gross loss Rs. 13,500, Net loss Rs. 20,000, Total balance sheet Rs. 1,85,000)

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13. Prepare trading and profit and loss account from the following particulars ofM/s Neema Traders as on March 31, 2005.

Account Title Debit Account Title CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Buildings 23,000 Sales 1,80,000Plant 16,930 Loan 8,000Carriage inwards 1,000 Bills payable 2,520Wages 3,300 Bank overdraft 4,720Purchases 1,64,000 Creditors 8,000Sales return 1,820 Capital 2,36,000Opening stock 9,000 Purchases return 1,910Machinery 2,10,940Insurance 1,610Interest 1,100Bad debts 250Postage 300Discount 1,000Salaries 3,000 Debtors 3,900

Stock on March 31, 2005 Rs.16,000.(Ans. Gross profit Rs.17,850, Net profit Rs. 10,590, Total of balancesheet Rs.2,69,830)

14. From the following balances of M/s Nilu Sarees as on March 31, 2005. Preparetrading and profit and loss account and balance sheet as on date.

Account Title Debit Account Title CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Opening stock 10,000 Sales 2,28,000Purchases 78,000 Capital 70,000Carriage inwards 2,500 Interest 7,000Salaries 30,000 Commission 8,000Commission 10,000 Creditors 28,000Wages 11,000 Bills payable 2,370Rent & taxes 2,800Repairs 5,000Telephone expenses 1,400Legal charges 1,500Sundry expenses 2,500cash in hand 12,000Debtors 30,000Machinery 60,000Investments 90,000Drawings 18,000

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Closing stock as on March 31, 2005 Rs.22,000.(Ans. Gross profit Rs. 1,56,500, Net profit Rs. 1,10,300, Total balancesheet Rs.2,14,000)

15. Prepare trading and profit and loss account of M/s Sports Equipments forthe year ended March 31, 2006 and balance sheet as on that date :

Account Title Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Opening stock 50,000Purchases and sales 3,50,000 4,21,000Sales returns 5,000Capital 3,00,000Commission 4,000Creditors 1,00,000Bank overdraft 28,000Cash in hand 32,000Furniture 1,28,000Debtors 1,40,000Plants 60,000Carriage on purchases 12,000Wages 8,000Rent 15,000Bad debts 7,000Drawings 24,000Stationery 6,000Travelling expenses 2,000Insurance 7,000Discount 5,000Office expenses 2,000

Closing stock as on March 31, 2006 Rs.2,500

(Ans. Gross loss Rs. 1,500, Net loss Rs. 41,500 , Total balance sheetRs.3,62,500)

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

1. Test Your Understanding - I

I (i) T (ii) T (iii) F (iv) TII (i) b (ii) a (iii) e (iv) c (v) d

2. Test Your Understanding - II

1. (v) 2. (iii) 3. (iii) 4. (iii)

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Financial Statements - II 10

In chapter 9, you learnt about the preparation ofsimple final accounts in the format of trading and

profit and loss account and balance sheet. Thepreparation of simple final accounts pre-supposesthe absence of any accounting complexities whichare normal to business operations. Thesecomplexities arise due to the fact that the processof determining income and financial position isbased on the accrual basis of accounting. Thisemphasises that while ascertaining the profitability,the revenues be considered on earned basis andnot on receipt basis, and the expenses be consideredon incurred basis and not on paid basis. Hence,many items need some adjustment while preparingthe financial statements. In this chapter we shalldiscuss all items which require adjustments andthe way these are brought into the books of accountand incorporated in the final accounts.

10.1 Need for Adjustments

According to accrual concept of accounting, theprofit or loss for an accounting year is not based onthe revenues realised in cash and the expenses paidin cash during that year because there may be somereceipts of incomes and payments of expensesduring the current year which may partially relateto the previous year or to the next year. Also, theremay be some incomes and expenses relating to thecurrent year that are still to be brought into booksof account. So, unless such items duly adjusted,the final accounts will not reflect the true and fairview of the state of affairs of the business.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter,you will be able to :• describe the need for

adjustments whilepreparing the financialstatements;

• explain the accountingtreatment of adjust-ments for outstandingand prepaid expenses,accrued and advancereceipts of incomes;

• discuss the adjust-ments to be maderegarding deprecia-tion, bad debts, provi-sion for doubtful debts,provision for discounton debtors;

• explain the conceptsand adjustment ofmanager’s commissionand interest on capital;

• prepare profit and lossaccount and balancesheet with adjust-ments; and

• make vertical present-ation of financialstatements.

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Let us take an example of an amount of Rs. 1,000 paid on July 01, 2005towards insurance premium. You understand that any general insurancepremium paid usually covers a period of 12 months. Suppose the accountingyear ends on March 31, 2006, it would mean that one fourth of the insurancepremium is paid on July 01, 2005 relate to the next accounting year 2006-07.Therefore, while preparing the financial statements for 2005-06, the expenseon insurance premium that should be debited to the profit and loss accountis Rs. 900 (Rs. 1,200 – Rs. 300).

Let us take another example. The salaries for the month of March, 2005were paid on April 07, 2005. This means that the salaries account of 2004-05does not include the salaries for the month of March 2005. Such unpaidsalaries is termed as salaries outstanding which have to be brought into booksof account and is debited to profit and loss account along with the salariesalready paid for the month of April, 2004 up to Feburary, 2005.Similarly, adjustments may also become necessary in respect of certainincomes received in advance or those which have accrued but are still to bereceived. Apart from these, there are certain items which are not recorded onday-to-day basis such as depreciation on fixed assets, interest on capital, etc.These are adjusted at the time of preparing financial statements. The purposeof making various adjustments is to ensure that the final accounts reveal thetrue profit or loss and the true financial position of the business. The itemswhich usually need adjustments are :

1. Closing stock2. Outstanding/expenses3. Prepaid/Unexpired expenses4. Accrued income5. Income received in advance6. Depreciation7. Bad debts8. Provision for doubtful debts9. Provision for discount on debtors

10. Manager’s commission11. Interest on capital

It may be noted that when we prepare the financial statements, we areprovided with the trial balance and some other additional information in respectof the adjustments to be made. All adjustments are reflected in the finalaccounts at two places to complete the double entry. Our earlier example inchapter 9 which represents the trial balance of Ankit is reproduced infigure 10.1:

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Trial Balance of Ankit as on March 31, 2005

Account Title Elements L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Cash Assets 1,000Bank Assets 5,000Wages Expense 8,000Salaries Expense 25,000Furniture Assets 15,000Rent of building Expense 13,000Debtors Assets 15,500Bad debts Expense 4,500Purchases Expense 75,000Capital 12,000EquitySales Revenue 1,25,000Creditors Liabilities 15,000Long-term loan (raised on 1.4.2004) Liabilities 5,000Commission received Revenue 5,000

Total 1,62,000 1,62,000

Additional Information : The stock on March 31, 2005 was Rs. 15,000.

Figure 10.1 : Showing the trial balance of Ankit

We will now study about the items of adjustments and you will observehow these adjustments are helpful in the preparation of financial statementsin order to reflect the true profit and loss and financial position of the firm.

10.2 Closing Stock

As already discussed in chapter 9, the closing stock represents the cost ofunsold goods lying in the stores at the end of the accounting period. Theadjustment with regard to the closing stock is done by (i) by crediting it to thetrading and profit and loss account, and (ii) by showing it on the asset side ofthe balance sheet. The adjustment entry to be recorded in this regard is :

Closing stock A/c Dr.To Trading A/c

The closing stock of the year becomes the opening stock of the next yearand is reflected in the trial balance of the next year. The trading and profit

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and loss account of Ankit for the year ended March 31, 2005 and his balancesheet as on that date shall appear as follows :

Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000 Closing stock 15,000Gross profit c/d 57,000

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 57,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000Bad debts 4,500Net profit (transferred to 19,500Ankit’s capital account)

62,000 62,000

Sometimes the opening and closing stock are adjusted through purchasesaccount. In that case, the entry recorded is as follows :

Closing stock A/c Dr.To Purchases A/c

This entry reduces the amount in the purchases account and is alsoknown as adjusted purchases which is shown on the debit side of the tradingand profit and loss account. In this context, it may be noted, that the closingstock will not be shown on the credit side of the trading and profit and loss asit has been already been adjusted through the purchases account. Not only,in such a situation, even the opening stock will not be separately reflected inthe trading and profit and loss account, as it is also adjusted in purchases byrecording the following entry:

Purchases A/c Dr.To Opening stock A/c

Another important point to be noted in this context is that when the openingand closing stocks are adjusted through purchases, the trial balance doesnot show any opening stock. Instead, the closing stock shall appear in thetrial balance (not as additional information or as an adjustment item) and soalso the adjusted purchases. In such a situation, you should remember thatthe adjusted purchases shall be debited to the trading and profit and lossaccount.

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The closing stock shall be shown on the assets side of the balance sheet asshown below:

Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Owners funds Non-Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Net profit 19,500 31,500 Current AssetsNon-Current Liabilities Debtors 15,500Long-term loan 5,000 Bank 5,000Current Liabilities Cash 1,000Creditors 15,000 Closing stock 15,000

51,500 51,500

10.3 Outstanding Expenses

It is quite common for a business enterprise to have some unpaid expenses inthe normal course of business operations at the end of an accounting year.Such items usually are wages, salaries, interest on loan, etc.

When expenses of an accounting period remain unpaid at the end of anaccounting period, they are termed as outstanding expenses. As they relateto the earning of revenue during the current accounting year, it is logical thatthey should be duly charged against revenue for computation of the correctamount of profit or loss. The entry to bring such expenses into account is :

Concerned expense A/c Dr.To Outstanding expense A/c

The above entry opens a new account called Outstanding Expenses whichis shown on the liabilities side of the balance sheet. The amount of outstandingexpenses is added to the total of expenses under a particular head for thepurpose of preparing trading and profit and loss account.

For example, refer to Ankit’s trial balance (refer figure 10.1). You will noticethat wages are shown at Rs. 8,000. Let us assume that Ankit owes Rs.500 aswages relating to the year 2004-05 to one of his employees. In that case, thecorrect expense on wages amounts to Rs. 8,500 instead of Rs. 8,000. Ankitmust show Rs. 8,500 as expense on account of wages in the trading andprofit and loss account and recognise a current liability of Rs. 500 towardsthe sum owed to his staff. It will be referred to as wages outstanding and itwill be adjusted to wages account by recording the following journal entry:

Wages A/c Dr. 500To Wages outstanding A/c 500

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The amount of outstanding wages will be added to wages account for thepreparation of the trading and profit and loss account as follows :

Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains Amount

Rs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000Add Outstanding wages 500 8,500 Closing stock 15,000Gross profit c/d 56,500

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 56,500Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000Bad debts 4,500Net profit (transferred to 19,000Ankit’s capital account)

61,500 61,500

Observe carefully the trading and profit and loss account of Ankit. Didyou notice the amount of net profit is reduced to Rs. 19,000 on account ofoutstanding wages. The item relating to outstanding wages will be shown inbalance sheet as follows :

Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Owners Funds Non-Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Profit 19,000 31,000 Current AssetsNon-Current Liabilities Debtors 15,500Long-term loan 5,000 Bank 5,000Current Liabilities Cash 1,000Creditors 15,000 Closing stock 15,000Outstanding wages 500

51,500 51,500

10.4 Prepaid Expenses

There are several items of expense which are paid in advance in the normalcourse of business operations. At the end of the accounting year, it is foundthat the benefits of such expenses have not yet been fully received; a portion

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of its benefit would be received in the next accounting year. This portion ofexpense, is carried forward to the next year and is termed as prepaid expenses.The necessary adjustment in respect of prepaid expenses is made by recordingthe following entry:

Prepaid expense A/c Dr.To concerned expense A/c

The effect of the above adjustment entry is that the amount of prepaidpart is deducted from the total of the particular expense, and the new accountof prepaid expense is shown on the liabilities side of the balance sheet. Forexample, in Ankit’s trial balance, let us assume that the amount of salarypaid by him to the employees includes an amount of Rs. 5,000 which waspaid in advance to one of his employees upon his joining the office. Thisimplies that Ankit has overpaid his staff by Rs. 5,000 on account of his salary.Hence, correct expense on account of salary during the current period will beRs. 20,000 instead of Rs. 25,000. Ankit must show Rs. 20,000 expense onaccount of salary in the profit and loss account and recognise a current assetof Rs. 5,000 as an advance salary to the employee. It will be termed as prepaidsalary account and will be recorded by the following journal entry :

Prepaid salary A/c Dr. 5,000To salary A/c 5,000

The account of prepaid salary will be shown in the trading and profit andloss account as follows:

Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000 Closing stock 15,000Add Outstanding wages 500 8,500Gross profit c/d 56,500

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 56,500Less Prepaid salary (5,000) 20,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000Bad debts 4,500Net profit (transferred to Ankit 24,000capital account)

61,500 61,500

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Observe how the prepaid salary has resulted in an increase of net profit byRs. 5,000 making it as Rs. 24,000 Further, the item relating to prepaid salarywill be shown in the balance sheet on the assets side as follows :

Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March 31,2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Owners Funds Non-Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Profit 24,000 36,000 Current AssetsNon-Current Liabilities Debtors 15,500Long-term loan 5,000 Prepaid salary 5,000Current Liabilities Bank 5,000

Cash 1,000Creditors 15,000 Closing stock 15,000Outstanding wages 500

56,500 56,500

10.5 Accrued Income

It may also happen that certain items of income such as interest on loan,commission, rent, etc. are earned during the current accounting year buthave not been actually received by the end of the same year. Such incomesare known as accrued income. The adjusting entry for accrued income is :

Accrued income A/c Dr.To Concerned income A/c

The amount of accrued income will be added to the related income in theprofit and loss account and the new account of accrued income will appearon the asset side of the balance sheet.

Let us, for example, assume that Ankit was giving a little help to a fellowbusinessman by introducing few parties to him on commission for this service.In the trial balance of Ankit you will notice an item of commission receivedamounting to Rs. 5,000. Assume that the commission amounting toRs.1, 500 was still receivable from the fellow businessman. This implies thatincome from commission earned during 2004-05 is Rs. 6, 500 (Rs.5, 000 +Rs. 1,500) Ankit needs to record an adjustment entry to give effect to theaccrued commission as follows :

Accrued Commission A/c Dr. 1,500To Commission A/c 1,500

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The account of accrued income will be recorded in trading and profit andloss account as follows :

Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000 Closing stock 15,000Add Outstanding 500 8,500Gross profit c/d 56,500

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 56,500Less Prepaid salary (5,000) 20,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000

Add Accrued 1,500 6,500Bad debts 4,500 commissionNet profit (transferred to 25,500Ankit’s capital account)

63,000 63,000

Observe that the accrued income has resulted in an increase in the netprofit by Rs. 1,500 making it as Rs. 25,500. Further, it will be shown in thebalance sheet of Ankit on the assets side under the head current asset.

Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Owners Funds Non-Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Profit 25,500 37,500 Current AssetsNon-Current Liabilities Debtors 15,500Long-term loan 5,000 Prepaid salary 5,000Current Liabilities Accrued commission 1,500Creditors 15,000 Bank 5,000Outstanding wages 500 Cash 1,000

Closing stock 15,000

58,000 58,000

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10.6 Income Received in Advance

Sometimes, a certain income is received but the whole amount of it does notbelong to the current period. The portion of the income which belongs to thenext accounting period is termed as income received in advance or an UnearnedIncome. Income received in advance is adjusted by recording the followingentry:

Concerned income A/c Dr.To Income received in advance A/c

The effect of this entry will be that the balance in the income account willbe equal to the amount of income earned for the current accounting period,and the new account of income received in advance will be shown as a liabilityin the balance sheet.

For example, let us assume Ankit has agreed in March 31, 2005 to subleta part of the building to a fellow shopkeeper @ Rs. 1,000 per month. Theperson gives him rent in advance for the next three months of April, May andJune. The amount received had been credited to the profit and loss account.However, this income does not pertain to current year and hence will not becredited to profit and loss account. It is income received in advance and willbe recognised as a liability amounting to Rs. 3,000. Ankit needs to record anadjustment entry to give effect to income received in advance by way of followingjournal entry:

Rent received A/c Dr. 3,000To Rent received in advance A/c 3,000

This will lead a new account of rent received in advance of Rs. 3,000 whichwill appear as follows :

Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Owners Funds Non Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Net profit 25,500 37,500 Current AssetsNon Current Liabilities Debtors 15,500Long-term loan 5,000 Prepaid salary 5,000Current Liabilities Accrued commission 1,500Creditors 15,000 Bank 5,000Outstanding wages 500 Cash 4,000Rent received in advance 3,000 Closing stock 15,000

61,000 61,000

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10.7 Depreciation

Recall from chapter 7, that depreciation is the decline in the value of assetson account of wear and tear and passage of time. It is treated as a businessexpense and is debited to profit and loss account. This, in effect, amounts towriting-off a portion of the cost of an asset which has been used in the businessfor the purpose of earning profits. The entry for providing depreciation is :

Depreciation A/c Dr.To Concerned asset A/c

In the balance sheet, the asset will be shown at cost minus the amount ofdepreciation. For example, the trial balance in our example shows that Ankithas a furniture account with a balance of Rs. 15,000. Let us assume thatfurniture is subject to a depreciation of 10% per annum. This implies thatAnkit must recognise that at the end of the year the value attached to furnitureis to be reduced by Rs. 1,500 (Rs. 15,000 × 10%). Ankit needs to record anadjustment entry to give effect to depreciation on furniture as follows :

Depreciation A/c Dr. 1,500To Furniture A/c 1,500

Depreciation will be shown in the profit and loss account and balancesheet as follows :

Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000 Closing stock 15,000Add Outstanding wages (500) 8,500Gross Profit c/d 56,500

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 56,500Less Prepaid salary (5,000) 20,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000 6,500

Add Accrued 1,500Depreciation-Furniture 1,500 CommissionBad debts 4,500Net profit (transferred to 24,000Ankit’s capital account)

63,000 63,000

Notice that the amount of net profit declines with the adjustment of depreciation.Let us now see how depreciation as an expense will be shown in balance sheet.

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Balance Sheet of Ankitas at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Owners Funds Non-Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Profit 24,000 36,000 Less Depreciation (1,500) 13,500Non-Current Liabilities Current AssetsLong-term loan 5,000 Debtors 15,500Current Liabilities Prepaid salary 5,000Creditors 15,000 Accrued commission 1,500Outstanding wages 500 Bank 5,000Rent received in advance 3,000 Cash 4,000

Closing stock 15,000

59,500 59,500

10.8 Bad Debts

Bad debts refer to the amount that the firm has not been able to realise fromits debtors. It is regarded as a loss and is termed as bad debt. The entry forrecording bad debt is:

Bad debts A/c Dr.To Debtors A/c

You will notice in Ankit’s trial balance, that it contains bad debts amountingto Rs. 4,500. Whereas, the sundry debtors of Ankit are reported as Rs. 15,500.The existence of bad debts in the trial balance signifies that Ankit has incurreda loss arising out of bad debts during the year and which has been alreadyrecorded in the books of account.

However, assuming one of his debtors who owed him Rs. 2,500 had becomeinsolvent, and nothing is receivable from him. But the amount of bad debtsrelated to the current year is still to be account for. This fact appears asadditional information and is termed as further bad debts. The adjustmententry to be recorded for the amount will be as follows. For this purpose, Ankitneeds to record an adjustment entry as under :

Bad debts A/c Dr. 2,500To Debtors A/c 2,500

This entry will reduce the value of debtors to Rs. 13,000( Rs. 15,500 –Rs. 2,500) and increases the amount of bad debts to Rs. 7,000 (Rs. 4,500 +Rs. 2,500).

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The treatment of further bad debts in profit and loss account and balancesheet is shown below :

Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000 Closing stock 15,000Add Outstanding wages 500 8,500Gross profit c/d 56,500

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 56,500Less Prepaid salary (5,000) 20,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000

Add Accrued 1,500 6,500 commission

Depreciation – Furniture 1,500Bad Debts 4,500Add Further bad debts 2,500 7,000Net profit (transferred to 21,500Ankit’s capital account)

63,000 63,000

Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Owners Funds Non-Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Profit 21,500 33,500 Less Depreciation (1,500) 13,500Non-Current Liabilities Current AssetsLong-term loan 5,000 Debtors 15,500

Less Further bad debts (2,500)13,000Current Liabilities and Provisions Prepaid salary 5,000Creditors 15,000 Accrued commission 1,500

Bank 5,000Outstanding Wages 500 Cash 4,000

Closing stock 15,000Rent received in advance 3,000

57,000 57,000

10.9 Provision for Bad and Doubtful Debts

In the above balance sheet, debtors now appears at Rs. 13,000, which is theirestimated realisable value during next year. It is quite possible that the whole

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of this amount may not be realised in future. However, it is not possible toaccurately know the amount of such bad debts. Hence, we make a reasonableestimate of such loss and provide the same. Such provision is called provisionfor bad debts and is created by debiting profit and loss account. The followingjournal entry is recorded in this context :

Profit and Loss A/c Dr.To Provision for doubtful debts A/c

Provision for doubtful debts is also shown as a deduction from the debtorson the asset side of the balance sheet.

Let us assume, Ankit feels that 5% of his debtors on March 31, 2005 arelikely to default on their payments next year. This implies he expects baddebts of Rs. 650 (Rs. 13,000 × 5%). Ankit needs to record the adjustmententry as :

Profit and loss A/c Dr. 650To Provision for doubtful debts A/c 650

This implies that Rs. 650 will reduce the current year’s profit on accountof doubtful debts. In the balance sheet, it will be shown as a deduction fromsundry debtors.

Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000 Closing stock 15,000Add Outstanding 500 8,500Gross profit c/d 56,500

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 56,500Less Prepaid salary (5,000) 20,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000Depreciation – Furniture 1,500 Add Accrued 1,500 6,500Bad debts 4,500 commissionAdd Further bad debts 2,500 7,000Provision for doubtful debts 650Net profit (transferred to Ankit’s 20,850capital account)

63,000 63,000

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Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets Amount Rs. Rs.

Owners Funds Non-Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Net profit 20,850 32,850 Less Depreciation (1,500) 13,500Non-Current Liabilities Current AssetsLong-term loan 5,000 Debtors 15,500

Less Furtherbad debts 2,50013,000

Less Provision for 650 12,350 doubtful debts

Current Liabilities & Provisions Prepaid salary 5,000Creditors 15,000 Accrued commission 1,500Outstanding wages 500 Bank 5,000Rent received in advance 3,000 Cash 4,000

Closing stock 15,000

56,350 56,350

It may be noted that the provision created for doubtful debts at the end ofa particular year will be carried forward to the next year and it will be used formeeting the loss due to bad debts incurred during the next year. The provisionfor doubtful debts brought forward from the previous year is called the openingprovision or old provision. When such a provision already exists, the loss dueto bad debts during the current year are adjusted against the same and whilemaking provision for doubtful debts required at the end of the current year iscalled new provision. The balance of old provision as given in trial balanceshould also be taken into account.

Let us take an example to understand how bad debts and provision fordoubtful debts are recorded. An extract from a trial balance on March 31,2005 is given below :

Rs.Sundry debtors 32,000Bad debts 2,000Provision for doubtful debts 3,500

Additional Information :

Write-off further bad debts Rs. 1,000 and create a provision for doubtful debts@ 5% on debtors.

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In this case, the following journal entries will be recorded :

Debit CreditDate Particulars L.F. Amount Amount

Rs. Rs.

(a) Bad debts A/c Dr. 1,000 To Sundry debtors 1,000

(Futher bad debts)

(b) Provision for doubtful debts A/c Dr. 3,000 To Bad debts A/c 3,000

(Bad debts adjusted against the provision)

Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 1,050 To Provision for doubtful debts A/c 1,050

(Amount charges from profit and loss account)

Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Rs. Rs.Provision for doubtful debts:Bad debts 2,000Further bad debts 1,000New provision 1,550

4,550Less Old provision 3,500 1,050

*Only relevant items.

Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2005

Rs.Sundry debtors 32,000Less Further (1,000)bad debts 31,000Less Provision (1,550) for doubtful debts 29,450

*Only relevant items.

Note : The amount of new provision for doubtful debts has been calculated as follows:Rs. 31,000 1 × 5/100 = Rs. 1,550.

10.10 Provision for Discount on Debtors

A business enterprise allows discount to its debtors to encourage promptpayments. Discount likely to be allowed to customers in an accounting year

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can be estimated and provided for by creating a provision for discount ondebtors. Provision for discount is made on good debtors which are arrived atby deducting further bad debts and the provision for doubtful debts. Thefollowing journal entry is recorded to create provision for discount on debtors:

Profit and loss A/c Dr.To Provision for discount on debtors A/c

As stated above, the provision for discount on debtors will be created onlyon good debtors. It will be calculated on the amount of debtors arrived at afterdeducting the doubtful debts, i.e. Rs. 12,350 (Rs. 13,000 – Rs. 650).Ankit needs to record the adjustment entry as :

Profit and loss A/c Dr. 227To Provision for discount on debtors A/c 227

This will reduce the current year profit by Rs. 227 on account of probablediscount on prompt payment. In the balance sheet, it will be shown as adeduction from the debtors account to portray correctly the expected realiablevalue of debtors as Rs. 12,123.

Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000 Closing stock 15,000Add Outstanding wages (500) 8,500Gross profit c/d 56,500

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 56,500Less Prepaid salary (5,000) 20,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000

Add Accrued 1,500 6,500Depreciation–Furniture 1,500 commissionBad debts 4,500Add Further bad debts 2,500 7,000Provision for doubtful debts 650Provision for discount on debtors 227Net profit (transferred to 20,623Ankit’s capital account)

63,000 63,000

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Balance Sheet of Ankit as on March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Owners Funds Non-Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Net profit 20,623 32,623 Less Depreciation (1,500) 13,500Non-Current Liabilities Current AssetsLong-term loan 5,000 Debtors 15,500

Less Further 2,500 bad debts 13,000Less Provision for bad and 650 doubtful debts

12,350Less Provision for discount on debtors (227) 12,123

Current Liabilities & Provisions Prepaid salary 5,000Creditors 15,000 Accrued commission 1,500

Bank 5,000Outstanding wages 500 Cash 4,000

Closing stock 15,000Rent received in advance 3,000

56,123 56,123

In the subsequent year, the discount will be transferred to the provisionfor discount on debtors account. The account will be treated in the samemanner as the provision for doubtful debts.

10.11 Manager’s Commission

The manager of the business is sometimes given the commission on the netprofit of the company. The percentage of the commission is applied on theprofit either before charging such commission or after charging such commission.In the absence of any such information, it is assumed that commission isallowed as a percentage of the net profit before charging such commission.

Suppose the net profit of a business is Rs. 110 before charging commission.If the manager is entitled to 10% of the profit before charging such commission,the commission will be calculated as :

= Rs. 110 × 10/100= Rs. 11

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In case the commission is 10% of the profit after charging such commission,it will be calculated as :

= Profit before commission × Rate of commission/ (100 + commission)

10Rs. 110 × = Rs. 10.

110=

The managers commission will be adjusted in the books of account byrecording the following entry :

Profit and loss A/c Dr.To Manager’s commission A/c

Let us recall our example and assume that Ankit’s manager is entitled to acommission @ 10%. Observe the following profit and loss account if it is basedon :

(i) amount of net profit before charging such commission(ii) amount of profit after charging such commission.

(i) Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000 Closing stock 15,000Add Outstanding wages 500 8,500Gross profit c/d 56,500

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit 56,500Less Prepaid salary (5,000) 20,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000

Add Accrued 1,500 6,500Depreciation – Furniture 1,500 commissionBad debts 4,500Add Further bad debts 2,500 7,000Provision for doubtful debts 650Provision for discount on debtors 227Manager’s commission 2,062Net profit (transferred to 18,561Ankit’s capital account)

63,000 63,000

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391Financial Statements - II

Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March 31, 2005Liabilities Amount Assets Amount

Rs. Rs.Owners Funds Non-Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Net profit 18,561 30,561 Less Depreciation (1,500) 13,500Non-Current Liabilities Current AssetsLong-term loan 5,000 Debtors 15,500

Less Further bad debts(2,500)13,000

Less Provision for badCurrent Liabilities and Provisions and doubtful (650)Creditors 15,000 debts 12,350

Less Provision fordiscount on debtors (227) 12,123

Outstanding wages 500 Prepaid salary 5,000Rent received in advance 3,000 Accrued commission 1,500

Bank 5,000Cash 4,000

Manager’s commission 2,062 Closing stock 15,000outstanding

56,123 56,123

(ii) Trading and Profit and Loss Account of Ankitfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains Amount

Rs. Rs.Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,25,000Wages 8,000 Closing stock 15,000Add Outstanding wages 500 8,500Gross profit c/d 56,500

1,40,000 1,40,000

Salaries 25,000 Gross profit b/d 56,500Less Prepaid salary (5,000) 20,000Rent of building 13,000 Commission received 5,000

Add Accrued 1,500 6,500Depreciation–Furniture 1,500 commissionBad debts 4,500Add Further bad debts 2,500 7,000Provision for bad anddoubtful debts 650Provision for discount ondebtors 227Manager’s commission 1,875Net profit (transferred toAnkit’s capital account) 18,748

63,000 63,000

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392 Accountancy

Balance Sheet of Ankit as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Owners Funds Non-Current AssetsCapital 12,000 Furniture 15,000Add Net profit 18,748 30,748 Less Depreciation (1,500) 13,500Non-Current LiabilitiesLong-term loan 5,000 Current Assets

Debtors 15,500Less Further bad debts (2,500)

13,000Less Provision for bad & doubtful (650) debts 12,350Less Provision for

Current Liabilities and Provisions discount on debtors(227) 12,123Creditors 15,000 Prepaid salary 5,000Outstanding wages 500 Accrued commission 1,500

Bank 5,000Rent received in advance 3,000 Cash 4,000Manager commissionoutstanding 1,875 Closing stock 15,000

56,123 56,123

10.12 Interest on Capital

Sometimes, the proprietor may like to know the profit made by the businessafter providing for interest on capital. In such a situation, interest is calculatedat a given rate of interest on capital as at the beginning of the accountingyear. If however, any additional capital is brought during the year, the interestmay also be computed on such amount from the date on which it was broughtinto the business. Such interest is treated as expense for the business andthe following journal entry is recorded in the books of account:

Interest on capital A/c Dr.To Capital A/c

In the final accounts, it is shown as an expense on the debit side of theprofit and loss account and added to capital in the balance sheet.

Let us assume, Ankit decides to provide 5% interest on his capital. Thisshall amount to Rs. 600 for which the following journal entry will be recorded:

Interest on capital A/c Dr. 600To Capital A/c 600

This implies that net profit shall be reduced by Rs. 600. As a result, thereduced amount of profit shall be added to the capital in the balance sheet.

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393Financial Statements - II

But, when interest on capital shall be added to the capital, this effect shall beneutralised. As shown below :

Rs.Capital 12,000Add Profit 17,961

29,961Add Interest on capital 600

30,561

Test Your Understanding

Tick the correct answer :1. Rahul’s trial balance provide you the following information :

Debtors Rs. 80,000Bad debts Rs. 2,000Provision for bad debts Rs. 4,000It is desired to maintain a provision for bad debts of Rs. 1,000State the amount to be debited/credited in profit and loss account :(a) Rs. 5,000 (Debit) (b) Rs. 3,000 (Debit)(c) Rs. 1,000 (Credit) (d) none of these.

2. If the rent of one month is still to be paid the adjustment entry will be :(a) Debit outstanding rent account and Credit rent account(b) Debit profit and loss account and Credit rent account(c) Debit rent account and Credit profit and loss account(d) Debit rent account and Credit outstanding rent account.

3. If the rent received in advance Rs. 2,000. The adjustment entry will be :(a) Debit profit and loss account and Credit rent account(b) Debit rent account Credit rent received in advance account(c) Debit rent received in advance account and Credit rent account(d) None of these.

4. If the opening capital is Rs. 50,000 as on April 01, 2005 and additional capitalintroduced Rs. 10,000 on January 01, 2006. Interest charge on capital 10% p.a.The amount of interest on capital shown in profit and loss account as on March 31,2005 will be :(a) Rs. 5,250 (b) Rs. 6,000(c) Rs. 4,000 (d) Rs, 3,000.

5. If the insurance premium paid Rs. 1,000 and pre-paid insurance Rs. 300. The amountof insurance premium shown in profit and loss account will be :(a) Rs. 1,300 (b) Rs. 1,000(c) Rs. 300 (d) Rs. 700.

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394 Accountancy

Adjustment Adjustment Entry Treatment in Trading Treatment inand Profit and Loss Balance SheetAccount

1. Closing stock Closing stock A/c Dr. Shown on the credit Shown on theTo Trading A/c assets side and profit assets side

and loss account

2. Outstanding Expense A/c Dr. Added to the Shown on theexpenses To outstanding respective expense liabilities side

expense A/c on the debit side

3. Prepaid/ Prepaid expense A/c Dr. Deducted from the Shown on theUnexpired To Expenses A/c respective expense on assets sideexpenses the debit side

4. Income earned Accured income A/c Dr. Added to the Shown on thebut not received To Income A/c respective income assets side

on the credit side

5. Income received Income A/c Dr. Deducted from the Shown on thein advance To Income received respective income liabilities

in advence A/c on the credit side sides

6. Depreciation Depreciaton A/c Dr. Shown on the debit Deducted fromTo Assets A/c side the value of

asset

7. Provision for Profit and Loss A/c Dr. Shown on the debit Shown asbad and To Provision for side deductiondoubtful debts doubtful debts from debtors

8. Provision for Profit and Loss A/c Dr. Shown on the debit Shown asdiscount on To Provision for side deductoindebtors discount debtors form debtors

9. Manager’s Manager’s Dr. Shown on the debit Shown on thecommission commission A/c side liabilities side

To outstandingcommission A/c

10. Interest on Interest on capital A/c Dr. Shown on the debit Shown ascapital To capital A/c side addition to

capital

11. Further bad Bad debts A/c Dr. Shown on the debit Deducted fromdebts To Sundry Debtors A/c side debtors

Fig. 10.2 : Showing treatment of various types of adjustments

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395Financial Statements - II

Debit Balances Amount Credit Balances AmountRs. Rs.

Drawings 6,300 Capital 1,50,000Cash at bank 13,870 Discount received 2,980Bills receivable 1,860 Loans 15,000Loan and Building 42,580 Purchases return 1,450Furniture 5,130 Sales 2,81,500Discount allowed 3,960 Reserve for bad debts 4,650Bank charges 100 Creditors 18,670Salaries 6,420Purchases 1,99,080Stock (opening) 60,220Sales return 1,870Carriage 5,170Rent and Taxes 7,680General expenses 3,630Plant and Machinery 31,640Book debts 82,740Bad debts 1,250Insurance 750

4,74,250 4,74,250

Adjustments

1. Closing stock Rs. 70,0002. Create a reserve for bad and doubtful debts @ 10% on book debts3. Insurance prepaid Rs. 504. Rent outstanding Rs. 1505. Interest on loan is due @ 6% p.a.

Solution

Trading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 60,220 Sales 2,81,500Purchase 1,99,080 Less : Sales return (1,870) 2,79,630Less Purchases return (1,450) 1,97,630 Closing stock 70,000Carriage 5,170Gross profit c/d 86,610

3,49,630 3,49,630

Illustration 1

From the following balances, prepare the trading and profit and loss account and balancesheet as on March 31, 2005.

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396 Accountancy

Discount allowed 3,960 Gross profit b/d 86,610Bank charges 100 Discount received 2,980Salaries 6,420Rent and Taxes 7,680Add Rent outstanding 150 7,830General expenses 3,630Insurance 750Less Insurance prepaid (50) 700Bad debts 1,250Add New provision 8,274for bad debts 9,524Less Old provision (4,650)for bad debts 4,874Interest on loan outstanding 900Net profit (transferred to 61,176capital account)

89,590 89,590

Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Creditors 18,670 Cash at bank 13,870Loan 15,000Add Interest on loan 900 15,900 Book debts 82,740 outstandingRent outstanding 150 Less Reserve (8,274) 74,466

for bad debtsCapital 1,50,000 Bills receivable 1,860Add Net profit 61,176 Land and Building 42,580

2,11,176 Furniture 5,130Less Drawings (6,300) 2,04,876 Plant and Machinery 31,640

Insurance (prepaid) 50Closing stock 70,000

2,39,596 2,39,596

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Illustration 2

The following were the balances extracted from the books of Yogita as on March 31, 2005:

Debit Balances Amount Credit Balances AmountRs. Rs.

Cash in hand 540 Sales 98,780Cash at bank 2,630 Return outwards 500Purchases 40,675 Capital 62,000Return inwards 680 Sundry creditors 6,300Wages 8,480 Rent 9,000Fuel and Power 4,730Carriage on sales 3200Carriage on purchases 2040Opening stock 5,760Building 32,000Freehold land 10,000Machinery 20,000Salaries 15,000Patents 7,500General expenses 3,000Insurance 600Drawings 5,245Sundry debtors 14,500

Taking into account the following adjustments prepare trading and profit and loss accountand balance sheet as on March 31, 2005 :

(a) Stock in hand on March 31, 2005,was Rs. 6,800.(b) Machinery is to be depreciated at the rate of 10% and patents @ 20%.(c) Salaries for the month of March, 2005 amounting to Rs. 1,500 were outstanding.(d) Insurance includes a premium of Rs. 170 on a policy expiring on September 30,

2006.(e) Further bad debts are Rs. 725. Create a provision @ 5% on debtors.

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398 Accountancy

(f) Rent receivable Rs. 1,000.Solution:

Books of YogitaTrading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains Amount

Rs. Rs.Opening stock 5,760Purchases 40,675 Sales 98,780Less Return outwards (500) 40,175 Less Return inwards (680) 98,100Wages 8,480 Closing stock 6,800Fuel and Power 4,730Carriage on purchases 2,040Gross profit c/d 43,715

1,04,900 1,04,900Salaries 15,000 Gross profit b/d 43,715Add Outstanding salaries 1,500 16,500 Rent 9,000Carriage 3,200 Add Accrued rent 1,000 10,000General expenses 3,000Insurance 600Less Prepaid insurance (85) 515Further bad debts 725Add Provision for bad debts 689 1,414Depreciation : machinery 2,000 Patent 1,500 3,500Net profit 25,586(transferred to capital account)

53,715 53,715

Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2005Dr. Cr.

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Sundry creditors 6,300 Cash in hand 540Cash in bank 2,630

Salaries outstanding 1,500 Sundry debtors 14,500Capital 62,000 Less Further (725)

bad debts 13,775Less Provision (689) 13,086 for bad debts

Add Net profit 25,586 Insurance prepaid 8587,586 Stock 6,800

Rent accrued 1,000Less Drawings (5,245) 82,341 Freehold land 10,000

Building 32,000Machinery 20,000Less Depreciation (2,000) 18,000 Patents 7,500Less Depreciation (1,500) 6,000

90,141 90,141

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399Financial Statements - II

Illustration 3

The following balances were extracted from the books of Shri R. Lal on March 31, 2005

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Capital 1,00,000 Rent (Cr.) 2,100Drawings 17,600 Railway freight on sales 16,940Purchases 80,000 Carriage inwards 2,310Sales 1,40,370 Office expenses 1,340Purchases return 2,820 Printing and Stationery 660Stock on April 01, 2004 11,460 Postage and Telegram 820

Bad debts 1,400 Sundry debtors 62,070Bad debts reserve 3,240 Sundry creditors 18,920April 01, 2004

Cash in bank 12,400Rates and Insurance 1,300 Cash in hand 2,210Discount (Cr.) 190 Office furniture 3,500Bills receivable 1,240 Salaries and Commission 9,870Sales returns 4,240 Addition to buildings 7,000Wages 6,280

Buildings 25,000

Prepare the trading and profit and loss account and a balance sheet as on March 31,2005 after keeping in view the following adjustments :

(i) Depreciate old building by Rs. 625 and addition to building at 2% and office furnitureat 5%.

(ii) Write-off further bad debts Rs. 570.(iii) Increase the bad debts reserve to 6% of debtors.(iv) On March 31, 2005 Rs. 570 are outstanding for salary.(v) Rent receivable Rs. 200 on March 31, 2005.(vi) Interest on capital at 5% to be charged.(vii) Unexpired insurance Rs. 240.(viii) Stock was valued at Rs. 14,290 on March 31, 2005.

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400 Accountancy

Solution

Books of Shri R. LalTrading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 11,460 Sales 1,40,370Purchases 80,000 Less Sales Return (4,240) 1,36,130Less Purchase return (2,820) 77,180Carriage inwards 2,310Wages 6,280 Closing stock 14,290Gross profit c/d 53,190

1,50,420 1,50,420

Railway freight on sales 16,940 Gross profit c/d 53,190Rent 2,100

Office expenses 1,340 Add Accrued rent 200 2,300Postage and Telegram 820 Discount 190Printing and Stationery 660Salary and Commission 9,870Add Outstanding salary 570 10,440Rates and Insurance 1,300Less unexpired insurance (240) 1,060Bad debts 1,400Add Further bad debts 570Add New bad debts 3,690 provision 5660Less Old provision (3,240) 2,420 for bad debtsInterest on capital 5,000Depreciation on building 625Depreciation on addition 140to buildingDepreciation on furniture 175Net profit (transferred to 16,060 capital account)

55,680 55,680

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401Financial Statements - II

Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Sundry creditors 18,920 Cash at bank 12,400Outstanding salaries 570 Cash in hand 2,210Capital 1,00,000 Bills receivable 1,240Add Net profit 16,060Add Interest on capital 5,000

1,21,060 Debtors 62,070Less Further bad debts (570)

Less Drawings (17,600) 1,03,460 61,500Less New provision (3,690) 57,810 for bad debtsAccrued rent 200Unexpired insurance 240Building 25,000Less Depreciation (625) 24,375Addition to building 7,000Less Depreciation (140) 6,860Office furniture 3,500Less Depreciation (175) 3,325Closing stock 14,290

1,22,950 1,22,950

Illustration 4

Prepare the trading profit and loss account of M/s Mohit Traders as on 31 March2006 and draw necessary Journal entries and balance sheet as on that date :

Debit Balances Amount Credit Balances AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 24,000 Sales 4,00,000Purchases 1,60,000 Return outwards 2,000Cash in hand 16,000 Capital 1,50,000Cash at bank 32,000 Creditors 64,000Return inwards 4,000 Bills payable 20,000Wages 22,000 Commission received 4,000Fuel and Power 18,000Carriage inwards 6,000Insurance 8,000Buildings 1,00,000Plant 80,000Patents 30,000Salaries 28,000Furniture 12,000Drawings 18,000Rent 2,000Debtors 80,000

6,40,000 6,40,000

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402 Accountancy

Adjustments

Rs.

(a) Salaries outstanding 12,000(b) Wages outstanding 6,000(c) Commission is accrued 2,400(d) Depreciation on building 5% and plant 3%(e) Insurance paid in advance 700(f) Closing stock 12,000

Solution

Books of Mohit TradersJournal

Date Particulars L.F. Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

2005March 31 Salary A/c Dr. 12,000

Wages A/c Dr. 6,000To Salary outstanding A/c 12,000To Wages outstanding A/c 6,000

(Amount of salary and wages outstanding as on March 31, 2006)

March 31 Prepaid Insurance A/c Dr. 1,400To Insurance A/c 1,400

(Insurance paid in advance]

March 31 Commission accrued A/c Dr. 2,400

To Commission A/c 2,400(Commission accrued but not received)

March 31 Depreciation A/c Dr. 7,400To Building A/c 5,000To Plant A/c 2,400

(Depreciation charged on plant and building)

March 31 Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 1,23,700To Capital A/c 1,23,700

(Profit transferred to capital account)

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403Financial Statements - II

Books of Mohit TradersTrading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2006

Dr. Cr.

Expenses /Losses Amount Revenue/Gains Amount Rs. Rs.

Opening stock 24,000 Sales 4,00,000Purchases 1,60,000 Less Returns (4,000) 3,96,000Less returns (2,000) 1,58,000 Closing stock 12,000Wages 22,000Add Outstanding wages 6,000 28,000Fuel and Power 18,000Carriage inwards 6,000Gross profit c/d 1,74,000

4,08,000 4,08,000

Salary 28,000 Gross Profit b/d 1,74,000Add Outstanding salary 12,000 40,000 Commission received(4,000)Insurances 8,000 Add Accrued 2,400 6,400Less Prepaid (700) 7,300 commissionRent 2,000Depreciation on building 5,000

Plants 2,400Net Profit (transferred to capital 1,23,700account)

1,80,400 1,80,400

Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2006

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Creditors 64,000 Cash in hand 16,000Bills payable 20,000 Cash at bank 32,000Capital 1,50.000 Building 95,000Add Net profit 1,23,700 Plant 77,600

2,73,700 Patents 30,000Less Drawings (18,000) 2,55,700 Debtors 80,000Outstanding salaries 12,000 Insurance prepaid 700Outstanding wages 6,000 Commission accrued 2,400

Furniture 12,000Closing stock 12,000

3,57,700 3,57,700

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404 Accountancy

Illustration 5

The following information has been extracted from the trial balance of M/s RandhirTransport Corporation.

Debit balances Amount Credit balances AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 40,000 Capital 2,70,000Rent 2,000 Creditors 50,000Plant and Machinery 1,20,000 Bills payable 50,000Land and Buildings 2,55,000 Loan 1,10,000Power 3,500 Discount 1,500Purchases 75,000 Sales 1,50,000Sales return 2,500 Provision for bad debts 1,000Telegram and Postage 400 General reserves 50,000Wages 4,500Salary 2,500Insurance 3,200Discount 1,000Repair and Renewals 2,000Legal charges 700Trade taxes 1,200Debtors 75,000Investment 65,000Bad debts 2,000Trade expenses 4,500Commission 1,250Travelling expenses 1,230Drawings 20,020

6,82,500 6,82,500

Adjustments

1. Closing stock for the year was Rs. 35,500.2. Depreciation charged on plant and machinery 5% and land and building 6%.3. Interest on drawing @ 6% and Interest on loan @ 5%.4. Interest on investments @ 4%.5. Further bad debts 2,500 and make provision for bad debts on debtors 5%.6. Discount on debtors @ 2%.7. Salary outstanding Rs. 200.8. Wages outstanding Rs. 100.9. Insurance prepaid Rs. 500.

You are required to make trading and profit and loss account and a balance sheet onMarch 31, 2005.

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405Financial Statements - II

Solution

Books of Randhir Transport CorporationTrading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenue/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 40,000 Sales 1,50,000Purchases 75,000 Less Sales return (2,500) 1,47,500Wages 4,500 Closing stock 35,500Add Outstanding wages 100 4,600Power 3,500Gross profit c/d 59,900

1,83,000 1,83,000

Rent 2,000 Gross profit b/d 59,900Telegram and Postage 400 Outstanding interest 2,600

on investmentSalary 2,500 Discount 1,500Add Outstanding salary 200 2,700 Interest on drawings 1,200Insurance 3,200Less Prepaid (500) 2,700Discount 1,000Repair and Renewals 2,000Legal charges 700Trade taxes 1,200Trade expenses 4,500Outstanding interest on loan 5,500Commission 1,250Travelling expenses 1,230Discount on debtors 1,450Depreciation on Plant and 6,000 MachineryDepreciation on Land and 15,300BuildingBad debts 2,000Add Further bad debts 2,500Add New provision 3,553

8,053Less Old provision (1,000) 7,053Net Profit (transferred to 10,217capital account)

65,200 65,200

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406 Accountancy

Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Creditors 50,000 Debtors 75,000Bills payable 50,000 Less Further (2,500)Loan 1,10,000 bad debts 72,500Add Outstanding interest 5,500 1,15,500 Less Discount (1,450)General reserve 50,000 71,050Capital 2,70,000 Less New Provision (3,553) 67,497Add Net Profit 10,217 Investment 65,000

2,80,217 Outstanding interest 2,600on investment

Less Drawings (20,020) Insurance pre-paid 500

2,60,197Less Interest on drawings 1,200 2,58,997 Plant and Machinery 1,14,000Outstanding salary 200 Land and Building 2,39,700Outstanding wages 100 Closing stock 35,500

5,24,797 5,24,797

Illustration 6

From the following balances of M/s Keshav Bros. You are required to prepare trading andprofit and loss account and a balance sheet of March 31, 2005.

Debit balances Amount Credit balances AmountRs. Rs.

Plant and Machinery 1,30,000 Sales 3,00,000Debtors 50,000 Return outwards 2,500Interest 2,000 Creditors 2,50,000Wages 1,200 Bills payable 70,000Salary 2,500 Provision for bad debts 1,550Carriage inwards 500 Capital 2,20,000Carriage outwards 700 Rent received 10,380Return inwards 2,000 Commission received 16,000Factory rent 1,450Office rent 2,300Insurance 780Furniture 22,500Buildings 2,80,000Bills receivable 3,000Cash in hand 22,500Cash at bank 35,000Commission 500Opening stock 60,000Purchases 2,50,000Bad debts 3,500

8,70,430 8,70,430

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407Financial Statements - II

Adjustment

(i) Provision for bad debts @ 5% and further bad debts Rs. 2,000.(ii) Rent received in advance Rs. 6,000.(iii) Prepaid insurance Rs. 200.(iv) Depreciation on furniture @ 5%, plant and machinery @ 6%, building @ 7%.

Solution

Books of Keshav Bros.Trading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenue/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 60,000 Sales 3,00,000Purchases 2,50,000 Less Return (2,000) 2,98,000Less Returns (2,500) 2,47,500 Closing stock 70,000Wages 1,200Carriage inwards 500Factory rent 1,450Gross profit c/d 57,350

3,68,000 3,68,000

Interest 2,000 Gross profit b/d 57,350Salary 2,500 Rent received 10,380Carriage outwards 700 Less Advance rent (6,000) 4,380Office Rent 2,300 Commission received 16,000Insurance 780Less Prepaid insurance (200) 580Depreciation on furniture 1,125Depreciation on Plant and 7,800 MachineryDepreciation on building 19,600Commission 500Bad debts 3,500Add Further bad debts 2,000Add New provision 2,400

7,900Less Old provision (1,550) 6,350Net Profit (transferred to 34,275capital account)

77,730 77,730

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408 Accountancy

Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Liabilities AmountRs. Rs.

Creditors 2,50,000 Cash In hand 22,500Bills payable 70,000 Cash at bank 35,000Advance rent 6,000 Bills receivable 3,000Capital 2,20,000Add Net profit 34,275 2,54,275 Prepaid insurance 200

Debtors 50,000Less Further (2,000) bad debts 48,000Less New provision (2400) 45,600Plant and Machinery 1,22,200Furniture 21,375Buildings 2,60,400Closing stock 70,000

5,80,275 5,80,275

Illustration 7

The following information have been taken from the trial balance of M/s Fair Brothers Ltd.You are required to prepare the trading and profit and loss account and a balance sheet asat March 31, 2006.

Debit Balances Amount Credit balances AmountRs. Rs.

Cash 20,000 Sales 3,61,000Wages 45,050 Loan 12% (1.7.2005) 40,000Return outwards 4,800 Discount received 1,060Bad debts 4,620 Return (Purchase) 390Salaries 16,000 Creditors 60,610Octroi 1,000 Capital 75,000Charity 250Machinery 32,000Debtors (Including a 60,000dishonoured bill of Rs.1,600)Stock 81,600Purchases 2,60,590Repairs 3,350Interest on loan 1,200Sales tax 1,600Insurance 2,000Rent 4,000

5,38,060 5,38,060

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409Financial Statements - II

Adjustments

1. Wages include Rs. 4,000 for erection of new machinery on April 01, 2005.2. Provide 5% depreciation on furniture.3. Salaried unpaid Rs.1,600.4. Closing stock Rs. 81,850.5. Create a provision at 5% on debtors.6. Half the amount of bill is recoverable.7. Rent is paid up to July 30, 2006.8. Insurance unexpired Rs. 600.

Books of Fair Brothers Ltd.Trading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2006

Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenue/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 81,600 Sales 3,61,000Purchases 2,60,590 Less Sales return (4,800) 3,56,200Less Purchases return (390) 2,60,200 Closing stock 81,850Wages 45,050Less Prepaid wages (4,000) 41,050including erection ofmachinesOctroi 1,000Gross profit c/d 54,200

4,38,050 4,38,050

Salaries 16,000 Gross profit b/d 54,200Add Outstanding salary 1,600 17,600 Discount received 1,060

Repairs 3,350Bad debts 4,620Add Further bad debts 800Add New provision 2,960 8,380Interest on loan 1,200Add Outstanding interest 2,400 3,600Sales tax 1,600Insurance 2,000Less Prepaid insurance (600) 1,400Charity 250Rent 4,000Less Prepaid rent 1,000 3,000Depreciation on machinery 1,800Net profit (transferred to 14,280capital account)

55,260 55,260

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410 Accountancy

Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2006

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Creditors 60,610 Cash 20,000Outstanding salaries 1,600 Debtors 60,000Loan 40,000 Less Bad debts (800)Outstanding interest 2,400 Less Provision 2,960 56,240Capital 75,000 Prepaid rent 1,000Add Net profit 14,280 89,280 Unexpired insurance 600

Machinery 32,000Add Erection 4,000Wages 36,000Less Depreciation (1,800) 34,200Closing stock 81,850

1,93,890 1,93,890

Illustration 8From the following balance extracted from the books of of M/s Hariharan Brother, you arerequire to prepare the trading and profit and loss account and a balance sheet as on December31, 2005.

Debit balance Amount Credit balance Amount Rs. Rs.

Opening stock 16,000 Capital 1,00,000Purchases 40,000 Sales 1,60,000Return inwards 3,000 Return outwards 800Carriage inwards 2,400 Apprenticeship premium 3,000Carriage outwards 5,000 Bills payable 5,000Wages 6,600 Creditors 31,600Salaries 11,000Rent 2,200Freight and Dock 4,800Fire Insurance premium 1,800Bad debts 4,200Discount 1,000Printing and Stationery 500Rates and Taxes 700Travelling expenses 300Trade expenses 400Business premises 1,10,000Furniture 5,000Bills receivable 7,000Debtors 40,000Machine 9,000

Loan 10,000Investment 6,000Cash in hand 500Cash at bank 7,000Proprietor’s withdrawals 6,000

3,00,400 3,00,400

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411Financial Statements - II

Adjustments1. Closing stock Rs. 14,000.2. Wages outstanding Rs. 600, Salaries Outstanding Rs. 1,000, Rent outstanding Rs. 200.3. Fire Insurance premium includes Rs. 1,200 paid in July 01, 2005 to run for one year

from July 01, 2005 to June 30, 2006.4. Apprenticeship Premium is for three years paid in advance on January 01, 2005.5. Stationery bill for Rs. 60 remain unpaid.6. Depreciation on Premises @ 5%, furniture @ 10%, Machinery @ 10%.7. Interest on loan given accrued for one year @ 7%.8. Interest on investment @ 5% for half year to December 31, 2005 has accrued.9. Interest on capital to be allowed at 5% for one year.

10. Interest on drawings to be charged to him ascertained for the year Rs. 160.

Solution

Books of Hariharan Bros.Trading and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended December 31, 2005

Dr. Cr.Expenses/Losses Amount Revenue/Gains Amount

Rs. Rs.

Opening stock 16,000 Sales 1,60,000Purchases 40,000 Less Sales return (3,000) 1,57,000Less purchases return (800) 39,200 Closing stock 14,000Wages 6,600Add Outstanding Wages 600 7,200Carriage inwards 2,400Freight and Dock 4,800Gross profit c/d 1,01,400

1,71,000 1,71,000Salaries 11,000 Gross profit b/d 1,01,400Add Outstanding salary 1,000 12,000 Apprenticeship 3,000Carriage outwords 5,000 premiumRates and Taxes 700 Less Advance premium (2,000) 1,000Printing and Stationery 500 Accrued interest on loan 700Add Outstanding bill 60 560 Interest on drawings 160Trade expenses 400 Accrued interest on 150Travelling expenses 300 investmentFire insurance 1,800Less Prepaid insurance (600) 1,200Bad debts 4,200Rent 2,200Add Outstanding rent 200 2,400Interest on capital 5,000Depreciation on Premises 5,500Depreciation on furniture 500Depreciation on machinery 900Discount 1,000Net profit (transferred to 63,750 capital account)

1,03,410 1,03,410

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Balance Sheet as at December 31, 2005Liabilities Amount Assets Amount

Rs. Rs.Capital 1,00,000 Premises 1,10,000Add Interest on capital 5,000 Less Depreciation (5,500) 1,04,500Add Net profit 63,750

1,68,750 Furniture 4,500Less drawings (6,000)

1,62,750 Machinery 8,100Less Interest on drawings (160) 1,62,590Creditors 31,600 Debtors 40,000Bills payable 5,000 Bills receivable 7,000Outstanding wages 600 Cash in hand 500Outstanding salaries 1,000 Cash at bank 7,000Outstanding rent 200 Loan 10,000Outstanding stationery 60 Add accrued interest 700 10,700Apprenticeship premium (advance) 2,000 Investments 6,000

Add accrued interest 150 6,150Pre-paid insurance 600Closing stock 14,000

2,03,050 2,03,050

Illustration 9The following balances have been extracted from the trial balance of M/s Kolkata Ltd. Youare required to prepare the trading and profit and loss account on dated March 31, 2006.Also prepare balance sheet on that date.

Debit balances Amount Credit balances AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 6,000 Capital 20,000Furniture 1,200 Sales 41,300Drawings 2,800 Purchases return 4,000Cash in hand 3,000 Bank overdraft 4,000Purchases 24,000 Bad debts provision 400Sales return 2,000 Creditors 5,000Establishment expenses 4,400 Commission 100Bad debts 1,000 Bills payable 5,000Debtors 10,000 Apprenticeship premium 500Carriage 1,000Bills receivable 6,000Bank deposits 8,000Wages 1,000Trade expenses 500Bank charges 400General expenses 1,000Salaries 2,000Insurance 1,500Postage and Telegram 500Rent, Rates and Taxes 2,000Coal, Gas, Water 2,000

80,300 80,300

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Adjustments

1. Outstanding salaries Rs. 100. Rent and taxes Rs. 200, Wages Rs. 100.2. Unexpired insurance Rs. 500.3. Commission is received in advances Rs. 50.4. Interest Rs. 500 is to be received on bank deposits.5. Interest on bank overdraft Rs. 750.6. Depreciation on furniture @ 10%.7. Closing stock Rs. 9,000.8. Further bad debts Rs. 200 New provision @ 5% on debtors.9. Apprenticeship premium received in advance Rs. 100.

10. Interest on drawings @ 6%.

SolutionBooks of Kolkata Ltd.

Trading and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended as at March 31, 2006Dr. Cr.

Expenses /Losses Amount Revenue/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 6,000 Sales 41300Purchases 24,000 Less sales return (2,000) 39,300Less purchases return (4,000) 20,000 Closing stock 9,000Wages 1,000Add Outstanding wages 100 1,100Coal, Gas, Water 2,000Gross profit c/d 19,200

48,300 48,300

Establishment expenses 4,400 Gross profit b/d 19,200Carriage 1,000 Commission 100Trade expenses 500 Less Advance commission(50) 50Bank charges 400 Accrued interest on 500

depositsGeneral expenses 1,000 Apprenticeship premium 500Salaries 2,000 Less Advance received 100 400Add Outstanding salary 100 2,100 Interest on drawings 168Insurance 1,500Less Prepaid insurance (500) 1,000Postage and Telegram 500Rent, rates and Taxes 2,200Interest on bank overdraft 750Bad debts 1,000Add Further bad debts 200Add New provision 490

1,690Less Old provision (400) 1,290Depreciation on furniture 120Net profit (transferred to 5,058capital account)

20,318 20,318

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Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2006

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Capital 2,00,00 Insurance prepaid 500Net profit 5,058 Bank deposits 8,000

25,058Less Drawings (2,800) Add outstanding interest 500 8,500

22,258Less Interest on drawings (168) 22,090 Furniture 1,080Creditors 5,000 Cash in hand 3,000Commission received in advance 50 Debtors 10,000Apprenticeship premium 100 Less Further (200)

bad debts 9,800Outstanding wages 100 Less Provision for (490) 9,310

bad debtsOutstanding salaries 100 Bills receivable 6,000Outstanding rent, 200rates, taxes Closing stock 9,000Bank overdraft 4,000Add Outstanding interest 750 4,750Bills payable 5,000

37,390 37,390

Illustration 10

Prepare the trading and profit and loss account of M/s Roni Plastic Ltd. from the followingtrial balance and a balance sheet as at March 31, 2006.

Debit balances Amount Credit balances AmountRs. Rs.

Drawings 6,000 Creditors 16,802Sundry debtors 38,200 Capital 60,000Carriage outwards 2,808 Loan on mortgage 17,000Establishment expenses 16,194 Bad debts provision 1,420Interest on loan 400 Sales 2,22,486Cash in hand 6,100 Purchases return 2,692Stock 11,678 Discount 880Motor car 18,000 Bills payable 5,428Cash at bank 9,110 Rent received 500Land and Buildings 24,000Bad debts 1,250Purchases 1,34,916Sales return 15,642Advertisement 4,528Carriage inward 7,858Rates, taxes, insurance 7,782General expenses 8,978Bills receivable 13,764

3,27,208 3,27,208

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Adjustments1. Depreciation on land and building at @ 5% and Motor vehicle at @ 15%.2. Interest on loan is @ 5% taken on April 01, 2005.3. Goods costing Rs1,200 were sent to a customer on sale on return basis for Rs. 1,400

on March 30, 2006 and has been recorded in the books as actual sales.4. Salaries amounting to Rs. 1,400 and Rates amounting to Rs. 800 are due.5. The bad debts provision is to be brought up to @ 5% on sundry debtors.6. Closing stock was Rs. 13,700.7. Goods costing Rs. 1,000 were taken away by the proprietor for his personal use but

not entry has been made in the books of account.8. Insurance pre-paid Rs. 350.9. Provide the manager’s commission at @ 5% on Net profit after charging such commission.

SolutionBooks of Roni’s Plastic Ltd.

Trading and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended March 31, 2006Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenue/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 11,678 Sales 2,22,486Purchases 1,34,916 Less Sales 15,642

return 2,06,844Less Purchases return 2,692 Less Return basis (1,400) 2,05,444

1,32,224Less Goods withdrawn (1,000) 1,31,224 Closing stock 13,700Carriage inwards 7,858Gross profit c/d 68,384

2,19,144 2,19,144Outstanding salaries 1,400 Gross profit b/d 68,384Carriage outwards 2,808 Discount 880Establishment expenses 16,194 Rent 500Bad debts 1,250Add New provision 1,840

3,090Less Old provision (1,420) 1,670Rates and Taxes 7,782Less Prepaid (350)

7,432Add Outstanding 800 8,232Advertisement 4,528Interest on loan 400Add Outstanding Interest 450 850General expenses 8,978Depreciation on : Land and Building 1,200 Motor car 2,700 3,900Manager commission 1,010Net profit (transferred to 20,194capital account) 69,764 69,764

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Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2006

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Capital 60,000 Cash in hand 6,100Add Net profit 20,194

80,194 Cash at bank 9,110Less Drawings (6,000)

(74,194) Bills receivable 13,764Less Goods withdrawn 1,000 73,194 Debtors 38,200loan 17,000 Less sales (1,400)

return basis 36,800Add interest 450 17,450 Less New provisions (1,840) 34,960Bills payable 5,428 Land and Building 24,000

Less Depreciation (1,200) 22,800Creditors 16,802 Motor car 18,000

Less Depreciation (2,700) 15,300Outstanding Salaries 1,400 Prepaid insurance 350Outstanding Rates Taxes 800 Closing stock 13,700Manager commission 1,010

1,16,084 1,16,084

10.13 Methods of Presenting the Financial Statements

The financial statements, i.e. trading and profit and loss account and balancesheet can be presented in two ways:

(1) Horizontal form(2) Vertical form

Under horizontal form of presentation, items are shown side by side in thetrading and profit and loss account and also in the balance sheet as we aredoing so far. This format is rather technical in nature and is not easilycomprehensible for many users. Hence, now-a-days, most firms present themin a simpler and more intelligible form called a narrative style or verticalpresentation. Under vertical presentation, the final accounts are prepared ina form of statement with different items being shown on below the other in apurposeful sequence. Under vertical presentation, the trading and profit andloss account will appear as shown in figure 10.3.

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Income Statement for the period ended ......

Particulars Amount AmountRs.

Sales (Gross) ...Less Returns ... ...

Net salesCost of goods sold ...

Opening stock ...Purchases ... ...Less Returns ... ... ...Carriage Inwards ...Wages ...Cost of goods available for sale ...

Less Closing stock ...Gross Profit ...Operaing Expenses(a) Selling expenses

Advertising ...Discount ...Allowances ...Bad debts and Provisions ...Carriage outwards ...Total selling expenses ...

(b) General and Administration expenses ...Salaries ...Rent and Rates ...Insurance ...Depreciation ...Postage ...Repairs ...General expenses ... ...Total operating expenses ... ...Net Income from operations (Operating profit) ...

Other Income (Non-operating gains)Interest earned ...Commission earned ...Profit on sale of fixed assets ... ...

Less Deductions (Non-operating expenses)Interest paid ...Loss by fire ...Net non-operating gains ... ...Net income (Net profit) ...

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Under the vertical presentation, the Balance Sheet will appear as follows :

Balance Sheet as on ........

Particulars Amount AmountRs.

Current AssetsCash in hand ...Cash at bank ...Bills receivable ...Accrued income ...Debtors ...Stock ...Prepaid expenses ...Total current assets ...

Less Current LiabilitiesBank overdraftOutstanding expenses ...Bills payable ...Trade creditors ...Income received in advance ...Total current liabilities ... ...Net working capital(Current assets and Current liabilities) ...

Fixed AssetsFurniture and FixturesPatents ...Plants and Machhinery ...Building ...Land ...Goodwill ...Total fixed assets ...Total assets (After paying current liabilities) ...

Capital Employed ...Long-term liabilitiesLoanMortgage ...Total long-term liabilities ...Net assets (being the difference betweentotal assets and long-term liabilities) ...

Capital (Proprietor)Capital in the begining ...

Add Capital introduced during the current year ...Interest on capital, salary, etc. ...Profit for the current year ...

Less Drawings during the current year ...Interest on drawing ...Loss for the current year ...Total capital of the proprietor at the end of the year ...

Fig. 10.3 : Showing vertical presentation of financial statements

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Illustration 11

From the following balances extracted from the books of M/s Rohit Traders, prepare theprofit and loss account and balance sheet in the vertical form as on March 31, 2006.

Debit Balances Amount Credit Balances AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 11,520 Capital 1,40,000Purchases 81,000 Return outwards 400Debtors 28,000 Creditors 12,600Discounts 2,000 Commission 5,000Carriage outwards 6,000Drawings 10,500 Sales 1,98,000Insurance 1,200 Long-terms loan 12,000Salaries 30,000Investments 20,000Motor car 15,000Plants 40,000Land and Building 80,000Carriage inwards 4,080Legal charges 3,200Audit fee 3,200Fuel and Power 9,460Wages 10,960Return inwards 1,360Cash at bank 5,200Cash in hand 2,000Interest 2,000Bad debts 1,320

3,68,000 3,68,000

Adjustments

Closing stock Rs. 4,000Depreciation on Plant and Buildings @ 10%.

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Solution

Books of Rohit TradersProfit and Loss Account

for the year ended March 31, 2006

Particulars Amount AmountRs. Rs.

A Net Sales 1,98,000Less Sales return [1,360] 1,96,640

B Cost of goods soldOpening stock 11,520Purchase 81,000

Less Purchases return (400) 80,600Carriage Inwards 4,080Fuel and Power 9,460Wages 10,960Cost of goods available for sale 1,16,620

Less Closing stock (4,000) 1,12,620

C Gross Profit {A-B} 84,020

D Operating expenses(a) Administrative Expenses

Insurance 1,200Salaries 30,000Legal charges 3,200Audit fee 3,200Depreciation (Rs. 4,000 + Rs. 8,000) 12,000

49,600

(b) Selling and Distribution ExpensesCarriage outwards 6,000Discount 2,000Bad debts 1,320Total operating expenses [a+b] 58,920

E Net operating profit [C-D] 25,100

F Non-operating incomesCommission earned 5,000Less Interest paid (2,000) 3,000

G Net profit transferred to capital account 28,100

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Balance sheet of Rohit Traders as at March 31,2006

Particulars Amount AmountRs. Rs.

Sources of firm’s fundsa Proprietors fund

Opening capital 1,40,000Add Net profit 28,100

1,68100Less Drawings (10,500) 1,57,600

b Long -term loan 12,000

1,69,600Application of Funds

(i) Cash In hand 2,000Cash at bank 5,200Closing stock 4,000Debtors 28,000 39,200

(ii) Less Creditors 12,600 26,600(a) Investments 20,000(b) Fixed assets :

Motor car 15,000Plants 36,000Land and Buildings 72,000 1,23,000

1,69,600

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Outstanding /Accrued expenses • Prepaid/Unexpired expenses• Accrued Incomes • Income received in advance• Depreciation • Bad Debts• Provision for doubtful debts • Provision for discount on debtors• Managers commission • Interest on capital• Horizontal form • Vertical form

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1 Need for adjustments : For the preparation of financial statements, it isnecessary that all the adjustments arising out of the accrual basis of accountingare made at the end of the accounting period. Another important considerationin the preparation of final accounts with adjustments, is the distinctionbetween capital and revenue items. Entries which are recorded to give effect tothese adjustments are known as adjusting entries.

2 Outstanding expenses : At the end of the accounting period sometimes a businessenterprises is left with some unpaid expenses due to one reason or another.Such expenses are termed as outstanding expenses.

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3. Prepaid expenses : At the end of the accounting year, it is found that thebenefits of some expenses have not been fully received; a portion of totalbenefits would be received in the next accounting year. That portion of theexpense, the benefit of which will be received during the next accountingperiod is known as ‘prepaid expenses’.

4. Accrued Income : These are certain items is received by a business enterprisebut the whole amount of it does not belong to the next period. Such portion ofincome which belongs to the next accounting period is income received in advanceand is known as “unearned income”.

5. Depreciation : Depreciation is the decline in the value of an asset an account ofwear and tear or passage of time or with. It actually amounts to writing off aportion of the cost of an asset which has been used in the business for thepurpose of earning profits. In the balance sheet, the asset is shown at lossminus the amount of depreciation.

6 Provisions for bad and doubtful debts : It is a normal feature of businessoperations that some debts prove irrecoverable which means that the amountto the realised from them becomes had to view of this. An attempt is made tobring in a certain element of certainty in the amount in respect of bad debtscharged every year against incomes.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. Why is it necessary to record the adjusting entries in the preparation of finalaccounts?

2. What is meant by closing stock? Show its treatment in final accounts?3. State the meaning of:

(a) Outstanding expenses(b) Prepaid expenses(c) Income received in advance(d) Accrued income

4. Give the Performa of income statement and balance in vertical form.5. Why is it necessary to create a provision for doubtful debts at the time of

preparation of final accounts?6. What adjusting entries would you record for the following :

(a) Depreciation(b) Discount on debtors(c) Interest on capital(d) Manager’s commission

7. What is meant by provision for discount on debtors?8. Give the journal entries for the following adjustments :

(a) Outstanding salary Rs. 3,500.(b) Rent unpaid for one month at Rs. 6,000 per annum.(c) Insurance prepaid for a quarter at Rs. 16,000 per annum.(d) Purchase of furniture costing Rs. 7,000 entered in the purchases book.

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Long Answers

1. What are adjusting entries? Why are they necessary for preparing finalaccounts?

2. What is meant by provision for doubtful debts? How are the relevant accountsprepared and what journal entries are recorded in final accounts? How is theamount for provision for doubtful debts calculated?

3. Show the treatment of prepaid expenses depreciation, closing stock at thetime of preparation of final accounts when:(a) When given inside the trial balance?(b) When given outside the trial balance?

Numerical Questions

1. Prepare a trading and profit and loss account for the year ending December31, 2005. from the balances extracted of M/s Rahul Sons. Also prepare abalance sheet at the end of the year.

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Stock 50,000 Sales 1,80,000Wages 3,000 Purchases return 2,000Salary 8,000 Discount received 500Purchases 1,75,000 Provision for bad debts 2,500Sales return 3,000 Capital 3,00,000Sundry Debtors 82,000 Bills payable 22,000Discount allowed 1,000 Commission received 4,000Insurance 3,200 Rent 6,000Rent Rates and Taxes 4,300 Loan 34,800Fixtures and fittings 20,000Trade expenses 1,500Bad debts 2,000Drawings 32,000Repair and renewals 1,600Travelling expenses 4,200Postage 300Telegram expenses 200Legal fees 500Bills receivable 50,000Building 1,10,000

5,51,800 5,51,800

Adjustments

1. Commission received in advance Rs.1,000.2. Rent receivable Rs. 2,000.3. Salary outstanding Rs. 1,000 and insurance prepaid Rs. 800.

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4. Further bad debts Rs. 1,000 and provision for bad debts @ 5% on debtorsand discount on debtors @ 2%.

5. Closing stock Rs. 32,000.6. Depreciation on building @ 6% p.a.

(Ans : Gross loss Rs.17,000 ; Net loss Rs.43,189 ; Total balance sheetRs.2,83,611)

2. Prepare a trading and profit and loss account of M/s Green Club Ltd. for theyear ending December 31, 2005. from the following figures taken from histrial balance :

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 35,000 Sales 2,50,000Purchases 1,25,000 Purchase return 6,000Return inwards 25,000 Creditors 10,000Postage and Telegram 600 Bills payable 20,000Salary 12,300 Discount 1,000Wages 3,000 Provision for bad debts 4,500Rent and Rates 1,000 Interest received 5,400Packing and Transport 500 Capital 75,000General expense 400Insurance 4,000Debtors 50,000Cash in hand 20,000Cash at bank 40,000Machinery 20,000Lighting and Heating 5,000Discount 3,500Bad debts 3,500Investment 23,100

3,71,900 3,71,900

Adjustments

1. Depreciation charged on machinery @ 5% p.a.2. Further bad debts Rs.1,500, discount on debtors @ 5% and make a

provision on debtors @ 6%.3. Wages prepaid Rs.1,000.4. Interest on investment @ 5% p.a.5. Closing stock 10,000.

(Ans. : Gross Profit Rs.79.000 ; Net Profit Rs.52,565 ; Total Balance SheetRs.1,57,565).

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3 The following balances has been extracted from the trial of M/s RunwayShine Ltd. Prepare a trading and profit and loss account and a balance sheetas on December 31, 2005.

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 1,50,000 Sales 2,50,000Opening stock 50,000 Return outwards 4,500Return inwards 2,000 Interest received 3,500Carriage inwards 4,500 Discount received 400Cash in hand 77,800 Creditors 1,25,000Cash at bank 60,800 Bill payable 6,040Wages 2,400 Capital 1,00,000Printing and Stationery 4,500Discount 400Bad debts 1,500Insurance 2,500Investment 32,000Debtors 53,000Bills receivable 20,000Postage and Telegraph 400Commission 200Interest 1,000Repair 440Lighting Charges 500Telephone charges 100Carriage outward 400Motor car 25,000

4,89,440 4,89,440

Adjustments

1. Further bad debts Rs. 1,000. Discount on debtors Rs. 500 and make aprovision on debtors @ 5%.

2. Interest received on investment @ 5%.3. Wages and interest outstanding Rs. 100 and Rs. 200 respectely.4. Depreciation charged on motor car @ 5% p.a.5. Closing Stock Rs. 32,500.

(Ans. : Gross profit Rs. 78,000 ; Net profit Rs. 66,060, Total balance sheetRs. 2,97,400)

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4. The following balances have been extracted from the trial of M/s HaryanaChemical Ltd. You are required to prepare a trading and profit and loss accountand balance sheet as on December 31, 2005 from the given information.

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 50,000 Sales 3,50,000Purchases 1,25,500 Purchases return 2,500Sales return 2,000 Creditors 25,000Cash in hand 21,200 Rent 5,000Cash at bank 12,000 Interest 2,000Carriage 100 Bills payable 1,71,700Free hold land 3,20,000 Capital 3,00,000Patents 1,20,000General Expenses 2,000Sundry Debtors 32,500Building 86,000Machinery 34,500Insurance 12,400Drawings 10,000Motor vehicle 10,500Bad debts 2,000Light and Water 1,200Trade expenses 2,000Power 3,900Salary and Wages 5,400Loan a 15% (01.09.2005) 3,000

8,56,200 8,56,200

Adjustments

1. Closing stock was valued at the end of the year Rs. 40,000.2. Salary amounting Rs. 500 and trade expense Rs. 300 are due.3. Depreciation charged on building and machinery are @ 4% and @ 5%

respectively.4. Make a provision of @ 5% on sundry debtors.

(Ans. : Gross profit Rs. 2,11,000 ; Net profit Rs.1,85,560 ; Total balancesheet Rs.6,73,060)

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5. From the following information prepare trading and profit and loss accountof M/s Indian sports house for the year ending December 31, 2005.

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Drawings 20,000 Capital 2,00,000Sundry debtors 80,000 Return outwards 2,000Bad debts 1,000 Bank overdraft 12,000Trade Expenses 2,400 Provision for bad debts 4,000Printing and Stationery 2,000 Sundry creditors 60,000Rent Rates and Taxes 5,000 Bills payable 15,400Feright 4,000 Sales 2,76,000Return inwards 7,000Opening stock 25,000Purchases 1,80,000Furniture and Fixture 20,000Plant and Machinery 1,00,000Bills receivable 14,000Wages 10,000Cash in hand 6,000Discount allowed 2,000Investments 40,000Motor car 51,000

5,69,400 5,69,400

Adjustments1. Closing stock was Rs.45,000.2. Provision for bad debts is to be maintained @ 2% on debtors.3. Depreciation charged on : furniture and fixture @ 5%, plant and

Machinery @ 6% and motor car @ 10%.4. A Machine of Rs.30,000 was purchased on July 01, 2005.5. The manager is entitle to a commission of @ 10% of the net profit after

charging such commission.(Ans. : Gross profit Rs.1,01,000 ; Net profit Rs.68,909 ; Total balance sheet

Rs. 3,43,200 ; Manager’s commission Rs.6,891)

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6. Prepare the trading and profit and loss account and a balance sheet of M/sShine Ltd. from the following particulars.

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Sundry debtors 1,00,000 Bills payable 85,550Bad debts 3,000 Sundry creditors 25,000Trade expenses 2,500 Provision for bad debts 1,500Printing and Stationary 5,000 Return outwards 4,500Rent, Rates and Taxes 3,450 Capital 2,50,000Freight 2,250 Discount received 3,500Sales return 6,000 Interest received 11,260Motor car 25,000 Sales 1,00,000Opening stock 75,550Furniture and Fixture 15,500Purchases 75,000Drawings 13,560Investments 65,500Cash in hand 36,000Cash in bank 53,000

4,81,310 4,81,310

Adjustments

1. Closing stock was valued Rs. 35,000.2. Depreciation charged on furniture and fixture @ 5%.3. Further bad debts Rs. 1,000. Make a provision for bad debts @ 5% on

sundry debtors.4. Depreciation charged on motor car @ 10%.5. Interest on drawing @ 6%.6. Rent, rates and taxes was outstanding Rs.200.7. Discount on debtors 2%.

(Ans. : Gross loss Rs,17,050 ; Net loss Rs.27,344 ; Total balance sheetRs. 3,19,032).

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7. Following balances have been extracted from the trial balance of M/s KeshavElectronics Ltd. You are required to prepare the trading and profit and lossaccount and a balance sheet as on December 31, 2005.

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 2,26,000 Sales 6,80,000Purchases 4,40,000 Return outwards 15,000Drawings 75,000 Creditors 50,000Buildings 1,00,000 Bills payable 63,700Motor van 30,000 Interest receivced 20,000Freight inwards 3,400 Capital 3,50,000Sales return 10,000Trade expense 3,300Heat and Power 8,000Salary and Wages 5,000Legal expense 3,000Postage and Telegram 1,000Bad debts 6,500Cash in hand 79,000Cash at bank 98,000Sundry debtors 25,000Investments 40,000Insurance 3,500Machinery 22,000

11,78,700 11,78,700

The following additional information is available :

1. Stock on December 31, 2005 was Rs. 30,000.2. Depreciation is to be charged on building at 5% and motor van at 10%.3. Provision for doubtful debts is to be maintained at 5% on Sundry

Debtors.4. Unexpired insurance was Rs. 600.5. The Manager is entitled to a commissiion @ 5% on net profit before

charging such commission.

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430 Accountancy

(Ans. : Gross profit Rs,37,600 ; Net profit Rs.25,381 ; Total balance sheetRs.4,15,350 ; Manager’s commission Rs.1,269)

8. From the following balances extracted from the books of Raga Ltd. preparea trading and profit and loss account for the year ended December 31, 2005and a balance sheet as on that date.

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Drawings 20,000 Sales 2,20,000Land and Buildings 12,000 Capital 1,01,110Plant and Machinery 40,000 Discount 1,260Carriage inwards 100 Apprentice premium 5,230Wages 500 Bills payable 1,28,870Salary 2,000 Purchases return 10,000Sales return 200Bank charges 200Coal, Gas and Water 1,200purchases 1,50,000Trade Expenses 3,800Stock (Opening) 76,800Cash at bank 50,000Rates and Taxes 870Bills receivable 24,500Sundry debtors 54,300Cash in hand 30,000

4,66,470 4,66,470

The additional information is as under :1. Closing stock was valued at the end of the year Rs, 20,000.2. Depreciation on plant and machinery charged at 5% and land and

building at 10%.3. Discount on debtors at 3%.4. Make a provision at 5% on debtors for bad debts.5. Salary outstanding was Rs.100 and Wages prepaid was Rs. 40.6. The manager is entitled a commission of 5% on net profit after charging

such commission.

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431Financial Statements - II

(Ans. : Gross profit Rs,21,240 ; Net profit Rs.12,664 ; Total balance sheetRs.2,23,377 ; Manager’s commission Rs.633)

9. From the following balances of M/s Jyoti Exports, prepare trading andprofit and loss account for the year ended March 31, 2006 and balancesheet as on this date.

Account Title Debit Account Title CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Sundry debtors 9,600 Sundry creditors 2,500Opening stock 22,800 Sales 72,670Purchases 34,800 Purchases returns 2,430Carriage inwards 450 Bills payable 15,600Wages 1,770 Capital 42,000Office rent 820Insurance 1,440Factory rent 390Cleaning charges 940Salary 1,590Building 24,000Plant and Machinery 3,600Cash in hand 2,160Gas and Water 240Octroi 60Furniture 20,540Patents 10,000

1,35,200 1,35,200

Closing stock Rs.10,000.

1. To provision for bad debts is to be maintained at 5 per cent on sundry debtors.2. Wages amounting to Rs.500 and salary amounting to Rs. 350 are outstanding.3. Factory rent prepaid Rs. 100.4. Depreciation charged on Plant and Machinery @ 5% and Building @ 10%.

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432 Accountancy

5. Outstanding insurance Rs.100.

(Ans : Gross profit Rs.23,250 ; Net profit Rs.16,370 ; Total balance Sheet 63,530)10. The following balances have been extracted from the books of M/s Green

House for the year ended December 31, 2005, prepare trading and profit andloss account and balance sheet as on this date.

Account Title Amount Account Title AmountRs. Rs.

Purchases 80,000 Capital 2,10,000Bank balance 11,000 Bills payable 6,500Wages 34,000 Sales 2,00,000Debtors 70,300 Creditors 50,000Cash in hand 1,200 Return outwards 4,000Legal expenses 4,000Building 60,000Machinery 120,000Bills receivable 7,000Office expenses 3,000Opening stock 45,000Gas and fuel 2,700Freight and Carriage 3,500Factory lighting 5,000Office furniture 5,000Patent right 18,800

4,70,500 4,70,500

adjustments :

(a) Machinery is depreciated at 10% and buildings depreciated at 6%.(b) Interest on capital @ 4%.(c) Outstanding wages Rs. 50.(d) Closing stock Rs.50,000.

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433Financial Statements - II

(Ans : Gross profit Rs.83,750 ; Net Profit Rs.52,750 ; Total balance sheetRs.3,19,250).11. From the following balances extracted from the book of M/s Manju Chawla

on March 31, 2005. You are requested to prepare the trading and profit andloss account and a balance sheet as on this date.

Account Title Amount AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 10,000Purchases and Sales 40,000 80,000Returns 200 600Wages 6,000Dock and cleaning charges 4,000Lighting 500Misc. Income 6,000Rent 2,000Capital 40,000Drawings 2,000Debtors and Creditors 6,000 7,000Cash 3,000Investment 6,000Patent 4,000Land and Machinery 43,000Donations and Charity 600Sales tax collected 1,000Furniture 11,300

1,36,600 1,36,600

Closing stock was Rs.2,000.

(a) Interest on drawings @ 7% and interest on capital @ 5%.(b) Land and Machinery is depreciated at 5%.(c) Interest on investment @ 6%.(d) Unexpired rent Rs.100.(e) Charge 5% depreciation on furniture.

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434 Accountancy

(Ans. : Gross profit Rs.30,900 ; Net profit Rs.26,185 ; Total balance sheetRs.71,185).

12. The following balances were extracted from the books of M/s PanchsheelGarments on December 31, 2005.

Account Title Debit Account Title CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Opening stock 16,000 Sales 1,12,000Purchases 67,600 Return outwards 3,200Return Inwards 4,600 Discount 1,400Carriage inwards 1,400 Bank overdraft 10,000General expenses 2,400 Commission 1,800Insurance 4,000 Creditors 16,000Scooter expenses 200 Capital 50,000Salary 8,800Cash in hand 4,000Scooter 8,000Furniture 5,200Buildings 65,000Debtors 6,000Wages 1,200

1,94,400 1,94,400

Prepare the trading and profit and loss account for the year ended December, 31and a balance sheet as on that date.

(a) Unexpired insurance Rs 1,000.(b) Salary due but not paid Rs. 1800.(c) Wages outstanding Rs. 200.(d) Interest on capital 5%.(e) Scooter is depreciated @ 5%.(f) Furniture is depreciated Rs.@ 10%.

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435Financial Statements - II

(Ans. : Gross profit Rs.39,200 ; Net profit Rs.22,780 ; Total balance sheetRs.98,780}.

13. Prepare the trading and profit and loss account and balance sheet of M/sControl Device India on December 31, 2006 from the following balance ason that date.

Account Title Debit CreditAmount Amount

Rs. Rs.

Drawings and Capital 19,530 67,500Purchase and Sales 45,000 1,12,500Salary and Commission 25,470 1,575Carriage 2,700Plant and Machinery 27,000Furniture 6,750Opening stock 42,300Insurnace premium 2,700Interest 7,425Bank overdraft 24,660Rent and Taxes 2,160Wages 11,215Returns 2,385 1,440Carriage outwards 1,485Debtors and Creditors 36,000 58,500General expenses 6,975Octroi 530Investment 41,400

2,73,600 2,73,600

Closing stock was valued Rs. 20,000.

(a) Interest on capital @ 10%.(b) Interest on drawings @ 5%.(c) Wages outstanding Rs.50.(d) Outstanding salary Rs.20.(e) Provide a depreciation @ 5% on plant and machinery.

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436 Accountancy

(f) Make a 5% provision on debtors.(Ans. : Gross profit Rs.29,760 ; Net loss Rs.8,973 ; Total balance sheet Rs.1,28,000)

14. The following balances apperead in the trial balance of M/s Kapil Tradersas on March 31, 2006

Rs.Sundry debtors 30,500Bad debts 500Provision for bad debts 2,000

The partners of the firm agreed to records the following adjustments in thebooks of the Firm: Further bad debts Rs.300. Maintain provision for baddebts 10%. Show the following adjustments in the bad debts account,provision account, debtors account, profit and loss account and balancesheet.

(Ans ; Dr. Profit and Loss account Rs.1,820)

15. Prepare the bad debts account, provision for account, profit and loss accountand balance sheet from the following information as on December 31, 2005

Rs.Debtors 80,000Bad debts 2,000Provision for bad debts 5,000

Adjustments :

Bad debts Rs.500 Provision on debtors @ 3%.(Ans : Credit Profit and Loss account Rs.115)

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

1. (c), 2. (d), 3. (b), 4. (a), 5. (d)

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Accounts from Incomplete Records 11

We have so far studied accounting records offirms, which follow the double entry system of

book keeping. This gives us an impression that allbusiness units follow this system. However, in practice,all firms do not maintain accounting records strictly asper the double entry system. Many small size enterpriseskeep incomplete records of their transactions. But, theyalso have to ascertain the profit or loss for the yearand the financial position of the firm as at the end ofthe year. This chapter deals with the ascertainment ofprofit or loss and financial position of the firm that havenot been maintaining records as per double entry book-keeping or whose records are otherwise incomplete.

11.1 Meaning of Incomplete Records

Accounting records, which are not strictly keptaccording to double entry system are known asincomplete records. Many authors describe it as singleentry system. However, single entry system is amisnomer because there is no such system ofmaintaining accounting records. It is also not a ‘shortcut’ method as an alternative to double entry system.It is rather a mechanism of maintaining recordswhereby some transactions are recorded with properdebits and credits while in case of others, either onesided or no entry is made. Normally, under this systemrecords of cash and personal accounts of debtors andcreditors are properly maintained, while theinformation relating to assets, liabilities, expensesand revenues is partially recorded. Hence, these areusually referred as incomplete records.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying thischapter, you will be ableto :• state the meaning and

features of incompleterecords;

• calculate profit or lossusing the statement ofaffairs method;

• distinguish betweenbalance sheet andstatement of affairs;

• prepare trading andprofit and loss accountand balance sheet fromincomplete records;and

• detect the missingfigures/information bypreparing relevantaccounts.

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438 Accountancy

11.1.1 Features of Incomplete Records

In complete records may be due to partial recording of transactions as is thecase with small shopkeepers such as grocers and vendors. In case of largesized organisations, the accounting records may be rendered to the state ofincompleteness due to natural calamity, theft or fire. The features of incompleterecords are as under :

(a) It is an unsystematic method of recording transactions.(b) Generally, records for cash transactions and personal accounts are

properly maintained and there is no information regarding revenue and/or gains, expenses and/or losses, assets and liabilities.

(c) Personal transactions of owners may also be recorded in the cash book.(d) Different organisations maintain records according to their convenience

and needs, and their accounts are not comparable due to lack ofuniformity.

(e) To ascertain profit or loss or for obtaining any other information,necessary figures can be collected only from the original vouchers suchas sales invoice or purchase invoice, etc. Thus, dependence on originalvouchers is inevitable.

(f) The profit or loss for the year cannot be ascertained under this systemwith high degree of accuracy as only an estimate of the profit earned orloss incurred can be made. The balance sheet also may not reflect thecomplete and true position of assets and liabilities.

11.2 Reasons of Incompleteness and its Limitations

It is observed, that many businessmen keep incomplete records because ofthe following reasons :

(a) This system can be adopted by people who do not have the properknowledge of accounting principles;

(b) It is an inexpensive mode of maintaining records. Cost involved is lowas specialised accountants are not appointed by the organisations;

(c) Time consumed in maintaining records is less as only a few books aremaintained;

(d) It is a convenient mode of maintaining records as the owner may recordonly important transactions according to the need of the business.

However, the mechanism of incomplete records suffers from a number oflimitations. This is due to the basic nature of this mechanism. Broadlyspeaking, unless a systematic approach to maintenance of records is followed,reliable financial statements cannot be prepared.

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439Accounts from Incomplete Records

The limitations of incomplete records are as follows :(a) As double entry system is not followed, a trial balance cannot be prepared

and accuracy of accounts cannot be ensured.(b) Correct ascertainment and evaluation of financial result of business

operations can not be made.(c) Analysis of profitability, liquidity and solvency of the business cannot

be done. This may cause a problem in raising funds from outsiders andplanning future business activities.

(d) The owners face great difficulty in filing an insurance claim with aninsurance company in case of loss of inventory by fire or theft.

(e) It becomes difficult to convince the income tax authorities about thereliability of the computed income.

11.3 Ascertainment of Profit and Loss

Every business firm wishes to ascertain the results of its operations to assessits efficiency and success and failures. This gives rise to the need for preparingthe financial statements to disclose:

(a) the profit made or loss sustained by the firm during a given period; and(b) the amount of assets and liabilities as at the closing date of the

accounting period.Therefore, the problem faced in this situation is how to use the available

information in the incomplete records to ascertain the profit or loss for theparticular accounting year and to determine the financial position of a entityas at the end of the year. This can be done in two ways :

1. Preparing the Statement of Affairs as at the beginning and as at the endof the accounting period, called statement of affairs or net worth method.

2. Preparing Trading and Profit and Loss Account and the Balance Sheetby putting the accounting records in proper order, called conversionmethod.

11.3.1 Preparing Statement of Affairs

Under this method, statements of assets and liabilities as at the beginning andat the end of the relevant accounting period are prepared to ascertain the amountof change in the capital during the period. Such a statement is known asstatement of affairs, shows assets on one side and the liabilities on the other justas in case of a balance sheet. The difference between the totals of the two sides(balancing figure) is the capital (refer figure 11.1). Though statement of affairsresembles balance sheet, it is not called a balance sheet because the data is notwholly based on ledger balances. The amounts of items like fixed assets,outstanding expenses, bank balances, etc. are ascertained from the relevantdocuments and physical count.

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440 Accountancy

Statement of Affairs as at ––

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Bills payable ´´´´ Land and Building ´´´´Creditors ´´´´ Machinery ´´´´Outstanding expenses ´´´´ Furniture ´´´´Capital (balancing figure)* ´´´´ Stock ´´´´

Debtors ´´´´Cash and Bank ´´´´Prepaid expenses ´´´´Capital (balancing figure)* ´´´´

xxx x xxxx

Note: * where the total of liabilities side is more than total of assets side, capital would beshown in assets side and it represents debit balance of capital.

Fig. 11.1 : Format of statement of affairs

Once the amount of capital, both at the beginning and at the end iscomputed with the help of statement of affairs, a statement of profit and lossis prepared to ascertain the exact amount of profit or loss made during theyear. The difference between the opening and closing capital represents itsincrease or decrease which is to be adjusted for withdrawals made by theowner or any fresh capital introduced by him during the accounting period inorder to arrive at the amount of profit or loss made during the period.The statement of profit and loss is prepared as shown in figure 11.2.

Statement of Profit or Loss for the year ended ........

Particulars AmountRs.

Capital as at the end of year (computed from statement of affairs .....as at the end of year)

Add Drawings during the year .....

Less Additional capital introduced during the year (.....)

Adjusted capital at the end of year .....

Less Capital as at the beginning of year (computed from statement of (.....)affairs as at the beginning of year)

Profit or Loss made during the year .....

Fig. 11.2 : Format of statement of profit or loss

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441Accounts from Incomplete Records

If the net result of above computation is a positive amount, it representsthe profit earned during the year. In case the net result is a negative amount,it would represent the loss sustained during the year. The same computationcan be done in the form of an equation as follows :Profit or Loss = Capital at end – Capital at beginning + Drawings during the

year – Capital introduced during the year.For example, consider the following information extracted from the records of Ms. Sheetu :

Rs.Capital at the beginning of year, i.e. April 01,2004 1,20,000Capital at the end of year, i.e. on March 31,2005 2,00,000Capital brought in by the proprietor during the year 50,000Withdrawals by the proprietor during the year 30,000The profit for the year will be calculated as follows :

The profit earned or loss incurred during a given period will be computed as follows :

Particulars AmountRs.

Capital as on March 31, 2005 2,00,000Add Drawings during the year 30,000

2,30,000Less Additional capital introduced during the year (50,000)

Adjusted capital at the end, i.e. March 31, 2005 1,80,000Less Capital in the beginning, i.e. April 01, 2004 (1,20,000)

Profit made during the year 60,000

Illustration 1

Mr. Mehta started his readymade garments business on April 1, 2004 with a capital ofRs. 50,000. He did not maintain his books according to double entry system. During theyear he introduced fresh capital of Rs. 15,000. He withdrew Rs. 10,000 for personal use.On March 31, 2005, his assets and liabilities were as follows :Total creditors Rs. 90,000 ; Total debtors Rs. 1,25,600 ; Stock Rs. 24,750 ; Cash at bankRs. 24,980.Calculate profit or loss made by Mr. Mehta during the first year of his business using thestatement of affairs method.

Solution

Books of Mr. MehtaStatement of Affairs as on March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Creditors 90,000 Cash at bank 24,980Capital 85,330 Debtors 1,25,600(balancing figure) Stock 24,750

1,75,330 1,75,330

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442 Accountancy

Statement of Profit or Loss for the year ended March 31,2005

Particulars AmountRs.

Capital as March 31, 2005 85,330Add Drawings during the year 10,000

95,330

Less Additional capital introduced during the year (15,000)Adjusted capital at end of the year, i.e. March 31,2005 80,330

Less Actual capital at the beginning of year, i.e. April 01, 2004 (50,000)

Profit made during the year 30,330

Illustration 2

Mrs. Vandana runs a small printing firm. She was maintaining only some records,which she thought, were sufficient to run the business. On April 01, 2004, availableinformation from her records indicated that she had the following assets and liabilities:Printing Press Rs. 5,00,000, Buildings Rs. 2,00,000, Stock Rs. 50,000, Cash at bankRs. 65,600, Cash in hand Rs. 7,980, Dues from customers Rs. 20,350, Dues tocreditors Rs. 75,340 and Outstanding wages Rs. 5,000. She withdrew Rs. 8,000 everymonth for meeting her personal expenses. She had also introduced Rs. 15,000 duringthe year as additional capital. On March 31, 2005 her position was as follows :

Press Rs. 5, 25,000, Buildings Rs. 2,00,000, Stock Rs. 55,000, Cash at bankRs. 40,380, Cash in hand Rs. 15,340, Dues from customers Rs. 17,210, Dues tocreditors Rs. 65,680.

Calculate the profit made by Mrs. Vandana during the year using statement ofaffairs method.

Solution

Books of Mrs. VandanaStatement of Affairs as on April 1, 2004

and as on March 31,2005

Liabilities Apr. 01, 04 Amount Assets Apr. 01, 04 AmountRs. Rs. Rs. Rs.

Creditors 75,340 65,680 Printing press 5,00,000 5,25,000Wages outstanding 5,000 – Buildings 2,00,000 2,00,000Capital 7,63,590 7,87,250 Debtors 20,350 17,210(balancing figure) Stock 50,000 55,000

Cash at bank 65,600 40,380Cash in hand 7,980 15,340

8,43,930 8,52,930 8,43,930 8,52,930

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443Accounts from Incomplete Records

Statement of Profit or Loss for the year ended on March 31, 2005

Particulars AmountRs.

Capital as on March 31,2005 7,87,250Add Drawings during the year 96,000

8,83,250Less Additional capital introduced during the year (15,000)

Adjusted capital at the end of the year (31.3.2005) 8,68,250Less Capital as on April 01, 2004 (7,63,590)

Profit made during the year 1,04,660

11.3.2 Difference between Statement of Affairs and Balance Sheet

Both statement of affairs and balance sheet show the assets and liabilities of abusiness entity on a particular date. However, there are some fundamentaldifferences between the two. A statement of affairs is prepared from incompleterecords where most of the assets are recorded on the basis of estimates ascompared to a balance sheet which is prepared from records maintained on thebasis of double entry book-keeping and all assets and liabilities can be verifiedfrom the ledger accounts. Hence, a balance sheet is more reliable than a statementof affairs. The objective of preparing a statement of affairs is to ascertain theamount of capital account as on that date whereas a balance sheet is preparedto know the financial position of the business at a particular date. In statementof affairs, an item of assets or liabilities may get omitted and this omission mayremain unknown because the effect of this omission gets adjusted in the capitalaccount balance and the total of both sides of statement match. However, in caseof a balance sheet the possibility of omission of any item is remote because incase of an omission, the balance sheet will not agree and the accountant willtrace the missing item from accounting records. These differences have beenshown in a tabular form as under :

Basis of difference Statement of affairs Balance sheet

Reliability It is less reliable as it is prepared It is more reliable as it is preparedfrom incomplete records. from double entry records.

Objective The objective of preparing state- The objective of preparing balancement of affairs is to estimate the sheet is to show the true financialbalance in capital account on a position of an entity on aparticular date. particular date.

Omission Omission of assets or liabilities Omissions of assets or liabilitiescannot be discovered easily. can be discovered easily and can

be traced from accounting records.

Fig. 11.3 : Showing comparison between statement of affairs and balance sheet

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444 Accountancy

Do It Yourself

Identify a small shopkeeper in your locality, ask him about the accountingrecords maintained by him. If he is not maintaining the records as perdouble entry system, list the reasons thereof and ask him how does hecompute profit or loss.

11.4 Preparing Trading and Profit and Loss Account andthe Balance Sheet

To prepare proper trading and profit and loss account and the balance sheetone needs complete information regarding expenses, incomes, assets andliabilities. In case of incomplete records, details of some items like creditors,cash purchases, debtors, cash sales, other cash payments and such receiptsare easily available, but there are a number of items the details of which willhave to be ascertained in an indirect manner by using the logic of doubleentry. The most common items that are missing and have to be worked out assuch are :• Opening capital• Credit purchases• Credit sales• Bills payable accepted• Bills receivable received• Payments to creditors• Payments to debtors• Any other cash/bank related items.

You know that opening capital can be worked out by preparing thestatement of affairs at the beginning of the year. For other items we haveexplained as to how available information can be used to ascertain their missingfigures with the help of total debtors and total creditors, total bills receivableand total bills payable accounts and summary of cash.

11.4.1 Ascertaining Credit Purchases

The credit purchases figure is not usually available from the incomplete records.It is quite possible that some other information related to creditors may alsobe missing. Therefore, by preparing the total creditors account, a proforma ofwhich is given in figure 11.4, credit purchases or any other missing figurerelated to creditors, as the case may be, can be ascertained as the balancingfigure.

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445Accounts from Incomplete Records

Total Creditors AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Cash paid .... Balance b/d ....Bank .... Bank (cheques ....(cheques issued) dishonoured)Bills payable .... Bills payable ....(bills accepted) (bills dishonoured)Discount received .... Credit purchases ....Purchases return ....Balance c/d ....

xxxxxxx xxxxxxx

Fig. 11.4 : Showing format of creditors account

For example, consider the following transactions relating to M/s Kisan Food Suppliers:Rs.

Opening balance of creditors 40,000Closing balance of creditors 50,000Payment made in cash 85,000Discount received 2,000

The total creditors account will be prepared as follows :

Books of KisanFood Suppliers

Total Creditors Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Cash 85,000 Balance b/d 40,000Discount 2,000 Credit purchases 97,000

(balancing figure)Balance c/d 50,000

1,37,000 1,37,000

11.4.2 Ascertainment of Credit Sales

The figure of credit sales is also not usually available from incomplete records.Some other information on related to debtors may also be missing. Therefore, ifthe total debtors account is prepared as shown in figure 11.5, credit sales or anyother missing figure, as the case may be, can be traced out as the balancingfigure.

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446 Accountancy

Total Debtors AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d .... Cash ....(cash received)Bank (chequereceived)

Bills receivable .... Discount allowed ....(bills dishonoured)Bank (cheque .... Bad debts ....dishonoured)Credit sales .... Sales return ....(balancing figure)

Bills receivable ....(bills received)Balance c/d ....

xxx xxx

Fig. 11.5 : Showing format of debtors account

From the credit sales as ascertained from total debtors account, the sales returns shouldbe deducted from gross credit sales to get net credit sales. For example, the followinginformation is obtained from the books of Mohanlal Traders :

Rs.Debtors on April 01, 2005 50,000Debtors on March 31, 2005 70,000Cash received from debtors 60,000Discount allowed 1,000Bills receivable 30,000Bad debts 3,000

The total debtors account will be prepared as follows :

Mohan Lal TradersTotal Debtors Account

Dr. Cr

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005Apr. 01 Balance b/d 50,000 Cash 60,000

Credit sales 1,14,000 Discount 1,000(balancing figure) Bills receivable 30,000

Bad debts 3,000Balance c/d 70,000

1,64,000 1,64,000

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11.4.3 Ascertainment of Bills Receivable and Bills payable

Quite often, while all details relating to bills receivable and bills payable areavailable but the figures of the bills received and bills accepted during theyear are not given. In such a situation, total bills receivable account and totalbills payable account can be prepared and the missing figures ascertained asthe balancing figures. The proforma of total bills receivable account and totalbills payable account is shown in figure 11.6 and figure 11.7.

Total Bills Receivable AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d .... Bank ....(bills honoured)

Sundry debtors .... Sundry debtors ....(bills received) (bills dishonoured)

Balance c/d ....xxx xxx

Fig. 11.6 : Showing format of bills receivable account

Total Bills Payable AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Bank .... Balance b/d ....(bills matured)Sundry creditors .... Sundry creditors ....(bills dishonoured) (bills accepted)Balance c/d ....

xxx xxx

Fig. 11.7 : Showing format of bills payable account

For example consider the following data available from the records of M/s S.S. SenapatiRs.

Opening bills receivable 5,000Opening bills payable 37,000Bills receivable dishonoured 2,000Bills payable dishonoured 66,750Closing bills payable 52,000Bills collected during the year 12,000Closing bills receivable 4,000

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448 Accountancy

The bills receivable and bills payable will be prepared as follows :

Total Bills Receivable AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d 5,000 Sundry debtors 2,000(bills dishonoured)

Sundry debtors 13,000 Bank 12,000(bills received) (bills collected)(balancing figure)

Balance c/d 4,000

18,000 18,000

Total Bills Payable AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Bill dishonoured 66,750 Balance b/d 37,500Balance c/d 52,500 Sundry Creditors 81,750

(bills accepted)(balancing figure)

1,19,250 1,19,250

Test Your Understanding - I

Tick the correct answer :1. Incomplete record mechanism of book keeping is :

(a) Scientific (b) Unscientific(c) Unsystematic (d) both (b) and (c)

2. Opening capital is ascertained by preparing :(a) Total debtors account (b) Total creditors account(c) Cash account (d) Opening statement of affairs

3. Credit purchase, during the year is ascertained by preparing :(a) Total creditors account (b) Total debtors account(c) Cash account (d) Opening statement of affairs

4. If opening capital is Rs. 60,000, drawings Rs. 5,000, capital introduced during theperiod Rs. 10,000, closing capital Rs. 90,000. The value of profit earned during theperiod will be :(a) Rs. 20,000 (b) Rs. 25,000(c) Rs. 30,000 (d) Rs. 40,000

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11.4.4 Ascertainment of Missing Information through Summary of Cash

Sometimes, the amount paid to creditors or the amount received from debtorsor the opening or closing cash or bank balance may be missing. To ascertainany missing item of receipt or payment, we may prepare a cash book summaryshowing all receipts and payments during the year and the balancing figure istaken as the amount of missing item.

If however, both amount paid to creditors and that received from debtorsare missing, then any one of these may be obtained first through the totalcreditors or total debtors account, as the case may be, and the other missinginformation ascertained from the cash book summary in the same way asstated earlier.

After the missing figures have been traced out, the final accounts may beprepared straight away or after the preparation of the trial balance. Thecomponents of the trial balance and their sources of information aresummarised below :

1. Closing assets (except stock) and Closing listliabilities

2. Opening assets (including opening Opening liststock) and liabilities

3. Purchases Credit purchases from total creditors accountand cash purchases from summary of cash

4. Sales Credit sales from total debtors account and cashsales from summary of cash

5. Opening capital Opening statement of affairs6. Expenses and Revenues As per cash summary of cash plus subsidiary

informatioon7. Losses and Gains From all the accounts and scattered information8. Bills receivable received Total bills receivable account9. Bills payable accepted Total bills payable account

10. Cash/Bank balance Summary of cash

Fig. 11.7 : Detecting the missing information

Illustration 3

Compute the amount of total purchases and total sales of Mr. Amit from the followinginformation for the year ending on March 31,2005.

AmountRs.

Total debtors as on April 01, 2004 40,000Total creditors as on April 01, 2004 50,000Bills receivable as on April 01, 2004 30,000Bills payable as on April 01, 2004 45,000Discount received 5,000Bad debts 2,000Return inwards 4,000Discount allowed 3,000

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Cash sales 10,000Cash purchases 8,000Total debtors as on March 31, 2005 80,000Cash received from debtors 1,00,000Cash paid to creditors 80,000Cash received against bills receivable 25,000Payment made against bills receivable 40,000Total creditors as on March 31, 2005 40,000Bills payable as on March 31, 2005 50,000Bills receivable as on March 31, 2005 35,000

Solution

Total Bills Receivable AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d 30,000 Cash 25,000Total debtors 30,000 Balance c/d 35,000(balancing figure)

60,000 60,000

Total Bills Payable AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Cash 40,000 Balance b/d 45,000Balance c/d 50,000 Total creditors 45,000

(balancing figure)90,000 90,000

Total Debtors AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d 40,000 Bad debts 2,000Sales 1,79,000 Return inwards 4,000(balancing figure)

Discount allowed 3,000Cash 1,00,000Bills receivable 30,000(Transfer from billsreceivable account)Balance c/d 80,000

2,19,000 2,19,000

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Total Creditors AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

Discount received 5,000 Balance b/d 50,000Cash 80,000 Purchases (credit) 1,20,0002

(balancing figure)Bills payable (transfer 45,000from bills payableaccount)Balance c/d 40,000

1,70,000 1,70,000

Working Notes(i) Credit purchases have been computed from total creditors account as Rs. 1,20,0002.

Cash purchases given are Rs. 8,000. Total purchases will be Rs. 1,20,000 + Rs. 8,000= Rs. 1,28,000.

(ii) Credit sales have been computed from total debtors account as Rs. 1,79,000 and cashsales are given as Rs. 10,000. Total sales will be Rs. 1,79,000 + Rs. 10,000= Rs. 1,89,000.

Illustration 4

From the following information supplied by Ms. Sudha, calculate the amount of ‘Net Sales’

Rs.

Debtors on April 01, 2005 65,000Debtors on March 31, 2006 50,000Opening balance of bills receivable as on April 01, 2005 23,000Closing balance of bills receivable as on March 03, 2006 29,000Cash received from debtors 3,02,000Discount allowed 8,000Cash received against bills receivable 21,000Bad debts 14,000Bill receivalbes (dishonoured) 20,000Cash sales 2,25,000Sales return 17,000

Total Bills Receivable AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Opening balance 23,000 Cash (bills honoured) 21,000Bills receivable

Debtors (Bills receivable ) 47,000 dishonoured 20,000(balancing figure) Closing balance 29,000

70,000 70,000

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Total Debtors AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

2005 2005Apr. 01 Opening balance 65,000 Apr. 01 Cash received 3,02,000

Bills receivable 20,000 Discount allowed 8,000(dishonoured)Sales (balancing 3,53,000 Sales return 17,000figure)

Bad debts 14,000Bills receivable 47,000(transferred frombills receivableaccount)Closing balance 50,000

4,38,000 4,38,000

(Working Notes)With the preparation of total debtors account and total bills receivable account, the net saleswill be computed as follows :

Net Sales = Cash Sales + Credit Sales – Sales return = Rs. 2,25,000 + Rs. 3,53,000 – Rs. 1,7000 = Rs. 5,61,000

Illustration 5

Mr. Om Prakash did not keep his books of accounts under double entry system. From thefollowing information available from his records, prepare profit and loss account for theyear ending on March 31, 2005 and a balance sheet as at that date, depreciating the washingequipment @ 10%.

Summary of CashDr. Cr.

Receipts Amount Payments AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d 8,000 Cash purchases 14,000Cash sales 40,000 Paid to creditors 20,000Received from debtors 30,000 Sundry expenses 6,000

Cartage 2,000Drawings 8,000Balance c/d 28,000

78,000 78,000

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Other information :

March 31, 2004

March 31, 2004 March 31, 2005Rs. Rs.

Debtors 9,000 12,000Creditors 14,400 6,800Stock of materials 10,000 16,000Washing equipment 40,000 40,000Furniture 3,000 3,000Discount allowed during the year 1,400Discount received during the year 1,700

SolutionBooks of Om Prakash

Trading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended on March 31, 2005

Expenses/losses Amount Revenues/gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 10,000 Sales 74,400Purchases 28,100 Closing stock 16,000Cartage 2,000Gross profit c/d 50,300

90,400 90,400

Sundry expenses 6,000 Gross profit b/d 50,300Discount allowed 1,400 Discount received 1,700Depreciation 4,000Net profit (transfered to 40,600capital account)

52,000 52,000

Balance Sheet as at March 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Capital 55,600 Washing equipment 40,000Add Profit 40,600 Less Depreciation (4,000) 36,000

96,200Less Drawings (8,000) 88,200 Furniture 3,000Creditors 6,800 Stock of materials 16,000

Debtors 12,000Cash 28,000

95,000 95,000

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Working Notes :

Total Debtors Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d 9,000 Cash 30,000Sales (credit) 34,400 Discount allowed 1,400(balancing figure)

Balance c/d 12,000

43,400 43,400

Total Creditors Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Cash 20,000 Balance b/d 14,400Discount received 1,700 Purchases (credit) 14,100

(balancing figure)Balance c/d 6,800

28,500 28,500

Statement of Affairs as at March 31,2004

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Creditors 14,400 Washing equipment 40,000Capital 55,600 Furniture 3,000(balancing figure) Stock of material 10,000

Debtors 9,000Cash 8,000

70,000 70,000

Illustration 6

Mrs. Surabhi started business on Jan 01, 2005 with cash of Rs. 50,000, furniture ofRs. 10,000, goods of 2,000 and machinery worth 20,000. During the year she furtherintroduced Rs. 20,000 in her business by opening a bank account. From the followinginformation extracted from her books, you are required to prepare final accounts for theended December 31, 2005.

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Rs.Receipt from debtors 57,500Cash sales 45,000Cash purchases 25,000Wages paid 5,000Salaries to staff 17,500Trade expanses 6,500Electricity bill of factory 7,500Drawings of Surabhi 3,000Cash paid to creditors 42,000Discount allowed 1,200Discount received 3,000Bad debts written-off 1,300Cash balance at end of year 20,000

Mrs. Surabhi used goods worth 2,500 for private purposes, which is not recorded in thebooks. Charge depreciation on furniture 10% and machinery 20% p.a. on Dec. 31, 2005 herdebtors were worth 70,000 and creditors Rs. 35,000, stock in trade was valued on that dateat Rs. 25,000.

SolutionBooks of Mrs. Surabhi

Trading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended December 31, 2005

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 20,000 Sales 45,000Purchases :Cash : 25,000 Credit 1,30,000 1,75,000Credit : 80,0002 Closing stock 25,000

1,05,000Less Goods used for (2,500) 1,02,500private useWages 5,000Electricity bill of factory 7,500Gross profit c/d 65,000

2,00,000 2,00,000

Salaries 17,500 Gross profit b/d 65,000Trade expenses 6,500 Discount received 3,000Discount allowed 1,200Bad debts 1,300DepreciationFurniture 1,000Machinery 4,000 5,000Net profit (transferred 36,500to capital account)

68,000 68,000

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Balance Sheet of Mrs. Surabhi as at December 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Creditors 35,000 Cash 20,000Bank 13,000

Capital 1,00,000 Stock 25,000Add Net profit 36,500 Debtors 70,000

1,36,000 Furniture 10,000Add Additional capital 20,000 Less Depreciation (1,000) 9,000

1,56,500 Machinery 20,000Less Depreciation (4,000) 16,000

Less DrawingsCash 36,000Goods 2,500 (38,500) 1,18,000

1,53,000 1,53,000

Working Notes :

(i) Total Debtors Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d NIL Cash 57,500Sales (credit) 1,30,000 Discount allowed 1,200(balancing figure)

Bad debts 1,300Balance c/d 70,000

1,30,000 1,30,000

(ii) Total Creditors Account

Dr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Cash 42,000 Balance b/d NILDiscount received 3,000 Purchase credit 80,000

(balancing figure)Balance c/d 35,000

80,000 80,000

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(iii) Statement of Affair as on Jan. 01, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountsRs. Rs.

Cash 50,000Capital (balancing figure) 1,00,0003 Stock 20,000

Furniture 10,000Machinery 20,000

1,00,000 1,00,000

(iv) Summary of Cash

Dr. Cr.

Receipts Amount Payments AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d 50,000 Purchases 25,000Capital(bank) 20,000 Wages 5,000Debtors 57,500 Salaries 17,500Sales 45,000 Trade expenses 6,500

Electric bill 7,500Drawings 36,000Creditors 42,000Balance c/d—cash 20,000Closing bank(balancing figure) 13,000

1,72,500 1,72,500

Test Your Understanding - II

Write the correct word(s) :

1. Credit sales can be ascertained as the balancing figure in the..........account.2. Excess of ..........over.........represents loss sustained during the period.3. To ascertain the profit, closing capital is to be adjusted by deducting ..........and

adding ..........4. Incomplete records are generally used by ..........

Illustration 7

Mr. Bahadur does not know how to keep books of account. From his various records, thefollowing particulars have been made available prepare the final Accounts, after providingfor doubtful debts 5 per cent of debtors outstanding and depreciating the motor car @ 20per cent.

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(i) Balance Sheet as on April 1, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Capital 92,500 Motor Car 71,700Bills payable 32,800 Stock 51,500Creditors 84,200 Debtors 49,500

Bills receivable 24,400Cash in hand 12,400

2,09,500 2,09,500

(ii) Cash Transactions during the year

Particular Amount Particular AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d 12,400 Furniture 30,000Receipt from debtors 1,15,000 Wages 9,400Bills receivable 14,200 Purchases 40,500Sales 1,03,000 Drawings 24,000

Bills payable 30,700General expenses 20,700Payment to creditors 80,800Balance c/d 8,500

2,44,600 2,44,600

(iii) Other Information

Particulars AmountRs.

Bills receivable drawn (received) 6,300Discount to customers 2,300Discount from suppliers 700Credit purchases 29,600Closing stock 41,700Closing balance of debtor 55,000Closing balance of bills payable 10,200

Solution

Cash sales and cash purchases are available from cash transactions. Credit purchase isalso given. But credit sale is to be ascertained by the opening debtors account. Though thecredit purchase is available, the closing balance of creditors is not known. That is why thecreditors account also has to be opened. As there are bills payable and bills receivable,those accounts also have to be opened, otherwise the creditors and debtors accounts willnot be complete.

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Books of Mr. BahadurTrading and Profit and Loss Accountfor the year ended March 31, 2006

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 51,500 SalespurchasesCash 40,500 Cash 1,03,000Credit 29,600 70,100 Credit 1,29,100 2,32,100 Wages 9,400 Closing stock 41,700Gross profit c/d 1,42,800

2,73,800 2,73,800

General expenses 20,700 Gross profit b/d 1,42,800Discount allowed 2,300 Discount received 700Depreciation on motor car 14,340Reserve for bad debts 2,750Net profit 1,03,410

1,43,500 1,43,500

Balance Sheet as March 31, 2006

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Capital 92,500 Motor car 71,700Add Net profit 1,03,410 Less depreciation (14,340) 57,360

1,95,910 Furniture 30,000Less Drawings (24,000) 1,71,910 Stock 41,700Creditors 24,200 Debtors 55,000Bills payable 10,200 Less Provision (2,750) 52,250

Bills receivable 16,500Cash 8,500

2,06,310 2,06,310

Working Notes:

(i) Total Bills Receivable AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d 24,400 Cash (receipt) 14,200Debtors 6,300 Balance c/d 16,500(bills drawn) (balancing figure)

30,700 30,700

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(ii) Total Debtors AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d 49,500 Cash (receipt) 1,15,000Credit sales 1,29,100 Bills (drawn) 6,300(balancing figure)

Discount allowed 2,300Balance c/d 55,000

1,78,600 1,78,600

(iii) Total Bills payable AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Cash (paid) 30,700 Balance b/d 32,800Balance c/d 10,200 Creditors

(bills accepted)(balancing figure) 8,100

40,900 40,900

(iv) Total Creditors AccountDr. Cr.

Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. AmountRs. Rs.

Cash 80,800 Balance b/d 84,200Bills payable 8,100 Credit purchases 29,600Discount received 700Balance c/d 24,200(balancing figure)

1,13,800 1,13,800

Illustration 8

Dinesh does not keep systematic books of account due to lack of Knowledge about thedouble entry system of accounting. He supplies you the following information :

(i) Assets and LiabilitiesDecember 31, 2006

Rs. Rs.Sundry debtors 45,000 48,600Sundry creditors 24,000 ?Cash 4,500 ?

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Furniture and Fixtures 15,000 ?Stock 25,000 ?Motor Van 16,000 ?

(ii) Transaction during the year

Rs.Cash received from debtors 80,000Discount allowed to debtors 1,400Bad debts written off 1,800Cash paid to creditors 63,000Discount allowed by creditors 1,000Sales return 3,000Purchases return 2,000Expenses paid 6,000Drawings 5,000Rent paid 2,500

(iii) Other Information

Outstanding expenses Rs. 1,200. Charge 10 per cent depreciation on furniture and 5 percent on motor van.Dinesh informs that he sells goods at cost plus 40 per cent. A provisionof 5 per cent on debtors is to be created. Prepare his trading and profit and loss account andbalance sheet as on December 31, 2006

Books of DineshTrading and Profit and Loss Account

for the year ending December 31, 2006Dr. Cr.

Expenses/Losses Amount Revenues/Gains AmountRs. Rs.

Opening stock 25,000 Sales 89,800Purchases 69,000 Less Returns (3,000) 86,800Less Returns (2,000) 67,000 Closing stock 30,000Gross profit c/d 24,800

1,16,800 1,16,800

Discount allowed 1,400 Gross profit b/d 24,800Bad debts 1,800 Discount received 1,000Expenses paid 6,000Add Outstanding expenses 1,200 7,200Rent paid 2,500Depreciation on Furniture 1,500Motor van 800 2,300Provision for bad debts 2,430Net profit (transferred to capital 8,170account)

25,800 25,800

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Balance Sheet as on December 31, 2006

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Outstanding expenses 1,200 Cash 8,000Creditors 27,000 Debtors 48,600Capital 81,500 Less Provision (2,430) 46,170Less Drawings (5,000) Closing stock 30,000

76,500 Furniture & Fixtures15,000Add Net profit 8,170 84,670 Less Depreciation (1,500) 13,500

Motor van 16,000Less Depreciation (800) 15,200

1,12,870 1,12,870

Working Notes :(i) Total Debtors Account

Dr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.

Balance b/d 45,000 Cash received 80,000Sales 89,800 Discount allowed 1,400

Bad debts 1,800Sales return 3,000Balance c/d 48,600

1,34,800 1,34,800

(ii) Total Creditors AccountDr. Cr.Date Particulars J.F. Amount Date Particulars J.F. Amount

Rs. Rs.Cash paid 63,000 Balance b/d 24,000Discount received 1,000 Purchases 69,000Purchases return 2,000Balance c/d 27,000

93,000 93,000

(iii) Summary of CashDr. Cr.

Receipts Amount Payments AmountRs. Rs.

Balance b/d 4,500 Creditors 63,000Debtors 80,000 Expenses paid 6,000

Drawings 5,000Rent paid 2,500Balance c/d 8,000

84,500 84,500

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(iv) Statement of Affairs as on December 31, 2005

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Creditors 24,000 Debtors 45,000Cash 4,500Stock 25,000

Capital in the beginning 81,500 Furniture and Fixtures 15,000(Balancing figure)

Motor Van 16,0001,05,500 1,05,500

(v) Calculation of Closing Stock

Rs.Total sales 89,800Less Sales return (3,000)Net sales 86,800Total purchases 69,000Less Purchases returens (2,000)

(67,000)Rate of gross profit on cost 40%Suppose cost of goods sold is 100Then, Gross profit equals to 40Sales equals to 140Hence, Cost of goods sold will be

Sale = Rs. 86,800 = 100

140× =86 800 62 000, ,

The amount of closing stock will be calculated as :Net Purchases 67,000Add Closing stock 25,000Cost of goods available for sale 92,000Less Cost of goods sold (62,000)Closing stock 30,000

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Incomplete records • Statement of affairs

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Incomplete records : Incomplete records refer to, lack of accounting recordsaccording to the double entry system. Degree of incompleteness may vary fromhighly disorganised records to organised, but still not complete.

2. Difference between statement of affairs and balance sheet : A statement of affairsis a statement showing various assets and liabilities of a firm on date, with

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difference between the two sides denoting capital. Since, the records areincomplete, the values of assets and liabilities are normally estimates based oninformation available. They are not the balances taken from properly maintainedledger like in case of balance sheet. The balance sheet is derived from a set ofbooks maintained on the basis of double entry system.

3. Computation of profit and loss from incomplete records : The statement of affairsis used to compute capital when a firm has a highly disorganised set of incompleterecords. To the difference between the closing and opening capital, any sumwithdrawn from business are added back and any additional capital introducedduring the year are deducted to find out profit and loss made for the period.

4. Preparation of profit and loss account and balance sheet : When cash summaryof a firm is available along with information about personal accounts of creditorsand customers, an attempt can be made to prepare the profit and loss accountand balance sheet. Missing figures about purchases, sales, debtors and creditorscan be obtained by preparing proforma accounts of debtors, creditors, billsreceivable and bills payable using the logic of double entry system. Once aprofit and loss account and balance sheet are prepared, it will be possible forthe firm to start a complete accounting system for future.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. State the meaning of incomplete records?2. What are the possible reasons for keeping incomplete records?3. Distinguish between statement of affairs and balance sheet.4. What practical difficulties are encountered by a trader due to incompleteness

of accounting records?

Long Answers

1. What is meant by a ‘statement of affairs’? How can the profit or loss of atrader be ascertained with the help of a statement of affairs?

2. ‘Is it possible to prepare the profit and loss account and the balance sheetfrom the incomplete book of accounts kept by a trader’? Do you agree? Explain.

3. Explain how the following may be ascertained from incomplete records:(a) Opening capital and closing capital(b) Credit sales and credit purchases(c) Payments to creditors and collection from debtors(d) Closing balance of cash.

Numerical Questions

Ascertainment of profit or loss by statement of affairs method1. Following information is given below prepare the statement of profit or loss:

Rs.Capital at the end of the year 5,00,000Capital in the beginning of the year 7,50,000

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Drawings made during the period 3,75,000Additional Capital introduced 50,000

[Ans : Profit : Rs. 75,000].2. Manveer started his business on January 01, 2005 with a capital of

Rs. 4,50,000. On December 31, 2005 his position was as under:Rs.

Cash 99,000Bills receivable 75,000Plant 48,000Land and Building 1,80,000Furniture 50,000

He owned Rs. 45,000 from his friend Susheel on that date. He withdrewRs. 8,000 per month for his household purposes. Ascertain his profit or lossfor this year ended December 31, 2005[Ans : Profit : Rs.53,000].

3. From the information given below ascertain the profit for the year :Rs.

Capital at the beginning of the year 70,000Additional capital introduced during the year 17,500Stock 59,500Sundry debtors 25,900Business premises 8,600Machinery 2,100Sundry creditors 33,400Drawings made during the year 26,400

[Ans : Profit : Rs.1,600].4. From the following information, Calculate Capital at the beginning :

Rs.Capital at the end of the year 4,00,000Drawings made during the year 60,000Fresh Capital introduce during the year 1,00,000Profit of the current year 80,000

[Ans : Capital at thé beginning of the year : Rs.2,60,000].5. Following information is given below : calculate the closing capital

Jan. 01, 2005 Dec. 31, 2005Rs. Rs.

Creditors 5,000 30,000Bills payable 10,000 —Loan — 50,000Bills receivable 30,000 50,000Stock 5,000 30,000Cash 2,000 20,000

[Ans : Closing capital : Rs.20,000].Calculation of profit or loss and ascertainment of statement of affairs at theend of the year (Opening Balance is given)

6. Mrs. Anu started firm with a capital of Rs. 4,00,000 on 1st July 2005. Sheborrowed from her friends a sum of Rs. 1,00,000 @ 10% per annum (interest

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paid) for business and brought a further amount to capital Rs. 75,000 onDec. 31, 2005, her position was :

Rs.Cash 30,000Stock 4,70,000Debtors 3,50,000Creditors 3,00,000

He withdrew Rs. 8,000 per month for the year. Calculate profit or loss for theyear and show your working clearly.[Ans : Profit : Rs.23,000].

7. Mr. Arnav does not keep proper records of his business he provided followinginformation, you are required to prepare a statement showing the profit orloss for the year.

Rs.Capital at the beginning of the year 15,00,000Bills receivable 60,000Cash in hand 80,000Furniture 9,00,000Building 10,00,000Creditors 6,00,000Stock in trade 2,00,000Further capital introduced 3,20,000Drawings made during the period 80,000

[Ans : Loss : Rs. 1,00,000].Ascertainment of statement of affairs at the beginning and at the end of theyear and calculation of profit or loss.

8. Mr. Akshat keeps his books on incomplete records following information isgiven below :

April 01, 2004 March 31, 2005Rs. Rs.

Cash in hand 1,000 1,500Cash at bank 15,000 10,000Stock 1,00,000 95,000Debtors 42,500 70,000Business premises 75,000 1,35,000Furniture 9,000 7,500Creditors 66,000 87,000Bills payable 44,000 58,000

During the year he withdrew Rs. 45,000 and introduced Rs. 25,000 as furthercapital in the business compute the profit or loss of the business.[Ans : Profit : Rs. 61,500].

9. Gopal does not keep proper books of account. Following information is givenbelow:

Jan. 01, 2005 Dec. 31, 2005Rs. Rs.

Cash in hand 18,000 12,000Cash at bank 1,500 2,000

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Stock in trade 80,000 90,000Sundry debtors 36,000 60,000Sundry creditors 60,000 40,000Loan 10,000 8,000Office equipments 25,000 30,000Land and Buildings 30,000 20,000Furniture 10,000 10,000

During the year he introduced Rs. 20,000 and withdrew Rs. 12,000 from thebusiness. Prepare the statement of profit or loss on the basis of giveninformation[Ans : Profit : Rs. 53,500].

10. Mr. Muneesh maintains his books of accounts from incomplete records. Hisbooks provide the information :

Jan. 01, 2005 Dec. 31, 2005Rs. Rs.

Cash 1,200 1,600Bills receivable — 2,400Debtors 16,800 27,200Stock 22,400 24,400Investment — 8,000Furniture 7,500 8,000Creditors 14,000 15,200

He withdrew Rs. 300 per month for personal expenses. He sold his investmentof Rs. 16,000 at 2% premium and introduced that amount into business.[Ans : Profit : Rs. 9,780].

11. Mr. Girdhari Lal does not keep full double entry records. His balance as onJanuary 01, 2006 is as.

Liabilities Amount Assets AmountRs. Rs.

Sundry creditors 35,000 Cash in hand 5,000Bills payable 15,000 Cash at bank 20,000Capital 40,000 Sundry debtors 18,000

Stock 22,000Furniture 8,000Plant 17,000

90,000 90,000

His position at the end of the year is :Rs.

Cash in hand 7,000Stock 8,600Debtors 23,800Furniture 15,000

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Plant 20,350Bills payable 20,200Creditors 15,000

He withdrew Rs. 500 per month out of which to spent Rs. 1,500 for businesspurpose. Prepare the statement of profit or loss.[Ans : Profit : Rs. 4,050].

12. Mr. Ashok does not keep his books properly. Following information is availablefrom his books.

Jan. 01, 2005 Dec. 31, 2005Rs. Rs.

Sundry creditors 45,000 93,000Loan from wife 66,000 57,000Sundry debtors 22,500 —Land and Building 89,600 90,000Cash in hand 7,500 8,700Bank overdraft 25,000 —Furniture 1,300 1,300Stock 34,000 25,000

During the year Mr. Ashok sold his private car for Rs. 50,000 and investedthis amount into the business. He withdrew from the business Rs. 1,500 permonth upto July 31, 2005 and thereafter Rs. 4,500 per month as drawings.You are required to prepare the statement of profit or loss and statement ofaffair as on December 31, 2005.[Ans : Loss : Rs. 57,900].

13. Krishna Kulkarni has not kept proper books of accounts prepare thestatement of profit or loss for the year ending December 31, 2005 fromthe following information:

Jan. 01, 2005 Dec. 31, 2005(Rs.) (Rs.)

Cash in hand 10,000 36,000Debtors 20,000 80,000Creditors 10,000 46,000Bills receivable 20,000 24,000Bills payable 4,000 42,000Car — 80,000Stock 40,000 30,000Furniture 8,000 48,000Investment 40,000 50,000Bank balance 1,00,000 90,000

The following adjustments were made :(a) Krishna withdrew cash Rs. 5,000 per month for private use.(b) Depreciation @ 5% on car and furniture @10% .(c) Outstanding Rent Rs. 6,000.(d) Fresh Capital introduced during the year Rs.30,000.[Ans : Profit : Rs. 1,41,200 ; Statement of affairs with adjusted : Rs. 4,29,200].

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14. M/s Saniya Sports Equipment does not keep proper records. From thefollowing information find out profit or loss and also prepare balance sheetfor the year ended December 31, 2005

Dec. 31, 2004 Dec. 31, 2005Rs. Rs.

Cash in hand 6,000 24,000Bank overdraft 30,000 —Stock 50,000 80,000Sundry creditors 26,000 40,000Sundry debtors 60,000 1,40,000Bills payable 6,000 12,000Furniture 40,000 60,000Bills receivable 8,000 28,000Machinery 50,000 1,00,000Investment 30,000 80,000Drawing Rs.10,000 p.m. for personal use, fresh capital introduce duringthe year Rs.2,00,000. A bad debts of Rs.2,000 and a provision of 5% isto be made on debtors. outstanding salary Rs.2,400, prepaid insuranceRs.700, depreciation charged on furniture and machine @ 10% p.a.[ Ans : Profit : Rs. 1,71,300 ; Statement of affairs with adjustment :Rs. 4,87,700].

Ascertainment of Missing Figures

15. From the following information calculate the amount to be paid to creditors:Rs.

Sundry creditors as on March 31, 2005 1,80,425Discount received 26,000Discount allowed 24,000Return outwards 37,200Return inward 32,200Bills accepted 1,99,000Bills endorsed to creditors 26,000Creditors as on April 01, 2006 2,09,050Total purchases 8,97,000Cash purchases 1,40,000

[Ans : Cash paid to creditors : Rs. 4,40,175].16. Find out the credit purchases from the following:

Rs.Balance of creditors April 01, 2004 45,000Balance of creditors March 31, 2005 36,000Cash paid to creditors 1,80,000Cheque issued to creditors 60,000Cash purchases 75,000Discount received from creditors 5,400Discount allowed 5,000Bills payable given to creditors 12,750Return outwards 7,500Bills payable dishonoured 3,000

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Bills receivable endorsed to creditors 4,500Bills receivable endorsed to creditors dishonoured 1,800Return inwards 3,700

[Ans : Credit purchases : Rs. 2, 56,350].

17. From the following information calculate total purchases.Rs.

Creditors Jan. 01, 2005 30,000Creditors Dec. 31, 2005 20,000Opening balance of Bills payable 25,000Closing balance of Bills payable 35,000Cash paid to creditors 1,51,000Bills discharged 44,500Cash purchases 1,29,000Return outwards 6,000

[Ans : Total purchases : Rs. 3,30,500].18. The following information is given

Rs.Opening creditors 60,000Cash paid to creditors 30,000Closing creditors 36,000Returns Inward 13,000Bill matured 27,000Bill dishonoured 8,000Purchases return 12,000Discount allowed 5,000

Calculate credit purchases during the year[Ans : Credit purchases : Rs. 37,000].

19. From the following, calculate the amount of bills accepted during the year.Rs.

Bills payable as on April 01, 2005 1,80,000Bills payable as on March 31, 2006 2,20,000Bills payable dishonoured during the year 28,000Bills payable honoured during the year 50,000

[Ans : Bills accepted : Rs. 1,18,000].20. Find out the amount of bills matured during the year on the basis of

information given below ;Rs.

Bills payable dishonoured 37,000Closing balance of Bills payable 85,000Opening balance of Bills payable 70,000Bills payable accepted 90,000Cheque dishonoured 23,000

[Ans : Bills matured : Rs. 38,000].21. Prepare the bills payable account from the following and find out missing

figure if any :

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Rs.Bills accepted 1,05,000Discount received 17,000Purchases returns 9,000Return inwards 12,000Cash paid to accounts payable 50,000Bills receivable endorsed to creditor 45,000Bills dishonoured 17,000Bad debts 14,000Balance of accounts payable (closing) 85,000Credit purchases 2,15,000

[Ans : Opening balance of creditors : Rs. 79,000].22. Calculate the amount of bills receivable during the year.

Rs.Opening balance of bills receivable 75,000Bill dishonoured 25,000Bills collected (honoured) 1,30,000Bills receivable endorsed to creditors 15,000Closing balance of bills receivable 65,000

[Ans : Rs. 1,60,000].23. Calculate the amount of bills receivable dishonoured from the following

information.Rs.

Opening balance of bills receivable 1,20,000Bills collected (honoured) 1,85,000Bills receivable endorsed 22,800Closing balance of bills receivable 50,700Bills receivable received 1,50,000

[Ans : Rs. 11,500].24. From the details given below, find out the credit sales and total sales.

Rs.Opening debtors 45,000Closing debtors 56,000Discount allowed 2,500Sales returns 8,500Irrecoverable amount 4,000Bills receivables received 12,000Bills receivable dishonoured 3,000Cheque dishonoured 7,700Cash sales 80,000Cash received from debtors 2,30,000Cheque received from debtors 25,000

[Ans : Total sales : Rs. 3,62,300].25. From the following information, prepare the bills receivable account and

total debtors account for the year ended December 31, 2005.

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Rs.Opening balance of debtors 1,80,000Opening balance of bills receivable 55,000Cash sales made during the year 95,000Credit sales made during the year 14,50,000Return inwards 78,000Cash received from debtors 10,25,000Discount allowed to debtors 55,000Bills receivable endorsed to creditors 60,000Cash received (bills matured) 80,500Irrecoverable amount 10,000Closing balance of bills receivable on Dec. 31, 2005 75,500

[Ans : Bills received : Rs. 1,61,000 ; Closing balance of debtors : Rs. 3,01,000].

26. Prepare the suitable accounts and find out the missing figure if any.Rs.

Opening balance of debtors 14,00,000Opening balance of bills receivable 7,00,000Closing balance of bills receivable 3,50,000Cheque dishonoured 27,000Cash received from debtors 10,75,000Cheque received and deposited in the bank 8,25,000Discount allowed 37,500Irrecoverable amount 17,500Returns inwards 28,000Bills receivable received from customers 1,05,000Bills receivable matured 2,80,000Bills discounted 65,000Bills endorsed to creditors 70,000

[Ans : Credit sales : Rs. 5,16,000].

27. From the following information ascertain the opening balance of sundrydebtors and closing balance of sundry creditors.

Rs.Opening stock 30,000Closing stock 25,000Opening creditors 50,000Closing debtors 75,000Discount allowed by creditors 1,500Discount allowed to customers 2,500Cash paid to creditors 1,35,000Bills payable accepted during the period 30,000Bills receivable received during the period 75,000Cash received from customers 2,20,000Bills receivable dishonoured 3,500Purchases 2,95,000

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The rate of gross profit is 25% on selling price and out of the total salesRs. 85,000 was for cash sales.

(Hint : Total sales = 4,00,000 = ×3 00 000100

75, , )

[Ans : Opening balance of debtors : Rs. 54,000 ; Closing balance of creditors:Rs. 1,78,500].

28 Mrs. Bhavana keeps his books by Single Entry System. You’re required toprepare final accounts of her business for the year ended December 31, 2005.Her records relating to cash receipts and cash payments for the above periodshowed the following particulars :

Summary of Cash

Dr. Cr.

Receipts Amount Payments AmountRs. Rs.

Opening balance of cash 12,000 Paid to creditors 53,000Further capital 20,000 Business expenses 12,000Received from debtors 1,20,000 Wage paid 30,000

Bhavana’s drawings 15,000Balance at bank on 35,000Dec. 31,2005Cash in hand 7,000

1,52,000 1,52,000

The following information is also available :

Jan. 01, 2005 Dec. 31, 2005Rs. Rs.

Debtors 55,000 85,000Creditors 22,000 29,000Stock 35,000 70,000Plant 10,00,000 1,00,000Machinery 50,000 50,000Land & Building 2,50,000 2,50,000Investment 20,000 20,000

All her sales and purchases were on credit. Provide depreciation on plantand building by 10% and machinery by 5%, make a provision for bad debtsby 5%.[Ans : Gross profit ; Rs. 95,000 ; Net profit : Rs. 41,250 ; Total of balancesheet : Rs. 5, 75,250].

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Checklist to Test Your Understanding

1. Test Your Understanding - I

1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b)

2. Test Your Understanding - II

1. Total debtors 2. Opening capital, closing capital3. Fresh capital introduced, drawings 4. Small traders

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Applications of Computers in Accounting 12

Computer technology and its usage haveregistered a significant development during the

last three decades. Historically, computers havebeen used effectively in science and technology tosolve the complex computational and logicalproblems. They have also been used for carryingout economic planning and forecasting processes.Recently, modern day computers have made theirpresence felt in business and industry. The mostimportant impact of computers has been on themanner in which data is stored and processedwithin an organisation. Although manual dataprocessing for Management Information System(MIS) has been quite common in the past, modernMIS would be nearly impossible without the use ofcomputer systems. In this chapter we shall discussthe need for the use of computers in accounting,the nature of accounting information system andthe types of accounting related MIS reports.

12.1 Meaning and Elements of Computer System

A computer is an electronic device, which is capableof performing a variety of operations as directed bya set of instructions. This set of instructions is calleda computer programme. A computer system is acombination of six elements:

12.1.1 Hardware

Hardware of computer consists of physical componentssuch as keyboard, mouse, monitor and processor. Theseare electronic and electromechanical components.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying thischapter, you will be ableto :• state the meaning,

elementsand capabilit-ies of computer system;

• explain the need forcomputers in account-ing;

• describe the automa-tion of accountingprocess;

• explain design ofaccounting reportsfrom the accountingdata;

• list the variousManagement Informa-tion System (MIS)reports and their uses;

• explain the datainterface betweeninformation systems.

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12.1.2 Software

A set(s) of programmes, which is used to work with such hardware is calledits software. A coded set of instructions stored in the form of circuits is calledfirmware. There are six types of software as follows:

(a) Operating System : An integrated set of specialised programmes thatare meant to manage the resources of a computer and also facilitate itsoperation is called operating system. It creates a necessary interfacethat is an interactive link, between the user and the computer hardware.

(b) Utility Programmes : These are a set of computer programmes, which aredesigned to perform certain supporting operations: such as programmeto format a disk, duplicate a disk, physically reorganise stored data andprogrammes.

(c) Application Software : These are user oriented programmes designedand developed for performing certain specified tasks: such as payrollaccounting, inventory accounting, financial accounting, etc.

(d) Language Processors : These are the software, which check for languagesyntax and eventually translate (or interpret) the source programme(that is a programme written in a computer language) into machinelanguage (that is the language which the computer understands).

(e) System Software : These are a set of programmes which control suchinternal functions as reading data from input devices, transmittingprocessed data to output devices and also checking the system to ensurethat its components are functioning properly.

(f) Connectivity Software : These are a set of programmes which create andcontrol a connection between a computer and a server so that thecomputer is able to communicate and share the resources of serverand other connected computers.

12.1.3 People

People interacting with the computers are also called live-ware of the computersystem. They constitute the most important part of the computer system :• System Analysts are the people who design data processing systems.• Programmers are the people who write programmes to implement the data

processing system design.• Operators are the people who participate in operating the computers.

People who respond to the procedures instituted for executing the computerprogrammes are also a part of live-ware.

12.1.4 Procedures

The procedure means a series of operations in a certain order or manner toachieve desired results. There are three types of procedures which constitute

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part of computer system: hardware-oriented, software-oriented and internalprocedure. Hardware–oriented procedure provide details about componentsand their method of operation. The software-oriented procedure provides aset of instructions required for using the software of computer system. Internalprocedure is instituted to ensure smooth flow of data to computers bysequencing the operation of each sub-system of overall computer system.

12.1.5 Data

These are facts and may consist of numbers, text, etc. These are gatheredand entered into a computer system. The computer system in turn stores,retrieves, classifies, organises and synthesises the data to produce informationaccording to a pre-determined set of instructions. The data is, therefore,processed and organised to create information that is relevant and can beused for decision-making.

12.1.6 Connectivity

It is being acknowledged as a sixth element of the computer system. Themanner in which a particular computer system is connected to others saythrough telephone lines, microwave transmission, satellite link, etc. is theelement of connectivity.

12.2 Capabilities of Computer System

A computer system possesses some characteristics, which, in comparison tohuman beings, turn out to be its capabilities. These are as follows ;Speed : It refers to the amount of time computers takes in accomplishing atask or completes an operation. Computers require far less time than humanbeings in performing a task. Normally, human beings take into account asecond or minute as unit of time. But computers have such a fast operatingcapability that the relevant unit of time is fraction of a second. Most of themodern computers are capable of performing a 100 million calculations persecond and that is why the industry has developed Million Instructions perSecond (MIPS) as the criterion to classify different computers according tospeed.Accuracy : It refers to the degree of exactness with which computations aremade and operations are performed. One might spend years in detecting errorsin computer calculations or updating a wrong record. Most of the errors inComputer Based Information System(CBIS) occur because of bad programming,erroneous data and deviation from procedures. These errors are caused by humanbeings. Errors attributable to hardware are normally detected and corrected bythe computer system itself. The computers rarely commit errors and perform alltypes of complex operations accurately.

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Reliability : It refers to the ability with which the computers remain functional toserve the user. Computers systems are well-adapted to performing repetitiveoperations. They are immune to tiredness, boredom or fatigue. Therefore, they aremore reliable than human beings. Yet there can be failures of computer systemdue to internal and external reasons. Any failure of the computer in a highlyautomated industry is unacceptable. Therefore, the companies in such situationsprovide for back-up facility to swiftly take over operations without loss of time.Versatility : It refers to the ability of computers to perform a variety of tasks: simpleas well as complex. Computers are usually versatile unless designed for a specificapplication. A general purpose computer is capable of being used in any area ofapplication: business, industry, scientific, statistical, technological, communicationsand so on. A general purpose computer, when installed in an organisation, cantake over the jobs of several specialists because of its versatility. computer systemwhen installed can take over the jobs of all these specialists because of being highlyversatile. This further ensures fuller utilisation of its capability.Storage : It refers to the amount of data a computer system can store andaccess. The computer systems, besides having instant access to data, havehuge capacity to store such data in a very small physical space. A CD-ROMwith 4.7” of diameter is capable of storing a large number of books, eachcontaining thousands of pages and yet leave enough space for storing moresuch material. A typical mainframe computer system is capable of storingand providing online billion of characters and thousands of graphic images.It is clear from the above discussion that computer capabilities outperformthe human capabilities. As a result, a computer, when used properly, willimprove the efficiency of an organisation.

12.3 Limitations of a Computer System

In spite of possessing all the above capabilities, computers suffer from thefollowing limitations :Lack of Commonsense : Computer systems as on date do not possess anycommon sense because no full-proof algorithm has been designed toprogramme common sense. Since computers work according to a storedprogramme(s), they simply lack of commonsense.Zero IQ : Computers are dumb devices with zero Intelligence Quotient (IQ).They cannot visualise and think what exactly to do under a particular situation,unless they have been programmed to tackle that situation. Computers mustbe directed to perform each and every action, however, minute it may be.Lack of Decision-making : Decision-making is a complex process involvinginformation, knowledge, intelligence, wisdom and ability to judge. Computerscannot take decisions on their own because they do not possess all theessentials of decision-making. They can be programmed to take such decisions,

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which are purely procedure-oriented. If a computer has not been programmedfor a particular decision situation, it will not take decision due to lack ofwisdom and evaluating faculties. Human beings, on the other hand, possessthis great power of decision-making.

12.4 Components of Computer

The functional components of computer system consist of Input Unit, CentralProcessing System and Output Unit. The way these components are embeddedin a computer may differ from one architectural design to another, yet all ofthem constitute the essential building blocks of a computer system.Diagrammatically, these components may be presented as follows:

Fig. 12.1 : Block diagram of main components of computer

12.4.1 Input Unit

It controls various input devices which are used for entering data into thecomputer system. Keyboard and mouse, for instance, are the most commonlyused input device. Other such devices are magnetic tape, magnetic disk, lightpen, optical scanner, Magnetic Ink Character (MICR) Recognition, OpticalCharacter Recognition (OCR), bar code reader, smart card reader, etc. Besides,there are other devices which respond to voice and physical touch. A menulayout is displayed on a touch sensitive screen. Whenever user touches a menuitem on touch-screen, the computer senses which particular menu item hasbeen touched and accordingly performs the operation associated with that menuitem. Such touch screens have been installed at major railway stations forobtaining the online information about arrival and departure of trains.

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12.4.2 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

This is the main part of computer hardware that actually processes data,according to the instructions it receives. It controls the flow of data by directingthe data to enter the system, places the data into its memory, retrieves thesame as and when needed and directs the output of data according to a set ofstored instructions. It has three main units as described below :

(a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) : It is responsible for performing all thearithmetic computations such as addition, subtraction, division,multiplication and exponentiation. In addition to this, it also performslogical operations involving comparisons among variables and data items.

(b) Memory Unit : In this unit, data is stored before being actually processed.The data so stored is accessed and processed according to a set ofinstructions which are also stored in the memory of the computer wellbefore such data is transmitted to the memory from input devices.

(c) Control Unit : This unit is entrusted with the responsibility of controllingand coordinating the activities of all other units of the computer system.Specifically, it performs the following functions :• Read instructions out of memory unit;• Decode such instructions;• Set up the routing of data, through internal circuitry/wiring, to the

desired place at right time; and• Determine the input device from where to get next instruction after

the instruction in hand has been executed.

12.4.3 Output Unit

After processing the data, the information produced according to a set ofinstruction need to be made available to user in a human readable andunderstandable form. A computer system, therefore, needs an output deviceto communicate such information to the user. Essentially, the output deviceis assigned the task of translating the processed data from machine codedform to a human readable form. The commonly used output devices include:external devices like monitor also called Visual Display Unit (VDU), printer,graphic plotter for producing graphs, technical drawings and charts andinternal devices like magnetic storage devices. Recently, a new device beingperfected is the speech synthesiser, which is capable of producing verbal outputthat sounds like human speech. Information:

12.5 Evolution of Computerised Accounting

Manual system of accounting has been traditionally the most popular methodof keeping the records of financial transactions of an organisation.

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Conventionally, the bookkeeper (or accountant) used to maintain books ofaccounts such as cash book, journal and ledger so as to prepare a summaryof transactions and final accounts manually. The technological innovationsled to the development of various machines capable of performing a variety ofaccounting functions. For example, the popular billing machine was designedto typewrite description of the transaction along with names, addresses ofcustomers. This machine was capable of computing discounts; adding thenet total and posting the requisite data to the relevant accounts. The customer’sbill was generated automatically once the operator has entered the necessaryinformation. These machines combined the features of a typewriter and variouskinds of calculators.

With substantial increase in the number of transactions, the technologyadvanced further. With exponential increase in speed, storage and processingcapacity, newer versions of these machines evolved. A computer to whichthey were connected operated these machines. The success of a growingorganisation with complexity of transactions tended to depend on resourceoptimisation, quick decision-making and control. As a result, the maintenanceof accounting data on a real-time (or spontaneous) basis became almostessential. Such a system of maintaining accounting records became convenientwith the computerised accounting system.

12.5.1 Information and Decisions

An organisation is a collection of interdependent decision-making units thatexist to pursue organisational objectives. As a system, every organisationaccepts inputs and transforms them into outputs. All organisational systemspursue certain objectives through a process of resource allocation, which isaccomplished through the process of managerial decision-making. Informationfacilitates decisions regarding allocation of resources and thereby assists anorganisation in pursuit of its objectives. Therefore, the information is themost important organisational resource. Every medium sized to largeorganisation has a well-established information system that is meant togenerate the information required for decision-making.

With the increasing use of information systems in organisations,Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) have started playing a vital role insupporting business operations. Every transaction processing system hasthree components: Input, Processing and Output. Since InformationTechnology (IT) follows the GIGO principle (Garbage in-Garbage out), it isnecessary that input to the IT-based information system is accurate, completeand authorised. This is achieved by automating the input. A large number ofdevices are now available to automate the input process for a TPS.

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12.5.2 Transaction Processing System

Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) are among the earliest computerisedsystems catering to the requirements of large business enterprises. The purposeof a typical TPS is to record, process, validate and store transactions thatoccur in the various functional areas of a business for subsequent retrievaland usage. A transaction could be internal or external. When a departmentrequisitions material supplies from stores, an internal transaction is said tohave occurred. However, when the purchase department purchases materialsfrom a supplier, an external transaction takes place. The scope of financialaccounting is confined to external transactions only. TPS involves followingsteps in processing a transaction. In order to understand these steps, let usconsider a case wherein a customer withdraws money using the AutomatedTeller Machine (ATM) facility, as described below :• Data Entry : The action data must be entered into the system before it is

processed. There are a number of input devices to enter data: Keyboard,mouse, etc. For example, a bank customer operates an ATM facility to makea withdrawal. The actions taken by the customer constitute data, which isprocessed after validation by the computerised personal banking system.

• Data Validation : It ensures the accuracy and reliability of input data bycomparing the same with some predetermined standards or known data.This validation is performed by error detection and error correctionprocedures. The control mechanism, wherein actual input is comparedwith the standard, is meant to detect errors while error correctionprocedures make suggestions for entering correct data input. The PersonalIdentification Number (PIN) of the customer is validated with the knowndata. If it is incorrect, a suggestion is made to indicate that the PIN isinvalid. After validating the PIN (which is also a part of processing by TPS),the amount of withdrawal being made by the customer is also checked toensure that it does not exceed a certain limit.

• Processing and Revalidation : The processing of data, representing actionsof the ATM user, occurs almost instantaneously in case of the OnlineTransaction Processing (OLTP) system provided a valid data representingactions of the user has been encountered. This is called check input validity.Revalidation occurs to ensure that the transaction in terms of delivery ofmoney by ATM has been completed. This is called check output validity.

• Storage : Processed actions, as described above, culminate into financialtransaction data, which describe the withdrawal of money by a particularcustomer, are stored in transaction database of Computerised personal bankingsystem. This implies that only valid transactions are stored in the database.

• Information : The stored data is processed using the query facility to producedesired information. A database supported by DBMS is bound to havestandard Structured Query Language (SQL) support.

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• Reporting : Finally, reports can be prepared on the basis of the requiredinformation content according to decision usefulness of report.A simple computerised accounting system accepts the complete transaction

data as input; stores such data in computer storage media (say hard disk)and retrieves the accounting data for processing as and when required forgenerating an accounting report, as output. The input-process-output diagramshown below indicates as to how accounting software translates data intoinformation. This processing of data is accomplished either through BatchProcessing or Real-time Processing.

Batch Processing applies to large and voluminous data that is accumulatedoffline from various units: branches or departments. The entire accumulateddata is processed in one shot to generate the desired reports according todecision requirement.

Real-Time Processing provides online outcome in the form of informationand reports without time lag between the transaction and its processing. Theaccounting reports are generated by query language popularly called StructuredQuery Language (SQL). It allows the user to retrieve report relevant informationthat is capable of being laid out in pre-designed accounting report.Accounting software may be structured with such components as provide forstorage and processing of data pertaining to purchase, sales, inventory, payrolland other financial transactions (refer figure 12.2).

Do It Yourself

Go to a departmental store and an ATM of a Bank and identify theaccounting process there. Observe the Transaction Processing System (TPS).

12.6 Features of Computerised Accounting System

Accounting software is used to implement a computerised accounting system.The computer accounting system is based on the concept of databases. Itdoes away with the concept of creating and maintaining journals, ledger, etc.which are essential while working with manual accounting system. Typicalycomputerised accounting system offers the following features :• Online input and storage of accounting data.• Printout of purchase and sales invoices.• Logical scheme for codification of accounts and transactions. Every account

and transaction is assigned a unique code.• Grouping of accounts is done from the very beginning.• Instant reports for management, for example – Aging Statement, Stock

Statement, Trial Balance, Trading and Profit and Loss Account, Balance Sheet,Stock Valuation, Value Added Tax (VAT), Returns, Payroll Report, etc.

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Fig. 12.2 : Components of computerised accounting software system

Test Your Understanding

Fill in the correct words :1. The user oriented programmes designed and developed for performing certain specific

tasks are called as ...........2. Language syntax is checked by software called as ...........3. The people who write programmes to implement the data processing system design

are called as ...........4. ...........is the brain of the computer.5. ...........and ...........are two of the important requirements of an accounting report.

6. An example of responsibility report is ...........

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12.7 Management Information System and AccountingInformation System

In order to remain competitive, organisations depend heavily on InformationSystems. Management Information System (MIS) is used the most commonform of information system. A management information system (MIS) is asystem that provides the information necessary to take decisions and managean organisation effectively. MIS is supportive of the institution’s long-termstrategic goals and objectives. MIS is viewed and used at many levels bymanagement: Operational, Tactical and Strategic. Accounting InformationSystem (AIS) identifies, collects, processes, and communicates economicinformation about an entity to a wide variety of users. Such information isorganised in a manner that correct decisions can be based on it.

Every accounting system is essentially a part of the Accounting InformationSystem (AIS) which, in turn is a part of the broader system, viz. theorganisation’s Management Information System.

The following diagram shows the relationship of the Accounting Systemwith the other functional management information systems.

Fig. 12.3 : Relationship of the accounting system with other functional management information system

The diagram shown above entails the four widely recognised functionalareas of management. An organisation operates in a given environmentsurrounded by the suppliers and customers. The informational needsemerge from the business processes stratified into functional areas whereaccounting is one of them. The accounting information system (AIS) receivesand provides information to the various sub-systems of the institutional/integrated MIS.

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Accounting Information System (AIS) is a collection of resources (peopleand equipment), designed to transform financial and other data intoinformation. This information is communicated to a wide variety of decision-makers. Accepting information systems performs this transformation whetherthey are essentially manual systems or thoroughly computerised.

Conventionally, MIS was also perceived as day-to-day financial accountingsystems that are used to ensure basic control is maintained over financialrecord keeping activities, but now it is widely recognised as a broader conceptand accounting system is a sub component.

The reports generated by the accounting system are disseminated tothe various users – internal and external to the organisation. The externalparties include the proprietors, investors, creditors, financiers, governmentsuppliers and vendors and the society at large. The reports used by theseparties are more of routine nature. However, the internal parties – theemployees, managers, etc. use the accounting information for decision-making and control.

Do It Yourself

Go to a shoe manufacturing unit/chemical-processing unit. Observe theproduction process and the various selling activities. Visualise the needfor a MIS. Identify the various sub components of the MIS.

12.7.1 Designing of Accounting Reports

Data when processed becomes information. When the related information issummarised to meet a particular need, it is called as a report. The contentand design of the report is expected to vary depending upon the level to whichit is submitted and decision to made on the basis of the report. A report mustbe effective and efficient to the user and should substantiate the decision-making process. Akin to any report, every accounting report must be able tofulfil the following criterion :

(a) Relevance(b) Timeliness(c) Accuracy(d) Completeness(e) Summarisation

The accounting reports generated by the accounting software may be eitherroutine reports or on the specific requirements of the user. For example, theledger is a routine report while a report on supplies of a particular item by agiven party is an on-demand report. However, from a broader perspective, theaccounting related MIS reports may be of following reports :

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(a) Summary Reports : Summarises all activities of the organisation and presentin the form of summary report. Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet.

(b) Demand Reports : This report will be prepared only when the managementrequests them, e.g. Bad Debts Report for a given product, Stock ValuationReport.

(c) Customer/Supplier Reports : According to the specifications of themanagement it will be prepared. For example, Top 10 Customers report,Interest on Customer Account/Invoices, Statement of Account, CustomerReminder Letters Outstanding/Open Delivery Order, Purchase Analysis,Vendor Analysis report.

(d) Exception Reports : According to the conditions or exceptions the reportis prepared. For example, Inventory Report in short supplies, Stock StatusQuery, Over stocked Status, etc.

(e) Responsibility Reports : The MIS structure specifies the premises ofmanagement responsibilities. For example, the report on Cash Position,to be submitted by the head of Finance and Accounts department.

The various steps involved in designing accounting reports from accountingdata are as follows :

(1) Definition of objectives : the objectives of the report must be clearlydefined, who are the users of the report and the decision to be taken onthe basis of report.

(2) Structure of the report : the information to be contained therein and thestyle of presentation.

(3) Querying with the database : the accounting information queries mustbe clearly defined and the methodology to be adopted while interactingwith the database.

(4) Finalising the report.

12.7.2 Data Interface between the Information System

Accounting information system is important component of the organisationalMIS in an organisation. It receives information and provides information tothe other functional MIS. The following examples illustrate the relationshipand data interface between the various sub-components of MIS.

I Accounting Information System, Manufacturing Information System andHuman Resource Information System

Look at figure 12.4. It depicts the relationship between the three informationsystems, viz. manufacturing information system, accounting informationsystem and the human resource information system.

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The manufacturing department receives the list of workers from the HumanResource (HR) department. It sends the details of production achieved by theworkers on the basis of which the HR department to the finance and accounts(F&A) department to pay the wages. The details of the wages paid and statutorydues are also send by the F & A department to the production departmentalso to the HR department to monitor the performance of workers. The HRdepartment communicates to the other departments about the good/badperformance on the basis decision on various operational matters may betaken.

Fig. 12.4 : Relationship between AIS, manufacturing information system and human resource information system

II AIS and Marketing Information System

Consider the business process in the Marketing and Sales department involvingthe following activities :• inquiry• contact creation• entry of orders• dispatch of goods• billing to customers

The accounting sub-system’s transaction cycle include the processing ofsales orders, credit authorisation, custody of the goods, inventory position,shipping information, receivables, etc. It also keeps a track of the customeraccounts, e.g. Aging Report, which should be generated by the system.

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III AIS and Manufacturing Information System

Similarly, business process in the production department may involve thefollowing activities :

• preparation of plans and schedules• issue of material requisition forms and job cards• issue of inventory• issue of orders for procurement of raw materials• handling of vendors invoices• payments to vendors

The accounting sub-system transaction cycle would therefore include theprocessing of purchase orders, advance to suppliers/vendors, inventory statusupdation, account payable, etc. All of this information has to share with theother MIS in the organisation.

Hence, the computerised accounting system as a sub component of theaccounting information system transforms the financial data into meaningfulinformation and communicates the information to the decision-makers. Thereport demanded may be routine or specific ones.

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Operating system • Management information system• Analysts • Transactions processing system• Utility programme • Accounting information system• Data • Data interface• Application software • Report

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1 Meaning of a Computer : Computer is an electronic device capable of performingvariety of operations as desired by a set of instructions.

2 Elements of a Computer System :• Hardware• Software• People• Procedure• Data• Connectivity

3 Capabilities of Computer :• Speed• Accuracy• Reliability• Versatility• Storage

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4 Need of Computers in Accounting : The advent of globalisation has resulted inthe rise in business operations. Consequently, every medium and large sizedorganisations require well-established information system in order to generateinformation required for decision-making and achieving the organisationalobjectives. This made information technology to play vital role in supportingbusiness operations.

5 MIS and Accounting Information System : A management information systemprovides information necessary to take decisions and manage an organisationeffectively. Accounting information system on the other hand identifies, collects,processes and communicates economic information about an entity to a widevariety of users.

6 Accounting Reports : Information supplied to meet a particular need is calledreport. An accounting report must fulfil the following conditions :• Relevance• Timeliness• Accuracy• Completeness• Summarisation

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. State the different elements of a computer system.2. List the distinctive advantages of a computer system over a manual system.3. Draw block diagram showing the main components of a computer.4. Give three examples of a transaction processing system.5. State the relationship between information and decision.6. What is Accounting Information System?7. State the various essential features of an accounting report.8. Name three components of a Transaction Processing System.9. Give example of the relationship between a Human Resource Information

System and MIS.

Long Answers

1. ‘An organisation is a collection of interdependent decision-making units thatexists to pursue organisational objectives’. In the light of this statement,explain the relationship between information and decisions. Also explain therole of Transaction Processing System in facilitating the decision-makingprocess in business organisations.

2. Explain, using examples, the relationship between the organisational MISand the other functional information system in an organisation. Describehow AIS receives and provides information to other functional MIS.

3. ‘An accounting report is essential a report which must be able to fulfil certainbasic criteria ‘ Explain? List the various types of accounting reports.

4. Describe the various elements of a computer system and explain the distinctivefeatures of a computer system and manual system.

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Checklist to Test Your Understanding

1. Application software2. Language processor3. Programmer4. CPU5. Timliness, Relevance6. Cash position, Management responsibility

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Computerised Accounting System 13

In chapter 12, you have learnt about the need foruse of computers in accounting the nature and

use of accounting information system. In thischapter, we shall discuss the nature of computrisedaccounting system, its advantages, limitations andsourcing.

13.1 Concept of ComputerisedAccounting System

A computerised accounting system is an accountinginformation system that processes the financialtransactions and events as per Generally AcceptedAccounting Principles (GAAP) to produce reports asper user requirements. Every accounting system,manual or computerised, has two aspects. First, ithas to work under a set of well-defined conceptscalled accounting principles. Another, that there isa user-defined framework for maintenance ofrecords and generation of reports.

In a computerised accounting system, the frameworkof storage and processing of data is called operatingenvironment that consists of hardware as well as softwarein which the accounting system, works. The type of theaccounting system used determines the operatingenvironment. Both hardware and software areinterdependent. The type of software determines thestructure of the hardware. Further, the selection ofhardware is dependent upon various factors such asthe number of users, level of secrecy and the nature ofvarious activities of functional departments in anorganisation.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After s tudying th ischapter, you will be ableto :• define a computerised

accounting system;• distinguish between a

manual and computer-ised accounting sys-tem;

• highlight the advanta-ges and limitations ofcomputerised account-ing system; and

• state the sourcing of acomputerised account-ing system.

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Take the case of a club, for example, where the number of transactionsand their variety is relatively small, a Personal Computer with standardisedsoftware may be sufficient. However, for a large business organisation with anumber of geographically scattered factories and offices, more powerfulcomputer systems supported by sophisticated networks are required to handlethe voluminous data and the complex reporting requirements. In order tohandle such requirements, multi-user operating systems such as UNIX, Linux,etc. are used.

Modern computerised accounting systems are based on the concept ofdatabase. A database is implemented using a database management system,which is define by a set of computer programmes (or software) that manageand organise data effectively and provide access to the stored data by theapplication programmes. The accounting database is well-organised with activeinterface that uses accounting application programs and reporting system.Every computerised accounting system has two basic requirements;

• Accounting Framework : It consists a set of principles, coding and groupingstructure of accounting.

• Operating Procedure : It is a well-defined operating procedure blendedsuitably with the operating environment of the organisation.The use of computers in any database oriented application has four basic

requirements as mentioned below ;• Front-end Interface : It is an interactive link or a dialog between the user

and database-oriented software through which the user communicates tothe back-end database. For example, a transaction relating to purchaseof goods may be dealt with the accounting system through a purchasevoucher, which appears on the computer’s monitor of data entry operatorand when entered into the system is stored in the database. The samedata may be queried through reporting system say purchase analysissoftware programme.

• Back-end Database : It is the data storage system that is hidden from theuser and responds to the requirement of the user to the extent the user isauthorised to access.

• Data Processing : It is a sequence of actions that are taken to transformthe data into decision useful information.

• Reporting System: It is an integrated set of objects that constitute thereport.The computerised accounting is also one of the database-oriented

applications wherein the transaction data is stored in well-organised database.The user operates on such database using the required and desired interfaceand also takes the desired reports by suitable transformations of stored datainto information. Therefore, the fundamentals of computerised accounting

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embrace all the basic requirements of any database-oriented application incomputers. Accordingly, the computerised accounting system has the abovefour additional requirements.

13.2 Comparison between Manual and Computerised Accounting

Accounting, by definition, is the process of identifying, recording, classifyingand summarising financial transactions to produce the financial reports fortheir ultimate analysis. Let us understand these activities in the context ofmanual and computerised accounting system.• Identifying : The identification of transactions, based on application of

accounting principles is, common to both manual and computerisedaccounting system.

• Recording : The recording of financial transactions, in manual accountingsystem is through books of original entries while the data content of suchtransactions is stored in a well-designed accounting database incomputerised accounting system.

• Classification : In a manual accounting system, transactions recorded inthe books of original entry are further classified by posting into ledgeraccounts. This results in transaction data duplicity. In computerisedaccounting, no such data duplication is made to cause classification oftransactions. In order to produce ledger accounts, the stored transactiondata is processed to appear as classified so that the same is presented inthe form of a report. Different forms of the same transaction data aremade available for being presented in various reports.

• Summarising : The transactions are summarised to produce trial balancein manual accounting system by ascertaining the balances of variousaccounts. As a result, preparation of ledger accounts becomes a pre-requisite for preparing the trial balance. However, in computerisedaccounting, the originally stored transactions data are processed to churnout the list of balances of various accounts to be finally shown in the trialbalance report. The generation of ledger accounts is not a necessarycondition for producing trial balance in a computerised accounting system.

• Adjusting Entries : In a manual accounting system, these entries are madeto adhere to the principle of cost matching revenue. These entries arerecorded to match the expenses of the accounting period with the revenuesgenerated by them. Some other adjusting entries may be made as part oferrors and rectification. However, in computerised accounting, Journalvouchers are prepared and stored to follow the principle of cost matchingrevenue, but there is nothing like passing adjusting entries for errors andrectification, except for rectifying an error of principle by having recordeda wrong voucher such as using payment voucher for a receipt transaction.

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• Financial Statements : In a manual system of accounting, the preparationof financial statements pre-supposes the availability of trial balance.However, in computerised accounting, there is no such requirement. Thegeneration of financial statements is independent of producing the trialbalance because such statements can be prepared by direct processing oforiginally stored transaction data.

• Closing the Books : After the preparation of financial reports, the accountantsmake preparations for the next accounting period. This is achieved byposting of closing and reversing journal entries. In computerised accounting,there is year-end processing to create and store opening balances of accountsin database.It may be observed that conceptually, the accounting process is identical

regardless of the technology used.

13.3 Advantages of Computerised Accounting System

Computerised accounting offers several advantages vis-a-vis manual accounting,these are summarised as follows ;• Speed : Accounting data is processed faster by using a computerised

accounting system than it is achieved through manual efforts. This is becausecomputers require far less time than human beings in performing a task.

• Accuracy : The possibility of error is eliminated in a computerisedaccounting system because the primary accounting data is entered oncefor all the subsequent usage and processes in preparing the accountingreports. Normally, accounting errors in a manual accounting system occurbecause of repeated posting of same set of original data by several timeswhile preparing different types of accounting reports.

• Reliability : The computer system is well-adapted to performing repetitiveoperations. They are immune to tiredness, boredom or fatigue. As a result,computers are highly reliable compared to human beings. Since computerisedaccounting system relies heavily on computers, they are relatively more reliablethan manual accounting systems.

• Up-to-Date Information : The accounting records, in a computerisedaccounting system are updated automatically as and when accountingdata is entered and stored. Therefore, latest information pertaining toaccounts get reflected when accounting reports are produced and printed.

For example, when accounting data pertaining to a transactionregarding cash purchase of goods is entered and stored, the cash account,purchase account and also the final accounts (trading and profit and lossaccount) reflect the impact immediately.

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• Real Time User Interface : Most of the automated accounting systems areinter-linked through a network of computers. This facilitates the availabilityof information to various users at the same time on a real time basis (thatis spontaneously).

• Automated Document Production : Most of the computerised accountingsystems have standardised, user defined format of accounting reports thatare generated automatically. The accounting reports such as Cash book,Trial balance, Statement of accounts are obtained just by click of a mousein a computerised accounting environment.

• Scalability : In a computerised accounting system, the requirement ofadditional manpower is confined to data entry operators for storingadditional vouchers. The additional cost of processing additional transactionsis almost negligible. As a result the computerised accounting systems arehighly scalable.

• Legibility : The data displayed on computer monitor is legible. This isbecause the characters (alphabets, numerals, etc.) are type written usingstandard fonts. This helps in avoiding errors caused by untidy writtenfigures in a manual accounting system.

• Efficiency : The computer based accounting systems ensure better use ofresources and time. This brings about efficiency in generating decisions,useful informations and reports.

• Quality Reports : The inbuilt checks and untouchable features of datahandling facilitate hygienic and true accounting reports that are highlyobjective and can be relied upon.

• MIS Reports : The computerised accounting system facilitates the real timeproduction of management information reports, which will helpmanagement to monitor and control the business effectively. Debtors’analysis would indicate the possibilities of defaults (or bad debts) and alsoconcentration of debt and its impact on the balance sheet. For example, ifthe company has a policy of restricting the credit sales by a fixed amountto a given party, the information is available on the computer systemimmediately when every voucher is entered through the data entry form.However, it takes time when it comes to a manual accounting system.Besides, the results may not be accurate.

• Storage and Retrieval : The computerised accounting system allows theusers to store data in a manner that does not require a large amount ofphysical space. This is because the accounting data is stored inhard-disks, CD-ROMs, floppies that occupy a fraction of physical spacecompared to books of accounts in the form of ledger, journal and otheraccounting registers. Besides, the system permits fast and accurateretrieval of data and information.

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• Motivation and Employees Interest : The computer system requires aspecialised training of staff, which makes them feel more valued. Thismotivates them to develop interest in the job. However, it may also causeresistance when we switch over from a manual system to a computersystem.

Test Your Understanding

1. The framework of storage and processing of data is called as ........2. Database is implemented using ........3. A sequence of actions taken to transform the data into decision useful

information is called.......4. An appropriate accounting software for a small business organisation

having only one user and single office location would be ........

13.4 Limitations of Computerised Accounting System

The main limitations emerge out of the environment in which the computerisedaccounting system is made to operate. These limitations are as given below ;• Cost of Training : The sophisticated computerised accounting packages

generally require specialised staff personnel. As a result, a huge trainingcosts are incurred to understand the use of hardware and software on acontinuous basis because newer types of hardware and software areacquired to ensure efficient and effective use of computerised accountingsystems.

• Staff Opposition : Whenever the accounting system is computerised, thereis a significant degree of resistance from the existing accounting staff,partly because of the fear that they shall be made redundant and largelybecause of the perception that they shall be less important to theorganisation.

• Disruption : The accounting processes suffer a significant loss of worktime when an organisation switches over to the computerised accountingsystem. This is due to changes in the working environment that requiresaccounting staff to adapt to new systems and procedures.

• System Failure : The danger of the system crashing due to hardware failuresand the subsequent loss of work is a serious limitation of computerisedaccounting system. However, providing for back-up arrangements canobviate this limitation. Software damage and failure may occur due toattacks by viruses. This is of particular relevance to accounting systemsthat extensively use Internet facility for their online operations. No full-proof solutions are available as of now to tackle the menace of attacks onsoftware by viruses.

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• Inability to Check Unanticipated Errors : Since the computers lack capabilityto judge, they cannot detect unanticipated errors as human beings commit.This is because the software to detect and check errors is a set ofprogrammes for known and anticipated errors.

• Breaches of Security : Computer related crimes are difficult to detect asany alteration of data may go unnoticed. The alteration of records in amanual accounting system is easily detected by first sight. Fraud andembezzlement are usually committed on a computerised accounting systemby alteration of data or programmes. Hacking of passwords or user rightsmay change the accounting records. This is achieved by tappingtelecommunications lines, wire-tapping or decoding of programmes. Also,the people responsible for tampering of data cannot be located which in amanual system is relatively easier to detect.

• Ill-effects on Health : The extensive use of computers systems maylead to development of various health problems: bad backs, eyestrain,muscular pains, etc. This affects adversely the working efficiency ofaccounting staff on one hand and increased medical expenditure onsuch staff on the other.

Do It Yourself

Visit a commercial organisation where the accounting is performed manually.Observe the various accounting activities. Now list the advantages, whichwould have accrued, had the accounting being performed throughcomputers.

13.5 Sourcing of Accounting Software

Accounting software is an integral part of the computerised accountingsystem. An important factor to be considered before acquiring accountingsoftware is the accounting expertise of people responsible in organisationfor accounting work. People, not computers, are responsible for accounting.The need for accounting software arises in two situations : (a) when thecomputerised accounting system is implemented to replace the manualsystem or (b) when the current computerised system needs to be replacedwith a new one in view of changing needs.

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Box 1Accounting Software

Variety of accounting software is available in the market. The mostpopular software used in India are Tally and Ex. The basic features ofall accounting software are same on a global basis. The legal reportingrequirements in a given country and the business needs affect thesoftware contents. The other popular softwares are Sage, Wings 2000,Best Books, Cash Manager, and Ace Pays, etc.

13.5.1 Accounting Packages

Every Computerised Accounting System is implemented to perform theaccounting activity (recording and storing of accounting data) and generatereports as per the requirements of the user. From this perspective.

The accounting packages are classified into the following categories :(a) Ready to use(b) Customised(c) Tailored

Each of these categories offers distinctive features. However, the choice ofthe accounting software would depend upon the suitability to the organisationespecially in terms of accounting needs.

13.5.2 Ready-to-Use

Ready-to-Use accounting software is suited to organisations running small/conventional business where the frequency or volume of accountingtransactions is very low. This is because the cost of installation is generallylow and number of users is limited. Ready-to-use software is relatively easierto learn and people (accountant) adaptability is very high. This also impliesthat level of secrecy is relatively low and the software is prone to data frauds.The training needs are simple and sometimes the vendor (supplier of software)offers the training on the software free. However, these software offer littlescope of linking to other information systems.

13.5.3 Customised

Accounting software may be customised to meet the special requirement ofthe user. Standardised accounting software available in the market may notsuit or fulfil the user requirements. For example, standardised accountingsoftware may contain the sales voucher and inventory status as separateoptions. However, when the user requires that inventory status to be updatedimmediately upon entry of sales voucher and report be printed, the softwareneeds to be customised.

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Customised software is suited large and medium businesses and can belinked to the other information systems. The cost of installation andmaintenance is relatively high because the high cost is to be paid to the vendorfor customisation. The customisation includes modification and addition tothe software contents, provision for the specified number of users and theirauthentication, etc. Secrecy of data and software can be better maintained incustomised software. Since the need to train the software users is important,the training costs are therefore high.

13.5.4 Tailored

The accounting software is generally tailored in large business organisationswith multi users and geographically scattered locations. These softwarerequires specialised training to the users. The tailored software is designed tomeet the specific requirements of the users and form an important part of theorganisational MIS. The secrecy and authenticity checks are robust in suchsoftwares and they offer high flexibility in terms of number of users.

To summarise, the following table represents the comparison between thevarious categories of accounting software :

Basis Ready to use Customised Tailored

Nature of business Small, conventional Large, medium Large, typicalbusiness business business

Cost of installation and Low Relatively high HighmaintenanceExpected Level of secrecy Low Relatively high Relatively high(Software and Data)Number of users and Limited As per Unlimitedtheir interface specificationsLinkage to other Restricted yes Yesinformation systemAdaptability High Relatively high SpecificTraining Low Medium Highrequirements

Do It Yourself

Visit a branch of a commercial bank and a big shopping complex. See thevarious activities performed there and analyse the accounting needs. Identifyan appropriate type of accounting package for performing the accountingactivities.

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13.6 Generic Considerations before Sourcing an Accounting Software

The following factors are usually taken in considerations before sourcingan accounting software.

13.6.1 Flexibility

An important consideration before sourcing an accounting software isflexibility, viz. data entry and the availability and design of various reportsexpected from it. Also, it should offer some flexibility between the users of thesoftware, the switch over between the accountants (users), operating systemsand the hardware. The user should be able to run the software on variety ofplatforms and machines, e.g. Windows 98/2000, Linux, etc.

13.6.2 Cost of Installation and Maintenance

The choice of the software obviously requires consideration of organisation abilityto afford the hardware and software. A simple guideline to take such a decision isthe cost benefit analysis of the available options and the financing opportunitiesavailable to the firm. Some times, certain software which appears cheap to buy,involve heavy maintenance and alteration costs, e.g. cost of addition of modules,training of staff, updating of versions, data failure/restoring costs. Conversely, theaccounting software which appear initially expensive to buyers, may require leastmaintenance and free upgrading and negligible alteration costs.

13.6.3 Size of Organisation

The size of organisation and the volume of business transactions do affect thesoftware choices. Small organisations, e.g. in non-profit organisations, wherethe number of accounting transactions is not so large, may opt for a simple,single user operated software. While, a large organisation may requiresophisticated software to meet the multi-user requirements, geographicallyscattered and connected through complex networks.

13.6.4 Ease of Adaptation and Training needs

Some accounting software is user friendly requiring a simple training to theusers. However, some other complex software packages linked to otherinformation systems require intensive training on a continuous basis. Thesoftware must be capable of attracting users and, if its requires simple training,should be able to motivate its potential users.

13.6.5 Utilities/MIS Reports

The MIS reports and the degree to which they are used in the organisationalso determine the acquisition of software. For example, software that requires

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simply producing the final accounts or cash flow/ratio analysis may be ready-to-use software. However, the software, which is expected to produce costrecords needs to be customised as per user requirements.

13.6.6 Expected Level of Secrecy (Software and Data)

Another consideration before buying accounting software is the securityfeatures, which prevent unauthorised personnel from accessing and/ormanipulating data in the accounting system. In tailored software for largebusinesses, the user rights may be restricted to purchase vouchers for thepurchase department, sales vouchers to the billing accountants and pettycash module access with the cashier. The operating system also matters.Unix environment allows multi-users compared to Windows. In Unix, the usercannot make the computer system functional unless the user clicks with apassword, which is not a restriction in Windows.

13.6.7 Exporting/Importing Data Facility

The transfer of database to other systems or software is sometimes expectedfrom the accounting software. Organisations may need to transfer informationdirectly from the ledger into spreadsheet software such as Lotus or Excel formore flexible reporting. The software should allow the hygienic, untoucheddata transfer.

Accounting software may be required to be linked to MIS software in theorganisation. In some ready to use accounting softwares, the exporting,importing facility is available but is limited to MS Office modules only, e.g. MSWord, MS Excel, etc. However, tailored softwares are designed in manner thatthey can interact and share information with the various sub components ofthe organisational MIS.

13.6.8 Vendors Reputation and Capability

Another important consideration is the reputation and capability of aboutthe vendor. This depends upon how long has he been the vendor is in businessof software development, whether there are other users of the software andextent of the availability of support mechanisms outside the premises of thevendor.

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Computerised Accounting System • Mannual Accounting System• Generally Accepted Accounting Principles • Operating Environment• Accounting Software • Accounting Packages

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Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1 Computerised Accounting System : A computerised accounting system is anaccounting information system that processes the financial transactions andevents to produce reports as per user requirements. It is based on the conceptof database and has two basic requirements: (a) Accounting framework and(b) Operating Procedure.

2 Advantages of Computerised Accounting System :• Speed • Accuracy• Reliability • Up-to-date• Scalability • Legibility• Efficiency • Quality Report• MIS Reports • Real time user interface• Storage and Retrieval • Motivation and Employees interest• Automated document production

3 Limitations of Computerised Accounting System :• Cost of training • Staff Opposition• Disruption • System failure• Breaches of security • Ill-effects on health• Inability to check

unanticipated errors4 Categories of Accounting Packages :

• Ready-to-Use • Customised• Tailored

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. State the four basic requirements of a database applications.2. Name the various categories of accounting package.3. Give examples of two types of operating systems.4. List the various advantages of computerised accounting systems.5. Give two examples each of the organisations where ‘ready-to-use’, ‘customised’,

and ‘tailored’ accounting packages respectively suitable to perform theaccounting activity.

6. Distinguish between a ‘ready-to-use’ and ‘tailored’ accounting software.

Long Answers

1. Define a computerised accounting system. Distinguish between a manualand computerised accounting system.

2. Discuss the advantages of computerised accounting system over the manualaccounting system.

3. Describe the various types of accounting software along with their advantagesand limitations.

4. ‘Accounting software is an integral part of the computerised accounting system’Explain. Briefly list the generic considerations before sourcing an accounting software.

5. ‘Computerised Accounting Systems are best form of accounting system’. Doyou agree? Comment.

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

1. Operating environment 2. DBMS 3. Data Processing 4. Ready to use

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Structuring Database for Accounting

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter,you will be able to :• identify the resources

of MS ACCESS asDBMS;

• explain basic conceptsof database system;

• express accountingreality in the context ofEntity Relationship(ER) Model;

• transform ER pre-sentation of accountingreality into database;

• d e v e l o p d a t a b a s edesign for computer-ised system usingRelational Data Model;

• formulate basic queriesfor retrieving account-ing data and informa-tion.

In the earlier chapters, you have already learntthat accounting of transactions are documented

with vouchers. Let us consider a few accountingtransaction to understand as to how these vouchersare used.

On April 01, 05 M/s Kshipra Computerscommences business with initial capital ofRs.5,00,000, which is deposited into bank. Recall thejournal entry that is recorded using manualaccounting system. This journal entry has datacontents that are filled-up using a simple transactionvoucher, which is prepared by Smith and authorisedby Aditya.

Fig. 14.1 : A sample transaction voucher to document simpletransactions involving one debit and one credit

14

M/s Kshipra Computers

TRANSACTION VOUCHER

Voucher No: 01 Date: Apr. 01, 2005

Debit Account: 642001 Bank Account

Credit Account: 110001 Capital Account

Amount in Rs. : 5,00,000

Narration: Commenced business by depositing initialcapital into bank

Authorised By: Aditya Prepared By Smith

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The same transaction can also be documented using a credit voucher thatis capable of recording multiple credits against one debit, as shown below:

Fig. 14.2 : A sample voucher for multiple credits against one debit

Now consider the following transaction :On April 03-20005 M/s Kshipra Computers bought goods costing Rs.50,000from M/s R.S. and Sons, paying Rs.2,000 as cartage to M/s Saini Transports.This transaction involves multiple debits of accounts with one account beingcredited. The debit voucher that is used to document this transaction appearsas follows :

Fig. 14.3 : A sample vouchers for multiple debits against one credit

CREDIT VOUCHER

Voucher No: 01 Date: April 01,2005

Debit Account: 642001 Bank Account M/s Kshipra Computers

Credit Accounts

S.No Code Name of Account Amount Narration

1 110001 Capital Account 5,00,000 Commenced Business

Total Amount 5,00,000

Authorised By: Aditya Prepared By Smith

DEBIT VOUCHER

Voucher No: 05 Date: April 03, 2005

Credit Account: 642001 Bank Account M/s Kshipra Computers

Debit Accounts

S.No Code Name of Account Amount Narration

1 711001 Purchases 50,000 Purchases from R.S & Sons

2. 711003 Carriage Inwards 2,000 Paid to M/s Saini Transports

Total Amount 52,000

Authorised By: Aditya Prepared By Smith

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The process of computerised accounting involves identifying, storing andretrieving the data content of an accounting transaction. This requires amechanism to store such data content of vouchers in a manner that allows itseasy and convenient retrieval as and when required. This is achieved by designingsuitable database for accounting. Such a database consists of inter-related datatables that are structured in a manner that ensures data consistency andintegrity. In this chapter we shall discuss the basic concepts of database systemof accounting.

14.1 Data Processing Cycle

In order to understand the dynamics of database design, let us understand thedata processing cycle in the context of accounting. Data processing involves thetechnique of collecting, sorting, relating, interpreting and computing data itemsin such a manner as to provide meaningful and useful information for decision-making. The necessary steps involved in data processing cycle are data capturing,inputing, processing and generating information available to the user. Dataprocessing cycle, when thought of in the context of accounting, requires a seriesof steps that have been described below briefly :

(i) Source Documents : The first step is to capture accounting data fromtransaction(s) so as to prepare a document, called voucher (as alreadystated earlier), that expresses and documents an accounting transaction.The relevant accounting data is set out in the voucher, the sample of whichis shown in figures 14.1 to 14.3. These documents are so designed as topermit the recording of accounting data in a systematic manner.

(ii) Input of Data : The accounting data contained in vouchers is to be enteredin a computer’s storage device. This is achieved by using a pre-designedData Entry Form. This data entry form is designed in a manner that it issimilar to physical voucher document. The data entry form is designedusing software and it is made to appear on the computer monitor so thatthe data is entered.

(iii) Data Storage : A suitable data storage structure is required to provide fora blank data record as shown below:

Code Name Type

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The above blank record that is used for storing the input of data pertainingcode of account, name of account and the category type to which it belongsis shown below as :

Code Name Type

11001 Capital Account 4

711001 Purchases Account 1

Hypothetically, the category type 4 above refers to Liabilities and thecategory type 1 indicates Expenses. The data storage structures (also calleddata tables) are created as a part of structuring database for accounting.

(iv) Manipulation of Data : The stored data is manipulated for necessarytransformation to generate final reports. Such transformed data may bestored separately and subsequently used for generating final reports.Alternatively, the transformed data can be directly presented in the formof a report.

(v) Output of Data : The accounting reports such as ledger, trial balance, etc.are obtained in a pre-designed format by accessing the transformed data.

Now that you have understood the way data content is stored in structuredmanner, we shall discuss how the data structures are designed in consonancewith the data content that emerges from accounting transactions.

14.2 Designing Database for Accounting

Both computerised and computer-based AIS require a definite data structurefor storing the accounting data. As already mentioned, the databases are usedfor storing accounting data. The process of designing database (for accounting)begins with a reality (or accounting reality) that is expressed using elements of aconceptual data model. The process of designing a database for accounting isbest described through a flow chart (Figure : 14.4).

Reality : It refers to some aspect of real world situation, for which database is tobe designed. In the context of accounting, it is accounting reality that is to beexpressed with complete description.ER Design : This is a formal blue print, with a pictorial presentation, in whichEntity Relationship (ER) Model concepts are used to represent description ofreality.Relational Data Model : It is representational data model through which ERdesign is transformed into inter-related data tables along with the restriction inthe form of rules that are specified to ensure the consistency and integrity ofstored data.

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Fig. 14.4 : Flow Chart depicting the process of designing a database for accounting

Normalisation : This is process of refining a database design (that consists ofinter-related data tables) through which the possibility of duplicate or redundantdata items is reduced or eliminated.Refinement : This is the outcome of the process of normalisation as mentionedabove. The final database design is arrived at after the process of normalisationis completed.

14.3 Entity Relationship (ER) Model

It is a popular conceptual data model, which is mostly used in database-orientedapplications. The major elements of ER Model are entities, attributes, identifiersand relationships that are used to express a reality for which a database is to bedesigned. The model is best depicted with the help of ER symbols, the list anddescription of which is shown in figure 14.5. While preparing an ER Diagram,the following symbols are used to represent different types of entities, attributes,identifiers and relationships :

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The elements of ER model that are meant to describe and display the reality arediscussed in the context of an accounting reality given below :

Fig. 14.5 : Symbols used for constructing an ER diagram

Meaning Symbols

Entity Type as Rectangular Box

Weak entity Type as double lined Rectangular Box

Relationship Type as diamond shaped Box

Identifying relationship Type as doublelined diamond shaped Box

Attribute names enclosed in ovals andattached to their entity type by straight lines.

Key attribute names enclosed in ovals andattached to their entity type by straight lines.

Multi-valued attributes by double ovals.

Derived attributes by dashed line Ovals

Total participation of E2 in R

Cardinality Ratio 1 : Nfor E1 : E2 in R

RE1 E2

R E2E1

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Accounting Reality Describing the System of Accounting

Using a hypothetical example of accounting system of an organisation, followingstatements of reality becomes the starting point of discussion in describing the ERModel concepts.Example Reality :• Accounting Transactions of an organisation are documented using a voucher.• Each vouchers is assigned a serial number, which begins with “01” indicating first

vouchers of the accounting period. There is only one simple transaction voucher usedfor documenting the transactions (See Figure : 14.1).

• Each voucher documents date of transaction, account name along with its accountcode for debit as well as credit entry.

• Each voucher indicates the amount and narration with respect to accountingtransaction.

• Support documents such as bills, receipts, contracts, etc. also may be attached toan accounting voucher.

• Each Voucher is prepared by a particular Employee and authorised by anotheremployee.

• There is an exhaustive list of Accounts with respect to which the transactions aredocumented. Each Account carries a unique numeric code with its width equal to sixdigits.

• Each Account is classified as belonging to one of the Accounts Types: Expenditure,Income, Assets and Liabilities.

Fig. 14.6 : Example reality on accounting system

14.3.1 Entities

Anything in the real world with independent existence is called entity such asan object with physical existence (e.g. car, person, house) or conceptualexistence (e.g. a company, job, university course, account, voucher). In thecontext of above accounting reality, there exist five entities: Accounts, Vouchers,Employees, AccountsType and SupportDocuments. The accounting data iscaptured through these entities.

14.3.2 Attributes

Attributes are some properties of interest (or characteristics) that further describethe entity such as height, weight and date of birth in case of a person and codeand name in case of accounts. An entity has a value for each of its attributes,which is the data stored in the database.

There are several types of attributes of an entity that have been described asfollows :

(i) Composite vs. Simple (or atomic) attributes : The composite attributescan be divided into smaller sub-parts to represent some more basic

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attributes with independent meanings. The simple attributes cannot befurther sub-divided. For example, Name of a person that is normally sub-divided into First Name, Middle Name and Last Name is a compositeattribute. Height of a person is a simple attribute as it is devoid of furthersub-division.

(ii) Single-valued vs. Multi-valued Attributes : An attribute with a single valuefor an entity is single-valued as opposed to those which multiple values.For example, height of a person is single-valued attribute whilequalifications of that person are a multi-valued attribute.

(iii) Stored vs. Derived Attributes : Two or more attributes may be related insuch a way that one or more becomes basic while the other becomesdependent on that basic attribute. For example, date of birth of a personis a stored attribute while age of that person is derived attribute.

(iv) Null Values : Absence of a data item is represented by a special valuecalled null value. There are three situation which may require the use ofnull values• When a particular attribute does not apply to an entity;• Value of an attribute is unknown, although it exists;• Unknown because it does not exist.

(v) Complex Attributes : The composite and multi-valued attributes may benested (or grouped) to constitute complex ones. The parenthesis () areused for showing grouping of components of composite attributes. Thebraces {} are used for showing the multi-valued attributesIn the context of the example on accounting reality, the following attributesspecific to each entity types have been stated below as :

Entity Type List of Attributes

AccountsType CatId, CategoryAccounts Code, Name, TypeEmployees EmpId, Fname, Minit, Lname, SuperIdVouchers Vno, Date, Debit, Credit, Amount, Narration, AuthBy, PrepBySupportDocuments Sno, dDate, Name

AccountsType is a conceptual entity that is meant to express the variouscategories of accounts in accounting system. The CatId is an attribute ofAccountType entity, the value of which is used to identify the category ofaccounts.Accounts is a conceptual entity that is meant to express various accounts,each one of which belongs to a particular category of accounts in AccountsType Entity. Every account is assigned a unique code by which it is

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identified. The Name attribute specifies the name of account and Typerefers to the type of account (or category of account) as mentioned above.Employees is a physical entity that is meant to express the variousemployees who are in some way connected with the accounting system.The EmpId (Employee ID) attribute is meant to identify an Employee;Fname, Minit and Lname are respectively the first, middle and Last namesof an employee; and SuperId refers to EmpId of the immediate boss of anemployee.Vouchers is an entity that expresses various transactions vouchers. It isattributes together provide the structure of transaction data.SupportDocuments is an entity, which expresses various supportdocuments that may be attached with a particular voucher of a transaction.Sno attribute of this entity specifies the serial number of support documentattached, dDate specifies the document date and Name specifies the nameof document that is attached with the voucher.

(vi) Entity Types and Entity Sets : An Entity Type is defined as a collectionof entities, which share a common definition in terms of their attributes.Each entity type is assigned a name for its subsequent identification. Theattributes of entity type are used to describe it in the database. The valuesof attributes of an entity belonging to entity type are known as EntityInstance. For example, (110001 Capital Account 4) is an entity instanceof an account whose code = 110001, Name = Capital Account and Type =4. An Entity Set is a collection of all entity instances of a particular entitytype. An Entity Type is described by a set of attributes called “schema”.The set of entities pertaining to a particular entity type share the same setof attributes. The collection of entities of a particular entity type is groupedinto entity set, called the extension of the entity type. For example,

Entity Type : AccountsIntension (or structure) of entity type

Code Name Type

Entity Set: Collection of entity instances of an entity type “Accounts”Extension (or instances) of entity type

110001 Capital Account 4221019 Jain & Co. 4221020 Jayram Bros. 4

Fig. 14.7 : Examples on entity type and entity set

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(vii) Value Sets of Attributes : Each simple attribute is associated with a valueset, which specifies the set of possible values that may be assigned to aparticular attribute. For example, the value set of voucher date is all thosedates that fall within the dates valid for a given accounting period. Similarly,if accounting reality states that each code of an account is numeric withits width equal to six digits, its possible value set shall be 000001 to999999. The value set as described above is called domain of values.

14.3.3 Identifier (or Key Attributes of an Entity Type)

Almost every entity type has one of its attributes, which contains unique valuesfor identifying the entity instance. For example, RollNo as attribute of Entitytype students has unique values through which a student instance can beidentified. Similarly, Code is a key attribute of entity type Accounts because itsdata values are required to be unique.

Fig. 14.8 : Diagrammatic presentation of an entity type accounts with code as key attribute

Some times two or more such attribute together (called composite key) mayconstitute such distinct values. For example, the student entity type that hasentity instances across several sections of a class in a school shall require acomposite key of attributes (Sections and RollNo). But in any case, it is aconstraint that does not allow any two-entity instances from having the samevalue for the key attribute at a point of time. Some entities may have more thanone Key attribute. The entity types, which do not have a key attribute at all arecalled weak entities.

14.3.4 Relationships

Relationship among two or more entity types represents an interaction amongtheir respective entities. Whenever an attribute (say Debit) of one entity type(say vouchers) refers to another entity type (say Accounts), there exists arelationship between these entities (Vouchers and Account).

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For example, vouchers and accounts are related in two ways: vouchers containdebit account(s) and vouchers contain credit account(s). In ER Model, thesereferences are represented as explicit relationships rather than attributes.

(i) Types of relationships : Whenever entities from different entity types arerelated to one another in a particular manner, they constitute a relationshiptype. The relationship prepared by between the two entity types vouchersand employees associates each voucher with the employee who preparedit. Similarly, the relationship authorised by between the two entity typesvouchers and employees associates each voucher with the employee whoauthorises it. Each relationship instance of prepared by (short named asPrepBy) associates one voucher entity with one employee entity. In ERdiagrams, relationship types are displayed as diamond shaped boxes,connected by straight lines to the rectangular boxes, which represent theparticipating entity types.

Fig. 14.9 : Diagram showing binary relationship between vouchers and employees

(ii) Degree : The degree of a relationship type is the number of participatingentity types. A relationship type of degree two is called binary and that ofdegree three is called ternary. A VOUCHER (entity), Authorised_by(relationship) and EMPLOYEES (entity) together signify a binaryrelationship. A SUPPLIER (entity) SUPPLY (relationship) PARTS (entity) toPROJECT (entity) signify a ternary relationship because three entities,namely supplier, parts and projects are participating in supply relationshipin any transaction.

Fig. 14.10 : Diagram showing ternary relationship between suppliers, parts and projects

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(iii) Role Names : Each entity type that participates in a relationship type playsa particular role in the relationship. The role name signifies the role that aparticipating entity of an entity type plays in each relationship instance.In PREPARED BY relationship type, EMPLOYEE plays the role of documentcreator and voucher plays the role of document created.

(iv) Structural Constraints : The reality may impose certain constraints (orrestrictions) that may limit the possible combinations of entities,participating in a given relationship set. These are of two types : CardinalityRatio and participation.• Cardinality Ratios for binary relationship specifies the number of

relationship instances that an entity can participate in. In PREP_BYbinary relationship type, VOUCHER:EMPLOYEE is of cardinality ratioN:1 implying thereby that a set of vouchers can be created by aparticular employee. The possible cardinality ratios are one to one(1:1),one to many(1:N),many to one(N:1), and many to many(N:M).

• Participation constraint specifies as to whether the existence of an entitytype depends on its being related to another entity via a relationshiptype or not. The two types of such constraints are: total and partial.Whenever semantics of reality require that every entity of an entitytype must relate to another entity type, such an entity can exist only ifit participates in that specific relationship. Such a participation is calledtotal participation. For example, the participation of ACCOUNTS inCLASSIFY relationship is total participation. This is because everyaccount must refer to at least one of the accounts type or a category ofaccounts. This participation is also called existence dependency. Sinceevery employee is not expected to prepare at least one of the vouchers,the participation of employee in PREPARED BY relationship is partial,implying that some of employee entities are related to the voucherentity via PREPARED BY relationship. In ER diagram, totalparticipation is displayed as double line connecting the participatingentity type to the relationship, whereas partial participation isrepresented by a single line.

14.3.5 Weak Entity Types

Entity Types, which do not have identifier (or key attributes) of their own are,called weak entity types. Such entity types are identified by being related tospecific entities from another entity type in combination with some of theirattribute values. These other entity types are called identifying or owner entitytype. Accordingly, the relationship type that relates a weak entity type to itsowner is called identifying relationship of the weak entity.

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A weak entity type always has a total participation constraint (existencedependency) with respect to its identifying relationship because it cannot beidentified without its owner entity. For example, a voucher may be accompaniedby a set of support documents such as bills, issued by other parties to thetransaction, details of which need be stored. Such SUPPORT’ DOCUMENT entitytype which is used to keep track of support documents attached to each vouchervia 1:N relationship, is a weak entity. This is because they are identified as distinctentities only after determining the particular voucher. A weak entity type normallyhas a partial key, which is a set of attribute that can uniquely identify weakentities that are related to the same owner entity. Assuming that two supportdocuments of a voucher do not have the same document Id, the said Id can bea good partial key. Otherwise a composite attribute of all the weak entity’sattributes will be the partial key.

Initial Conceptual Design for an Example Reality : Using a hypothetical example of anaccounting system, as already stated above in Fig: 14.6, following initial design basedon ER Model concepts becomes the starting point of illustration.

Conceptual Design : According to the requirements listed in example reality, there existfive entities: Vouchers, Accounts, Employees, SupportDocuments and AccountsType·

• An entity type Vouchers with attributes Voucher No, Serial No, Voucher Date, DebitAccount, Credit Account, Amount, Narration, authorised by, prepared by are usedfor storing accounting data of a transactions. Debit and amount are multi-valuedattributes for debit vouchers and credit and amount are multi-valued for creditvouchers. Voucher No and Sno together constitutes the only key attribute of entitytype vouchers. Therefore, it is specified to be unique.

• A Conceptual entity type Accounts with attributes Code, Name and Type is used forkeeping and maintaining a record of all accounts. Both Code and Name qualify tobe the key attributes because of being specified as unique.

• An Entity Type Employee with attributes Employee ID (EmpId), Name, Address, Phone,ID of immediate boss (SuperId) is used to maintain records of employees in theorganisation. Name is a composite attribute with its simple attributes as: FirstName (Fname), Middle Initial (Minit) and Last Name (Lname). The EmpId, specifiedto be unique, is the key attribute. SuperId indicates the EmpId of the controllingofficer, the immediate boss.

• An entity type, Accounts Type with attributes CatId and Category is used to maintainrecords of various categories of accounts so that each of the accounts as stored inaccounts entity are able to find their suitable place in financial accounting reports:profit and loss account and also the balance sheet.An entity type called Support with attributes Sno. and Name is used to maintainrecords of all the support documents, which are annexed to the accounting voucher.

Fig. 14.11 : Details of initial conceptual design based on example reality

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14.3.6 ER Presentation of Accounting Reality

The example reality shown at Figure: 14.11 can be shown below diagrammaticallyby using the ER notations.:

Fig. 14.12 : ER Schema diagram for accounting database

Fig. 14.13 : Diagrammatic presentation of an entity type accounts with code as key attribute

Fig. 14.14 : Diagrammatic presentation of an entity type accounts with code as key attribute

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14.4 Database Technology

It refers to a set of techniques that are used to design a database. Thesetechniques use certain concepts, which are crucial to the creation of structureand development of the design. These concepts are: Reality, data, database,information, DBMS and database system. A brief description of these conceptsis given below:(a) Reality : It implies some aspect of the real world. It consists of an

organisation, its different components and the environment in which theorganisation exists and operates. Any organisation includes people, facilitiesand other resources that are organised to achieve certain goals. Eachorganisation operates within an environment. While operating, theorganisation interacts, influences and gets influenced by the environment.

An organisation may be viewed as a system consisting of several components called itssub-systems. Each of these sub-systems follows certain procedures and continuouslyinteracts with each other and their external environment to accomplish the goals oforganisation. During the course of their interaction, events take place, which take theshape of data items. These sub-systems communicate continuously with AIS to providedata and seek information. A part of AIS is Financial Accounting System, which is designedfor processing accounting transactions. For example,a firm uses a voucher to documentan accounting transaction. The contents of voucher consist of accounting data, whichneed be stored in an organised manner.

Fig. 14.15 : Diagrammatic presentation of an entity type accounts with code as key attribute

Fig.14.16 : Diagrammatic presentation of an entity type accounts with code as key attribute

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This continuous interaction results in real world transactions. Thesetransactions are analysed with a view to identify the components called dataitems. A data item is the smallest named unit of data in an information system.In a transaction, the names of accounts (or their accounting codes), date oftransaction, amount, etc. is all data items.

(b) Data : Data are known facts that can be recorded and which have implicitmeaning. Data represent facts concerning people, places, objects, entities,events or even concepts. Data can be quantitative and qualitative or they canbe financial and non-financial in character. Consider the following transaction :

April 01, 2005 Commenced business with Cash Rs. 5,00,000.

This transaction, before being recorded through a Transaction Voucher, asshown in figure 14.1, need be split up into its data contents as “01”, 01-Apr-05, 642001, Bank Account, 110001,Capital Account, Rs.5,00,000. Data arenot useful for decision-making unless they are processed to suit to therequirements of decision-making situation.

(c) Database : The data, after being collected, has to be stored so that differentpeople can use them. This requires the creation of a database. A database isa shared collection of interrelated data tables, files or structures, which aredesigned to meet the varied informational needs of an organisation (SeeExample database in figure 14.19. It has two important properties (orcharacteristics): one it is integrated and second it is shared. Integratedproperty implies that distinct data tables have been logically organised. Thepurpose is to reduce or eliminate redundancy (or duplicity) and also tofacilitate better data access. The shared property means that all those whoare authorised to use data/information have access to relevant data. Thus,a database is a collection of related data that represents some aspect of thereal world (called mini-world or Reality). Accordingly, accounting databaseis a collection of related accounting data to represent some aspect of anaccounting information system. Database is designed, built and populated(or loaded) with data for a specific purpose.

(d) Information : refers to data that have been processed and organised in aform, which is suitable for decision-making. The raw data when processedin accordance with decision usefulness of a decision-maker becomesinformation. In other words, information is a data that have been processedand refined and then presented in a format that is convenient for decision-making or other organisational activities.

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Fig. 14.17 : The diagram showing the transaction data processing and information levels

However, information may be viewed as data at one level. But when it isprocessed keeping in view the requirements of decision situation, it becomesinformation at another level. For example, accounting data at transaction levelis processed to produce balances of each account. The balances are summarisedto prepare the trial balance. The amounts given in trial balance constitute datato produce profit and loss account and balance sheet.(e) Database management System (DBMS) is a collection of programs that

enables users to create and maintain a database. Formally, it may be definedas a general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of defining,constructing and manipulating (or processing) databases for variousapplications. General-purpose software is defined as a set of programs, whichare designed and developed for a community of users and not for anyparticular application with respect to a particular user.

14.5 An Illustration of Accounting Database

Consider an example of ACCOUNTING database for maintaining data pertainingto accounting transactions, support documents, accounts and employees withwhich the students of accounting are familiar. Figure 14.18 shows below thedatabase structure and some sample data for this database, depicting thefollowing transactions :

Date Transactions AmountRs.

2005Apr. 01 Commenced business with cash 5,00,000Apr. 01 Cash deposited Into bank 4,00,000Apr. 02 Goods purchased and payment made by Cheque No. 765421 1,50,000Apr. 02 Rent for the month of April, 2001 paid by Cheque No. 765423 9,000Apr. 03 Goods purchased for cash from R.S. & Sons 50,000

Fig. 14.18 : Accounting transactions of an organisation

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Support

Vno Sno Name

02 1 Cash deposit receipt03 1 Purchase invoice no: Dated: 03 2 Delivery challan04 1 Rent receipt for the month April, 200505 1 Purchase invoice no: Dated:

Vouchers

vno Debit amount vdate Credit Narration auth. by prep. by

2005 01 631001 500,000 Apr.01 110001 Commenced business A001 B001

with cash 02 632001 400,000 Apr. 01 631001 Deposited into bank A001 S001 03 711001 150,000 Apr. 02 632001 Purchases from R.S & Sons A001 B001 04 712002 9,000 Apr. 02 632001 Paid rent for April, 2001 A001 B001 05 711001 50,000 Apr. 03 631001 Goods purchased from R.S. A001 S001

& Sons

Employees

Emp_Id Fname Minit LName Address PhoneNo Super_Id

A001 Aditya K BhartiB001 Bimal S Jalan A001S001 Smith K John A001S002 Sunil K Sinha B001

Accounts

Code Name Type

110001 Capital account 4631001 Cash account 3632001 Bank account 3711001 Purchases 1711003 Carriage inwards 1712002 Rent 1711011 Wages 1

Account Type

Cat_Id Category

1 Expenditure2 Income3 Assets4 Liabilities

Fig. 14.19 : An example of an accounting database that stores simple accounting transactions

↓ ↓↓ ↓

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Employees

Emp_Id Fname Minit LName Address PhoneNo Super_Id

A001 Aditya K BhartiB001 Bimal S Jalan A001S001 Smith K John A001S002 Sunil K Sinha B001

Accounts

Code Name Type

110001 Capital Account 4631001 Cash Account 3632001 Bank Account 3711001 Purchases 1711003 Carriage Inwards 1712002 Rent 1711011 Wages 1

Account Type

Cat_Id Category

1 Expenditure2 Income3 Assets4 Liabilities

↓ ↓↓ ↓Vouchers

Vno Sno. Debit Amount Vdate Credit Narration auth. by prep.by

200501 1 631001 5,00,000 Apr. 01 110001 Commenced business A001 B001

with Cash02 1 632001 4,00,000 Apr. 01 631001 Deposited into bank A001 S00103 1 711001 1,50,000 Apr. 02 632001 Purchases from R.S & Sons A001 B00103 2 711003 3,000 Apr. 02 632001 Paid to Nahar A001 B001

Transports04 1 712002 9,000 Apr. 02 632001 Paid rent for April, 2001 A001 B0010105 1 711001 50,000 Apr. 02 631001 Goods purchased from A001 S001

R.S. & Sons05 2 711003 2,000 Apr. 03 631001 Paid for carriage to A001 S001

Saini Transports

Fig. 14.20 : An example of an accounting database to store accounting transactionsaccording to debit and credit vouchers support table omitted

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Modified Version of Accounting Database : An attempt to accommodate Debitand Credit vouchers, as shown in Figure: 14.2 and 14.3, results in adding anew column Sno to Vouchers table of database, which is shown in modifieddatabase in figure 14.19. This results in data redundancy as shown in figure14.20.

ER Model, as already discussed above, is a conceptual model, which needbe transformed into a representational data model so that a database design isformed for being implemented and operated upon by using DBMS. From amongseveral representational models, Relational Data Model (RDM) is the most popularand widely used in actual practice. Let us understand some important conceptsof RDM.

14.6 Relational Data Model

The relational data model represents the database as collection of relations, whichresembles a table of values (or data table). Each row of the table, therefore,represents a collection of related data values and hence typically corresponds toreal world entity or relationship. The table name and column names are used tohelp in interpreting the meaning of values in each row. Each row of a table iscalled a data record. All values in a column, which belong to a particular domain,are of same data type

Consider the following table of data items, named as Accounts. The tablehas rows and columns. The column arrow points to a column called Name. TheRow arrow points to a data record consisting of (110001, Capital Account and4) each of which corresponds to Code, Name and Type, which are three differentcolumns of the table.

Name of Table : Accounts

Code Name Type

110001 Capital Account 4221019 Jain & Co. 4221020 Jayram Bros. 4411001 Furniture Account 3

Fig. 14.21 : Example data table of accounts and their attribute values

Formally, a row is called a tuple, a column header is called an attribute andthe table as such is called a relation. The data type describing the types ofvalues (such as text value, numeric values, date values, currency value, etc.)that can appear in each column is called a domain. A domain is a set of indivisiblevalues. Associated with every domain is a data type such as Number,

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Text, Currency, Date/Time, etc. Each domain must also be named so as to helpin interpreting its values. Besides this, a domain must be given a format andany additional information to enable correct interpretation of values. Forexample, a numeric domain such as distance should have units of measurement:Miles or Kilometers(a) Relations : A relation schema is made up of a relation name and a list of its

attributes. Each attribute is the name of role played by some domain inthe relation schema. A relation is given an identity by its name anddescription by its schema. The degree of a relation is indicated by thenumber of attributes it contains. For example, the degree of a relation schemaaccounts is three as shown below :

ACCOUNTS (Code, Name, Type) ← Relation with attributes

ACCOUNTS is name of the relation which has three attributes;Code = Identity of Account;Name = Names of Account;Type = Category of Account

A Relation represents an entity type. A relation (or relation state) is a setof tuples wherein each tuple is an ordered list of values corresponding toattributes of relation. Each of these values must belong to the domains oftheir respective attributes. Each tuple in this relation represents a particularentity. A relation schema may be interpreted as a declaration in the nature ofan assertion. For example, the schema of accounts relation, as shown above,asserts that every account has a Code, Name and a Type. As a result, eachtuple in accounts relation can be interpreted as a fact or an instance ofassertion. Some relations represent facts about entities while others mightrepresent facts about relationships.(b) Values in Tuples : Each value in a tuple is an indivisible value to imply

that it is not divisible into components within the framework of the basicrelational model. This implies that composite and multi-valued attributesare not allowed. Composite attributes are represented by their simplecomponents. The multi-valued attributes are represented by separaterelations. A special value called Null is used to represent unknown or notapplicable values of attributes in a tuple. It is also possible to devise differenttypes of code values for different types of null value situation.

14.7 Relational Databases and Schemas

A relational database schema is a set of relation schemas and a set of integrityconstraints. A relational database state is a set of relation states such that everyrelational database state satisfies the integrity constraints specified on relationaldatabase schema.

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In this context the following points merit a special consideration :(a) A particular attribute, which stands for the same real word concept, might

appear in more than one relation with same or different name. For example,in vouchers relation, the account Number is represented as debit and creditwhereas in accounts relation, it is represented as Code (figure 14.19). EmpIdappearing in Employees relation is represented in Vouchers as Auth.By andPrep.By.

(b) The particular real world concept appearing more than once in a relationmust be represented by different names. For example, in employees relation,employee is represented as subordinate, by using EmpId and as superior byusing SuperId.

(c) The Integrity constraints, specified on database schema, must hold inevery database state of that schema.

14.8 Constraints and Database Schemas

There are four different constraints, which can be specified on relationaldatabases. These are: domain constraint; key constraint; entity integrityconstraint; referential integrity constraints.(a) Domain : The value of each attribute of a relation must be an indivisible

value and drawn out of possible values associated with its domain. Thevalue of an attribute, therefore, must conform to the data type associatedwith the domain.

(b) Key Constraints and NULL Values : Each data record, which correspondsto a tuple of a relation, in a table must be distinct. That means no twotuples (or rows) in a relation ( or table) can have the same combination ofvalues for all their data items. This is because that a relation, as set oftuples, has to have all its tuples distinct by definition. Every relation hasat least one key by default, which is the combination of all its attributes.This is called super-key by default. Any such super-key, therefore, specifiesuniqueness constraint. Such a combination, representing super-key, mayhave redundant attributes, implying thereby that a more useful conceptis that of a key which has not redundancy. This can be showndiagrammatically as shown in figure 14.22. Therefore, minimal super-key(also called Key) is defined as that part of super-key from which any attributecannot be removed without sacrificing the uniqueness constraint. The valueof key attribute can be used to identify each tuple in a relation. A key isdetermined from the meaning of the attributes. The uniqueness feature ofkey must continue to hold when new tuple in a relation is added. Sometimesa relation may have more than one key in which case each of such keys iscalled a candidate key. One such key is termed as primary key of relation.The choice of which candidate key to be primary is generally subjective

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and may depend on circumstances of mini-world. For Example: BothPAN(Permanent Account Number) and EMPID are candidate keys inEMPLOYEES relation because of being unique. But EMPID should be selectedin an organisation being native to the organisational environment.

Fig. 14.22 : Flow chart to reach a minimal super-key

(c) Entity integrity constraint : States that no primary key value can be nullbecause it is used to identify individual tuple in a relation. Null value impliesthat we cannot identify such tuples or identify these as alike. A failure todistinguish them means they are duplicates.

(d) Referential integrity constraint : While key and entity constraints arespecified on individual relation, the referential integrity constraint is specifiedbetween two or more relations. This constraint is specified to maintainconsistency among the tuples of such relations. Accordingly, a tuple in onerelation that refers to another relation must refer to an existing tuple in thatother relation. In referencing Accounts Type, Accounts relation uses itsattribute Type, which acts as foreign key to reference the tuples of relationAccounts Type through its primary key CatId. The value of Type cannot benull because of total participation of Accounts in classify relationship.Similarly, consider another example in which the relation Vouchers

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(Vno, Sno, Vdate, Debit, Amount, Credit, Amount, Prep_by, Auth_by,Narration) references two other relations as shown in figure 14.19.First it references, Accounts (Code, Name, Type). In referencing Accounts,the Vouchers relation uses its attributes Debit and Credit, which act as ForeignKeys to reference the tuples of relation Accounts through its primary key,Code. The values of debit and credit cannot be null because of totalparticipation of vouchers in debit and credit relationship.

Second, it references Employees (EmpId, Fname, Minit, Lname, Address,PhoneNo, SuperId). While referencing Employees, the Vouchers relationmakes use of its other attributes Prep.By and Auth.By. These attributes actas foreign keys to reference the tuples of relation Employees through its keyattribute EmpId. The values of PrepBy and AuthBy cannot be null becauseof total participation of vouchers in PrepBy and Authby relationships.

The referential integrity constraint stands violated in above example, ifthere is a debit or credit code in voucher relation, the tuple for which doesnot exist in Accounts relation. Similarly, referential integrity fails, if thereexists a value corresponding to Auth.By or Prep.By attribute of vouchers,the tuple for which does not exist in employees relation.

14.9 Operations and Constraint Violations

There are two categories of operations on relational model : updates and retrievalThe three basic types of updates are as given below :(a) Insert : This operation is performed to add a new tuple in a relation. For

example, an attempt to add another record of an account with data valuescorresponding to Code, Name and its Type to Accounts relation shall bemade by performing Insert operation. The insert operation is capable ofviolating any of the four constraints discussed above.

(b) Delete : This operation is carried out to remove a tuple from a relation. Aparticular data record from a table can be removed by performing such aoperation. The delete operation can violate only referential integrity, if tuplebeing removed is referenced by foreign key from other tuples in the database.

(c) Modify : The operation aims at causing a change in the values of someattributes in existing tuples. This is useful in modifying existing values of anaccounting record in a data table. Usually, this operation does not causeproblems provided the modification is directed on neither primary key norforeign key.

Whenever applied, these operations must enforce integrity constraintsspecified on relational database schema.

Retrieval operation on Relational Data Model does not cause violationany integrity constraints.

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14.10 Designing Relational Database Schema

The rules or guidelines required to design the relational database schema attemptto provide a step-by-step procedure that transforms ER design into RelationalData model design to constitute the desired database. In the context of ER modelas shown in design figure14.12, the following specific steps are required to causeits transformation into relational data model :

(i) Create a relation for every strong entity : For each strong entity type(which has primary key) in ER schema, a separate relation that includesall the simple attributes of that entity is created. Either choose one of thekey attributes of such an entity as the primary key for this relation, orchoose a set of simple attributes that uniquely identify this entity as theprimary key of the relation so created. For example, employee entity isstrong because it finds its primary key in EmpId which is one of its uniqueattribute. Therefore, a separate relation for Employee has been created asshown below :Employee (EmpId, Fname, Minit,Lname,Address, PhoneNo, SuperId)

Similarly, separate relations need be created for the following strong entitieswhose Primary Key attribute have been underlined.Accounts (Code, Name, Type)Vouchers (VNo,vDate, amount, narration)Accounts Type (CatId, Category)

(ii) Create a separate relation for each weak entity type : Every weak entityhas an owner entity and an identifying relationship through which suchweak entity type is identified. For every weak entity type, a separate relationis created by including its attributes. The primary key of this new relationis the combination of its unique attribute(s) for a particular tuple of theowner relation along with primary key attribute of such owner relation.Furthermore, the primary key of owner entity is included as foreign key insuch a relation key of owner entity and the partial key of weak entity.For example, Support Entity, with Vouchers as its owner Entity, does nothave a primary key of its own. It has partial key which is the Sno assignedto each document. Therefore, the Primary key of Vouchers, Vno alongwith Sno is designed as composite key for support entity and the relationso formed is shown below as :Support (vNo,Sno, dName,sDate)

(iii) Identify entity types participating in binary 1:N relationship type : Identifythe first relation on n-side of relationship and second on 1-side of suchrelationship. The primary key of second relation should be included infirst relation as its foreign key. For Example, An employee can authorize anumber of vouchers. It implies that Vouchers entity participates in Auth.By

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relationship on n-side while Employees entity participates in samerelationship on 1-side. Therefore, the vouchers relation as already formedabove in step 1, must also include as foreign key the primary key ofEmployees, which is EmpId. Similarly, we can deal with Prep.Byrelationship in which Employees and Vouchers again participate in binary1:N relationship. The end result of mapping both these relationships is toinclude twice the EmpId, but in different roles. Since a relation cannothave same name (here EmpId twice to mean AuthBy and PrepBy), we usetheir role names as attributes in Vouchers relation as foreign keys toreference Employees relation.Accordingly, the modified Vouchers relation appears as given below:

Vouchers (VNo, vDate, Amount, Narration, Auth.By, Prep.By)

Similarly, there exist two relationships between the relations Vouchersand Accounts. The relation Vouchers as modified above shall furtherinclude as foreign key the primary key of Accounts relation, which is code.This code is to be included twice. One to represent debit and another torepresent credit relationship. Since a relation cannot have same name (hereCode is being included twice to mean Debit and Credit), we use their rolenames as attributes in Vouchers relation as foreign keys to referenceAccounts relation. The modified vouchers relation shall appear as follows:

Vouchers (Vno,Vdate, Debit, Credit, Amount, Narration, AuthBy, Prep.By)

(iv) Identify entity types participating in binary M:N relationship type : Foreach binary M:N relationship type, create a new relation to represent suchrelationship. This new relation should include as foreign keys, the primarykeys of the relations that represent the participating entity types. Forexample, consider the following entities and relationships in the context ofcredit voucher shown in figure 14.23, which has one debit with multiplecredit accounts :

Fig. 14.23 : ER Diagram showing relationships between vouchers and accounts in thecontext of credit vouchers, with one debit and several credit entries

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In this case, relationship Credit has cardinality ratio of M:N between Vouchersand Accounts(many vouchers are related to many accounts), While relationshipDebit has cardinality ratio of N:1 (many vouchers refer to one account). FurtherCredit relationship has Sno, amount and narration has its attributes. Accordingly,we create a new relation as follows :

Credit (vNo, Sno, Code, Amount, Narration)

In above relation credit Code is included as foreign key to represent primarykey of accounts relation, Vno is included as foreign key to represent primarykey of relation vouchers. (Vno,Code) constitute the primary key of this newrelation credit. By analogy, we can arrive at the following relation for Debitvoucher:

Debit (vNo, Sno, Code, Amount, Narration)Finally, the following relations have been formed to constitute the relational

data model for our example reality.Employee (EmpId, Fname, Minit,Lname,Address, PhoneNo, SuperId)Accounts (Code, Name, Type)Vouchers (VNo,Vdate, debit, credit, amount, narration, AuthBy, PrepBy)AccountsType (CatType, Category)Support (VNo,Sno,Dname,Sdate)

If we adopt the additional semantics the vouchers relation shall appear intwo different schemas :Situation A : The schema given below is compatible with Debit voucher as shownif figure 14.3.

Vouchers (vNo,vDate, Credit, Auth.By, Prep.By)Debit (vNo, Sno, Code, Amount, Narration)

Situation B : The schema given below is compatible with Credit voucher asshown if figure 14.2.

Vouchers (vNo,vDate, debit, AuthBy, PrepBy)Credit (vNo, Sno, Code, Amount, Narration)

A generalised Schema for the two schemas shall be

Vouchers (vNo,vDate,Vtype, AccCode, vType, AuthBy, PrepBy)Details ( vno, Sno, Code, Amount, Narration)

Where in another attribute vType has been introduced to indicate whetherthis generalised schema applies to Situation A(vType=0) or Situation B(vType=1).Debit and Credit attribute of vouchers relation have been renamed as AccCodeto mean Debit and Credit, depending on the value of Vtype. Debit and Creditrelations have been generalised into Details because both shared a set of commonattributes.

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14.11 llustrating the Database Structure for Example Realities

DBMS software is used to implement the data model by creating several tables,setting their interrelationships and imposing constraints as may be set out indatabase design. After, the design is implemented, it must also allow for retrievalof data and information. This is achieved by querying the database, for whichpurpose, SQL statements are put to use. These retrieval requests result inemergence of new virtual tables that may be formed out of one or more of existingtables. A clear understanding of these SQL statements is a first step towardsthe theoretical foundations for computerised reporting. This is because a reportis an organised set of information, which is extracted on the basis of these retrievalrequests. For a practical understanding of these operations, consider the followingModels, herein referred to as Model-I and Model-II. Each of these models, whichconsist of a set of relations (or tables) and the integrity constraints, constitutesthe database design for accounting.Model-I : This is based on initial conceptual design of example reality shown inFigure: 14.11

Fig. 14.24 : Schema diagram for the accounting system relational database schema

Model-II : The set relations given below are based on modified example realitythat uses Credit and Debit vouchers shown in figures 14.2 and 14.3.

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Fig. 14.25 : Schema diagram for the accounting system relational database Schema

Illustration No 1

Mr. Philips commenced business with cash and for that purpose opened a bank accounton April, 1 2005. His transactions for the month are as given below :

Date Transactions AmountRs .

2005Apr. 01 Commenced business with cash 5,00,000Apr. 01 Cash deposited Into bank 4,00,000Apr. 02 Goods purchased and payment made by Cheque No. 765421 1,50,000

Cheque No. 765422 issued to M/s Nahar Transports for carriage 3,000Apr. 02 Rent for the month April, 2001 paid by Cheque No. 765423 9,000Apr. 03 Goods purchased for cash from M/s R.S. & Sons 50,000

Paid for carriage to M/s Saini Transports 2,000Apr. 04 Goods sold to Kemp & Co. 1,75,000Apr. 05 Goods purchased from M/s Jayram Bros. 2,50,000Apr. 06 Sold goods for cash to M/s Kumbley & Co. 45,000Apr. 08 Paid for adverisement by Cheque No. 765424 2,500

to M/s ABN Cables

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Apr. 09 Received a bill of exchange from Kemp & Co.payable 1,75,000after 3 months

Apr. 10 Bill of exchange received from Kemp & Co. discounted for 1,71,500Apr. 12 Goods returned to Jayram Bros. being defective 15,000Apr. 15 Advance cash payment to salesman for marketing tour 10,000Apr. 17 Paid for insurance of godown Cheque No. 765425 5,500Apr. 18 Paid for fuel, power and electricity 1,000Apr. 18 Salary paid in advance to bimal 10,000Apr. 19 Accepted a bill of exchange payable after four months 2,35,000

in favour of Jay Ram Bros.Apr. 21 Returns from M/s Kumbley & Co., settled by 5,000

Cheque No. 765427Apr. 23 Cash withdrawn by proprietor for household expenses 20,000

Apr. 25 Advance to salesman adjusted for cash after recordingexpenses :Entertainment 4,500Travelling 2,200Boarding and Lodging 3,500

Apr. 27 Goods taken from stock for personal use 5,000Apr. 28 Furniture purchase from M/s S.N. Furnitures 45,000

by Cheque No. 765428Apr. 29 A part of existing stock set a side for usage as 35,000

office furnitureApr. 30 Salary for the month paid by Cheques

Cheque No. 765429 to Aditya 9,000Cheque No. 765430 to Bimal ( one-fourth of advance 5,500adjusted)Cheque No. 765431 to Smith 6,000Cheque No. 765432 to Sunil 5,000

Apr. 30 Payment of telephone bill by Cheque No. 765433 1,500Apr. 30 Paid for wages by cash 7,000

The database state pertaining to Accounts and Employees table is as given below :

Accounts

Code Name Type

110001 Capital Account 4221019 Jain & Co. 4221020 Jayram Bros. 4222001 Bill Payables 4411001 Furniture Account 3411002 Office Fittings 3412002 Plant and Machinery Account 3

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621001 Kemp & Co. 3621002 Kumble & Sons 1631001 Cash account 3632001 Bank account 3641001 Salary in advance account 3641002 Advance to salesman 3642001 Bills receivable 3651001 Drawings 4711001 Purchases 1711002 Purchases returns 1711003 Carriage inwards 1711004 Fuel, power and electricity 1711011 Wages 1712001 General expenses 1712002 Rent account 1712003 Salaries account 1712004 Discount account 1712005 Adverisement 1712006 Entertainment 1712007 Travelling 1712008 Boarding and Lodging 1712009 Communication expenses 1712010 Insurance 1811001 Sales account 2811002 Sales returns 2

Account Type

CatId Category

1 Expenditure2 Income3 Assets4 Liabilities

Employees

EmpId Fname Minit LName Address PhoneNo SuperId

A001 Aditya K BhartiB001 Bimal S Jalan A001S001 Smith K John A001S002 Sunil K Sinha B001

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Solution

The solution based on Model-I which lends support to Transaction Voucher with one Debitand one Credit as shown in figure 14.19, shall appear as follows :

Vouchers

vNo Debit amount vDate Credit narration AuthBy PrepByRs.

200501 631001 5,00,000 Apr. 01 110001 Commenced business A001 B001

with cash02 632001 4,00,000 Apr. 01 631001 Deposited into bank A001 S00103 711001 1,50,000 Apr. 02 632001 Purchases from A001 B001

R.S & Sons04 711003 3,000 Apr. 02 632001 Paid to M/s Nahar A001 B001

Transports05 712002 9,000 Apr. 02 632001 Paid rent for April, 2001 A001 B00106 711001 50,000 Apr. 03 631001 Goods purchased from A001 S001

R.S. & Sons07 711003 2,000 Apr. 03 631001 Paid for carriage to A001 S001

M/s Saini Transports08 621001 1,75,000 Apr, 04 811001 Goods sold A001 S00209 711001 2,50,000 Apr. 05 221020 Invoice no. dated : B001 S00210 631001 45,000 Apr. 06 811001 Goods sold to M/s S001 S002

Kumbley & Co.11 712005 2,500 Apr. 08 632001 Paid to M/s ABN Cables A001 S00212 642001 1,75,000 Apr. 09 621001 Maturity Date : A001 S002

July 12, 200113 711002 15,000 Apr. 10 221020 Goods returned A001 S002

Note No. dated :14 712004 3,500 Apr. 12 642001 Discount on Bill of A001 S002

exchange from Kemp & Co.15 641002 10,000 Apr. 12 631001 Advance payment to B001 S001

sales for marketing tour16 712010 5,500 Apr. 17 632001 Insurance of godown S001 B00117 711004 1,000 Apr. 18 631001 Payment for fuel, power S001 B001

and electricity18 641001 10,000 Apr. 18 631001 Salary paid in advance B001 B001

to Bimal19 221020 2,35,000 Apr. 19 222001 Settlement by accepting B001 S001

a bill of exchange20 811002 5,000 Apr. 21 632001 Goods returned by M/s A001 S001

Kumbley & Co.21 651001 20,000 Apr. 23 631001 Withdrawal by proprietor A001 S001

for household expenses22 712006 4,500 Apr. 25 641002 Expenses during tour : A001 S001

Support vouchers 1-4

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23 712007 2,200 Apr. 25 641002 Expenses during tour : A001 S001Support vouchers 5-7

24 712008 3,500 Apr. 25 641002 Expenses during tour : A001 S001Support vouchers 8-11

25 641002 200 Apr. 25 631001 Final settlement of A001 S001Refer to J.V No : 04/21

26 651001 5,000 Apr. 27 711001 Goods taken for private A001 S002use

27 411001 45,000 Apr. 28 632001 Furniture purchased A001 S002from S.N. Furniture

28 411001 35,000 Apr. 29 711001 Goods purchased for A001 S002trading put to office use

29 712001 9,000 Apr. 30 632001 Salary to Aditya- A001 S001Apr,2001

30 712001 5,500 Apr. 30 632001 Salary to Bimal-April, A001 S0012001 after adjustment

31 712001 6,000 Apr. 30 632001 Salary to Smith- A001 S001April 2001

32 712001 5,000 Apr. 30 632001 Salary to Sunil- A001 S001April, 2001

33 712009 1,500 Apr. 30 632001 Telephone bill A001 B00134 711011 7,000 Apr. 30 631001 Payment of Wages A001 S001

Shortcomings

The above solution, being based on transaction voucher with one debit and one credit in atransaction requires multiple vouchers for one real transaction. For example, a transactiondated April 30, 2005 “Salary for the month paid by cheque” requires four vouchers 29 to32. One transaction should be recorded possibly through one voucher only.

Solution

The solution based on Model-II which lends support to Debit Voucher (with Multiple Debitsand one Credit) and Credit voucher (with one Debit and multiple Credits) as shown inFigure: 14.2 and figure 14.3 shall appear as follows :

Vouchers

Vno Vdate Acc_code Vtype PrepBy AuthBy

200501 Apr. 01 631001 1 B001 A00102 Apr. 01 632001 1 S001 A00103 Apr. 02 632001 0 B001 A00104 Apr. 02 632001 0 B001 A00105 Apr. 03 631001 0 S001 A00106 Apr. 04 811001 0 S002 A00107 Apr. 05 221020 0 S002 B001

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08 Apr. 06 631001 1 S002 S00109 Apr. 08 632001 0 S002 A00110 Apr. 09 621001 0 S002 A00111 Apr. 10 632001 1 S002 A00112 Apr. 10 221020 0 S002 A00113 Apr. 12 642001 0 S002 A00114 Apr. 12 631001 0 S001 B00115 Apr. 17 632001 0 B001 S00116 Apr. 18 631001 0 B001 S00117 Apr. 18 631001 0 B001 B00118 Apr. 19 222001 0 S001 B00119 Apr. 21 632001 0 S001 A00120 Apr. 23 631001 0 S001 A00121 Apr. 25 641002 0 S001 A00122 Apr. 25 631001 0 S001 A00123 Apr. 27 711001 0 S002 A00124 Apr. 28 632001 0 S002 A00125 Apr. 29 711001 0 S002 A00126 Apr. 30 632001 0 S001 A00127 Apr. 30 632001 0 B001 A00128 Apr. 30 631001 0 S001 A001

Details

Vno Sno Code Amount Narration

01 1 110001 5,00,000 Commenced business with cash02 1 631001 4,00,000 Deposited into bank03 1 711001 1,50,000 Purchases from R.S & Sons03 2 711003 3,000 Paid to M/s Nahar Transports04 1 712002 9,000 Paid rent for April, 200105 1 711001 50,000 Goods purchased from R.S. & Sons05 2 711003 2,000 Paid for carriage to M/s Saini Transports06 1 621001 1,75,000 Goods sold07 1 711001 2,50,000 Invoice No. dated:08 1 811001 45,000 Goods sold to M/s Kumbley & Co.09 1 712005 2,500 Paid to M/s ABN cables10 1 642001 1,75,000 Maturity date July 12, 200112 1 711002 15,000 Goods returned Note No. dated.13 1 712004 3,500 Discount on bill of exchange from Kemp & Co.14 1 641002 10,000 Advance payment to sales for marketing tour15 1 712010 5,500 Insurance of godown16 1 711004 1,000 Payment for fuel, power and electricity17 1 641001 10,000 Salary paid in advance to Bimal18 1 221020 2,35,000 Settlement by accepting a bill of exhange

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19 1 811002 5,000 Goods Returned by M/s Kumbley & Co.20 1 651001 20,000 Withdrawal by proprietor for household expenses21 1 712006 4,500 Expenses during tour: Support Vouchers 1-421 2 712007 2,200 Expenses during tour: Support Vouchers 5-721 3 712008 3,500 Expenses during tour: Support Vouchers 8-1122 1 641002 200 Final settlement of Refer to J.V no. 04/2123 1 651001 5,000 Goods taken for private use24 1 411001 45,000 Furniture purchased from S.N. Furniture25 1 411001 35,000 Goods purchased for trading put to office use26 1 712001 9,000 Salary to Aditya Apr. 200126 2 712001 5,500 Salary to Bimal Apr. 2001after adjustment26 3 712001 6,000 Salary to Smith Apr. 200126 4 712001 5,000 Salary to Sunil Apr. 200127 1 712009 1,500 Telephone bill28 1 711011 7,000 Payment of Wages

Test Your Understanding

A. Indicate against each of the following statements, True or False :(a) Every relation has at least one super key by default, which is the combination

of all its attributes.(b) Data transformation is called Information.(c) Referential integrity constraint arises because of relationships between various

entities.(d) The complete absence of WHERE clause in SELECT statement implies that

no tuples of a relation shall be selected.(e) ER model is an example of representational data model.

B. Fill in the blanks, an appropriate word(s)(a) A ........... does not have key attributes of its own.(b) The ........... for binary relationship specifies the number of relationship

instances that an entity can participate in.(c) Each simple attribute of an entity type is associated with a value set called

........... of values.(d) When structure of AIS is based on both human and computer resources, it is

called ........... AIS.(e) An ........... is a collection of all entities of a particular entity type.(f) A weak entity type always has a ........... constraint with respect to its identifying

relationship.(g) When a relation has more than one attribute with unique values, each such

attribute is called ............

After appreciating the way accounting data is presented in above database models, letus understand as to how the queries on such databases are expressed as relationaloperations.

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14.12 Interacting with Databases

One of the major reasons for the success of commercial databases is the SQLlanguage support they enjoy. This is because SQL became standard for relationaldatabases. As a result, users have become less concerned about migrating theirdatabase applications from one database to another database. Another advantagein using standard SQL is that users may write statements in a databaseapplication program that can access data stored in two or more relational DBMSwithout having to change the database sub-language (SQL) provided both theDBMS enjoy the support of a particular SQL standard.

The name SQL stands for Structured Query Language, which was originallycalled SEQUEL (Structured English QUEry Language), designed andimplemented at IBM Research as an interface for experimental relational databasesystem called SYSTEM-R.

Being a comprehensive database language, it has statements for datadefinition, query and update. Besides this, it has the capability to define user-oriented views of database, specify security and authorisation, define integrityconstraints and various other operations. Many computer-programminglanguages can act as good host languages to incorporate the statements of SQL.In this sense, it can be used as a sub-language in a database-programmingcontext.Basic Queries in SQL : Data Query Language (DQL), which is a sub-set of SQLis widely used to answer most of the basic queries. The basic set of queriesconsists of those, for which the SELECT-FROM-WHERE Structure is put to useas described below :• SELECT : This clause is used to specify the data or information that is desired

to answer the query.• FROM : This clause is used to specify the source of data for answering the

query. It can be a data table, an existing query or both.• WHERE : This clause is meant to specify the conditions that are used to

narrow down the choice of data to extract the information desired in selectclause.The following queries have been considered using the database design given

in Model-I and Model-II. The solution to queries has been given using MSACCESS implementation.

I. Query to retrieve all columns of data records from a table, subject to acondition : To project all the attribute values of selected tuples, an asterisk(*) need be specified. This asterisk stands for all the attributes.(1) To retrieve all columns of voucher records whose voucher has been authorised

by an employee whose EmpId is equal to “A001”.

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Solution

(Model-I and Model-II)

SELECT *FROM vouchersWHERE AuthBy=”A001”;

II. Query to retrieve selected columns of data records from a table, subjectto a condition.

(2) To Retrieve vouchers with Vno, Vdate, AuthBy columns wherein the vouchersare dated “12/Apr/2005”

Solution

(Model-I and Model-II)

SELECT Vno, Vdate, AuthByFROM vouchersWHERE Vdate = #04/12/2005#;

(3) To retrieve vouchers with Vno, Vdate, Auth_by columns, which are dated “12/Apr/2005”. The columns of records retrieved by the query are to be renamedas Voucher, Date and Employee

Solution

(Model-I and Model-II)

SELECT Vno As Voucher, Vdate As Date, Prep_by As EmployeeFROM vouchersWHERE Vdate = # 04/12/2005#;

III. Unspecified WHERE Clause : Absence of WHERE clause in SELECTstatement implies that the tuples from a relation are to be selected withoutapplying any condition. This in turn means that all tuples of a relationspecified in FROM clause qualify for being selected for the result of query.Consider the following query with reference to Model-I.

(4) Find out the list of accounts which have been debited

Solution

(Model-I)

SELECT DISTINCT Debit As CodeFROM vouchers;

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Solution

(Model-II)

SELECT AccCode As CodeFROM vouchersWHERE vType = 0;UNIONSELECT Details.CodeFROM vouchers, DetailsWHERE vType = 1 AND vouchers.vNo = Details.vNo;Save above query as DebitAccounts, and thereafter execute another query asgiven below to get the final results.SELECT DISINCT *FROM Debit Accounts ;

(5) Find out the list of accounts which have been credited

Solution

(Model-I)

SELECT DISTINCT Credit As CodeFROM vouchers ;

Solution

(Model-II)

SELECT AccCode As CodeFROM vouchersWHERE Vtype = 1;UNIONSELECT Details.CodeFROM vouchers, DetailsWHERE vType = 0 AND vouchers.vNo = Details.vNo;Save above query as CreditAccounts, and thereafter execute another query asgiven below to get the final results.

SELECT DISINCT *FROM CreditAccounts;

(6) Find out the list of accounts which have been debited as well as credited

Solution

(Model-I)

SELECT DISTINCT Debit As CodeFROM vouchersWHERE Debit IN (SELECT Credit As CodeFROM vouchers);

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Solution

(Model-II)

SELECT *FROM DebitAccountsWHERE Code IN (SELECT *FROM CreditAccounts);Save above solution query as DebitCredit, both for Model-I andModel-II

(7) Find out the list of accounts which have been debited but not credited

Solution

(Model-I)

SELECT DISTINCT Debit As CodeFROM vouchersWHERE Debit NOT IN (SELECT CodeFROM DebitCredit);

Solution

(Model-II)SELECT *FROM DebitAccountsWHERE Code NOT IN (SELECT *FROM DebitCredit)

(8) Find out the list of accounts which have been credited but not debited

Solution

(Model-I)SELECT DISTINCT Credit As CodeFROM vouchersWHERE Credit NOT IN (SELECT CodeFROM DebitCredit);

Solution

(Model-II)

SELECT *FROM CreditAccountsWHERE Code NOT IN ( SELECT *FROM DebitCredit)

IV. Ambiguous Attribute Names and Renaming (Aliasing) : SQL allows theuse of homonyms (that is same name for two or more attributes) as longas such attributes are in different relations. If the use of a common attributewith a particular name across the relations prevails, it becomes necessary

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to qualify the attribute name with relation name in which it exits. This isachieved by prefixing the relation name to the attribute name andseparating the two by a period symbol dot. In Model-II, the attribute Vno,referring to voucher number in vouchers relation, also exists in detailsrelation. Whenever vouchers and details relations are used in a query, theuse of Vno attribute must precede the name of relation or its alias name.For example,(9) Retrieve a list of accounts and the amounts debited because of cash payments.

The Cash Account code begins with “631”.

Solution

(Model-I)

SELECT Narration, Debit As Code, AmountFROM VouchersWHERE Credit LIKE “631*”;

Solution

(Model-II)

SELECT Narration,Acc_code AS Code, AmountFROM Vouchers AS V, Details AS DWHERE tType=1 AND V.vNo=D.vNoAND acc_code like “631*”UNIONSELECT Narration,Code, AmountFROM Vouchers AS V, Details AS DWHERE tType = 0 AND V.vNo = D.vNoAND code LIKE “631*”;

(10) To retrieve a detailed list of all accounts, giving their code, Name and category.

Solution

(Model-I and Model-II)SELECT Code, Name, CategoryFROM Accounts, AccountTypeWHERE CatId = Type

(11) To retrieve a detailed list of all account, giving their code, Name and category,which have been debited

Solution

(Model-I)

SELECT DISTINCT Debit AS Code, Name, CategoryFROM Vouchers AS V,Accounts AS A, AccountTypeWHERE V.Debit = A.Code AND CatId = type

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Solution

(Model-II by using query solution saved as DebitAccounts in Q.No: 4)SELECT Code, Name, CategoryFROM DebitAccounts AS D, Accounts AS A, CategoryWHERE D.Code = A.Code AND Type = CatId

(12) To retrieve Code, Name and Category of Expense accounts which have beendebited

Solution

(Model-I)

SELECT Debit AS Code, Name, CategoryFROM Vouchers, Accounts, AccountTypeWHERE Debit = Code AND Type = CatId

AND Category = “Expenses”

Solution

(Model-II by using query solution saved as Debit Accounts in Q.No: 4)

SELECT D.Code, Name, CategoryFROM DebitAccounts AS D, Accounts AS A, AccountTypeWHERE D.Code = A.code AND Type = CatId

AND Category = “Expenses”

(13) To retrieve Narration and Amount of transactions where Expense head“Carriage Inwards” has been debited.

Solution

(Model-I)

SELECT Narration, AmountFROM Vouchers, AccountsWHERE Debit = Code

AND Name LIKE “Carriage Inw*”;

Solution

(Model-II by using query solution saved as DebitAccounts in Q.No: 4)

SELECT Narration, AmountFROM Details AS T,DebitAccounts AS D, Accounts AS AWHERE T.Code = D.Code AND D.Code = A.Code

AND Name LIKE “Carriage Inw*”

V. Sub-string Comparisons and Arithmetic Operators and Ordering and useof functions : SQL allows comparison on sub-strings (that are some partsof a character string). This can be achieved by use of LIKE Operator. Thislike operator instead of equal to (=) operator can be used when exact value

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of comparison is not known. Partial strings or sub-strings are specified byusing * and range specification within rectangular brackets. For Example:

(14) To make a list of accounts pertaining to the assets of the company, given thateach of the assets account code begins with “4”, following query need beexecuted:

Solution

(Model-I and Model-II)SELECT Code, NameFROM accountsWHERE Code like “4*”

(15) To make a list of employees whose names start from a to k, following queryneed be executed :

Solution

(Model-I and Model-II)

SELECT Fname & “ “ & Minit & “ “ & Lname As ‘Name of Employee’FROM EmployeesWHERE Fname like “[a-e]*”

VI. Another comparison operator used in SQL is BETWEEN ....AND....operator. This operator facilitates numeric range tests for selection oftuples. For Example:

(16) To retrieve vouchers with amount ranging between 5,000 and 10,000, followingquery need be formulated.

Solution

(Model-I)

SELECT Vno, AmountFROM VouchersWHERE Amount BETWEEN 5000 AND 10000 ;

Solution

(Model-II)

SELECT Vno, AmountFROM Vouchers AS V, Details AS DWHERE. V.vno = D.vno AND Amount BETWEEN 5,000 AND 10,000;

VII. Another feature of SQL permits the use of standard arithmetic operators,which can be directly applied to numeric values appearing in a querystatement. Consider the following query:

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(17) To find various amounts of sales during the month of April, 2005 and theamounts of such sales if the prices of products are allowed to be raised by16%.

Solution

(Model-I)

SELECT Vdate, Credit, Amount, Amount*1.16 AS ExpectedFROM Vouchers, AccountsWHERE Credit = Code AND name LIKE “Sales Account*”

Solution

(Model-II)

SELECT Vdate, D.code, Amount, Amount*1.16 AS ExpectedFROM Vouchers AS V, Details AS D, accounts AS AWHERE V.vNo = D.vNo AND D.code = A.Code AND A.Name LIKE

“Sales Account*” AND tType = 1UNIONSELECT Vdate, V.Acc_code, Amount, Amount*1.16 AS ExpectedFROM Vouchers AS V, Details AS D, accounts AS AWHERE V.vno = D.vno AND V.acc_code = A.code AND A.name LIKE

“Sales Account*” AND Ttype = 0;

VIII. SQL also allows ordering of resultant tuples according to some specifiedattribute, which may or may not form part of the resultant relation. Considerthe following example:

(18) To retrieve list of Accounts in dictionary order of their Names :

Solution

(Model-I and Model-II)

SELECT *FROM AccountsORDER BY Name

IX. SQL queries allow the use of supported functions within the query itself.List of these functions varies from one implementation to another dependingon the specific RDBMS. Consider the following example :

(19) To List details of vouchers released during April, 2005.

Solution

(Model-I and Model-II)

SELECT *FROM vouchersWHERE Month(vDate) = 4

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To execute above query, month() function is used which accepts within parenthesisthe data a parameter and returns the numeric value of one month varying from 1through 12. In this case the relevant value to be compared for the month of Aprilis 4.

X. Explicit Sets and NULL in SQL : Query results can be retrieved even forrows in which value of an attribute is missing. This is achieved by usingNULL in Where clause while specifying the condition. If more than onevalue is to be compared with an attribute, the value set can be given inWhere clause by specifying IN operator.(20) To retrieve Details of Accounts with following Codes: relating to “621001”,

“632021” and “642002”.

Solution

(Model-I and Model-II)SELECT *FROM AccountsWHERE Code IN(“621001”,”632001”,”642002”);

(21) To retrieve name of all employees who do not have supervisors.

Solution

(Model-I and Model-II)

SELECT *FROM EmployeesWHERE SuperId = NULL;

XI. Aggregate Functions and Grouping : The concept of aggregate functionsas referred to in relational operations, is implemented by SQL. Five suchfunctions commonly used for aggregate of data items are: COUNT,SUM,MAX, MIN and AVG. These functions when applied on a set of numericvalues, return respectively number of rows, the sum , maximum, minimumand average of these values. The GROUP BY clause is used for providingthe basis of creating collection of data items on which these functions areto be applied. Consider the following examples.(22) To find the sum, minimum and maximum of cash payment during April,

2005. The cash account code begins with “631”

Solution

(Model-I)

SELECT Debit AS Code, SUM(Amount) AS Total,MIN(Amount) As Minimum, MAX(Amount) As Maximum

FROM VouchersWHERE Debit like “631*”GROUP BY Debit

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Solution

(Model-II)

SELECT Code, SUM(Amount) AS Total,MIN(Amount) As Minimum, MAX(Amount) As Maximum

FROM Vouchers AS V, Details AS DWHERE V.Vno=D.Vno, Ttype=0 and Code Like “631*”GROUP BY D.Code

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• Database System • Entity Relationship (ER) Model• Reality Database • Rational Data Model• Accounting Intermedia • Transaction Voucher• Credit Voucher • Debit Voucher• Attributes • Interacting with Database• Designing Database for Accounting

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

(1) Database Concepts

Reality : It consists of different components of an organisation such as people,facilities and other resources.

Data : It represent data concerning people, places, objects entities, events, etc.and non-financial 14 nature.

Database : It was a shared collection of inter-related data tables, tiles or structureswhich are designed to most varied information needs of all organisation.

International : Processed data organisation in a form that is suitable for decision-making.DBMS : A collection of programmes that enable users to create and maintain adatabase.

(2) Database System Concepts and Architecture

Data model : Collection of concepts used to describe the structure of a database.

Database Schemes : The description of a database is called its scheme.

Data Base State and Instances : Data in a database at a particular movement iscalled database state.

(3) Entity Relationship (ER) Model

An important concept of data model mostly used in data base oriented application.The major elements of ER model are entities, Attributes, identities and relationshipthat are used to express reality for which a data base is to be designed.

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(4) Relation Data Model (RDM)

It represent the database at collection of tables comprising different volumes. Itconsists of rows and columns. The table name and column name are used to helpin interpreting the meaning of volumes of each row. Each row of table is called adata record.

Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. State main categories of data models.2. How are computers useful in processing the accounting data?3. What do you understand by accounting data? Discuss the stages through

which it is finally transformed for being presented as information in financialstatements.

4. What do you understand by database. How does it differ from DBMS?5. What is meant by entity type? How it is different from entity set? Illustrate

by giving suitable example from accounting reality.6. What do you understand by relationship type? How is it different from

relationship instance and relationship set?7. What do you understand by multi-valued attribute? How is it different from

complex and composite attribute? Illustrate by giving suitable example.8. What do you understand by the concept of weak entity used in data

modelling? Explain the relevance of owner entity type, partial key andidentifying relationship in the context of such modelling.

9. What is a participation role? State the circumstances under which the useof role names becomes necessary in description of relationship types.

10. Define foreign key. How is this concept useful in relational data model?Illustrate with suitable example.

11. What is meant by NULL value? What are the reasons that lead to theiroccurrence in database relations?

12. Why are duplicate tuples not allowed in a relation?13. What do you understand union compatibility of relations? For which

operations such compatibility is required and why?14. What is the need for database normalisation?

Long Answers

1. Discuss the basic concepts of Entity Relationship (ER) Model. Illustrate asto how an ER model is diagrammed.

2. What integrity constraints are specified on database schema? Why is eachconsidered important?

3. Discuss the different types of update operations in relation to the integrityconstraints which must be satisfied in a relational database model.

4. Discuss the steps you would take to transform an ER Model into variousrelations of Relational Data Model. Give suitable examples.

Project Work

(i) Consider the following reality in a business enterprise, which is engaged intrading activity.

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• It buys and sells a given number of items each of which is uniquelyidentifiable. Each unit of item is expressed in numbers or Kilograms.

• It procures its supplies from a given number of suppliers who can supplyany number of items at a time. Each transaction is on credit for aparticular period of time expressed in days.

• It sells various items to its customers on credit for a definite period oftime expressed in days.

• Each purchase is made through a regular invoice, which has its distinctnumber for the supplier. It is duly dated, mentions the items beingtransacted, their quantities and prices and total amount of invoice.

• Design an ER schema for a database application for purchase and salesaccounting and also show as to how it shall be transformed into variousrelations of a relational data model.

(ii) Following transactions of M/s Soumya Enterprises are given to you for theperiod ending March, 31 2002.

March 05 Additional capital brought in cash by proprietor, Rs.5,00,000, outof which deposited into a bank account Rs.4,50,000

02 Received Cheque for Rs.56,000 from K & Co. on account08 Issued Cheque for Rs.75,000 in favour of Jain & Sons10 Payment of rent for the month Rs.15,00012 Goods purchased Rs.34,000 by Cash16 Goods sold to R & Co Rs.45,00020 Purchased furniture for office use Rs.25,00024 Paid fire insurance premium by Cheque Rs. 12,00028 Paid cash to Jayram Bros. Rs.29,000 in full settlement of their

account standing at Rs.29,50030 Payment of salary to staff Rs.20,000

All these transactions have been stored in database tables as shown belowunder (Model-I of database design). Data in Accounts table appears as follows:

Accounts

Code Name

110001 Capital Account221019 Jain & Sons411001 Furniture Account411002 Fixtures & Fittings Account621001 K & Co631001 Cash Account632001 Bank Account641001 Salary in Advance Account711001 Cartage Account711002 Salaries Account711003 Rent Account711005 Insurance Premium711006 Discount Account811001 Sales Account

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Show how will these transactions appear as accounting data in following voucherstable.

Vno : Identity of a transaction stored through a voucher.Vdate : to date of transactionDebit : to code of account being debitedAmount : Amount of transactionCredit : Code of account being creditedNarration : Narration of transaction.

(iii) M/s Soumya Exports set up a garments export business on March,1 2002.Their transactions for the month ending March, 31 2002 are given below :

March 01 Capital brought in cash by proprietor, Rs.5,00,000, out of whichdeposited into a bank account Rs.4,50,000

03 Received Cheque for Rs.86,000 from Kailash Nath & Co. as advanceaccount

04 Issued Cheque for Rs.85,000 to Jackson Bros. as advance forsupplies

11 Payment of rent for the month Rs.18,00014 Purchased Computer system for office use Rs.53,000, payment for

which made by Cheque 14 Goods purchased Rs.1,30,000 , payment made by Cheque.16 Goods purchased from Jackson and Bros. for Rs.97,50019 Goods sold to Rajeshwar & Sons Rs.45,00022 Purchased Furniture for office use Rs.25,00025 Paid fire insurance premium by Cheque Rs. 12,00029 Paid Cash To Jackson Bros. Rs.12,000 in full settlement of their

outstanding balance of Rs.12,50030 Payment of salary to staff Rs.20,000

All these transactions have been stored in database tables as shown below under(Model-I of database design). Data in Accounts table appears as follows:

Accounts

Code Name

110001 Capital Account221019 Jackson Bros.411001 Furniture Account

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413001 Office Equipment621001 Kailash Nath & Co621002 Rajeshwar & Sons631001 Cash Account632001 Bank Account641001 Salary in Advance Account711001 Cartage Account711002 Salaries Account711003 Rent Account711005 Insurance Premium711006 Discount Account811001 Sales Account

Show how will these transactions appear as accounting data in following accountingdata tables.

Vno : Identity of a transaction stored through a voucherVdate : date of transactionAcc_code : code of account being debited or creditedCode : Codes of accounts being credited or debited, depending on

value of Vtype( = 0, means codes being debited, 1 meanscodes being credited)

Sno : Serial number of accounts being debited in debit voucherand those being credited in credit voucher

Vtype : 0 = means debit voucher, 1 = credit voucherAmount : Amount of transactionNarration : Narration of transaction

(iv) Write relational operation expressions and relevant SQL statements forfollowing queries using Database Design Model-I and Model-II :(a) Retrieve the voucher details and type of voucher authorised by a

particular employee.(b) Retrieve every bank payment voucher details, account name, amount.

You are given that bank account code =”632001”.(c) Find details of cash vouchers pertaining to an expense account whose

account code = ”711003”. You are given that cash accountcode=”631001”.

(d) Make a list of accounts and amount with respect to which a voucherhas been either prepared or authorised by a particular employee.

(e) Retrieve details of vouchers without support documents.

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(f) List details of documents with at least one support document.(g) Find all vouchers with total amounts raised during a particular month.(h) Retrieve all vouchers prepared by an employee whose First name is “Smith”.

(iv) Write relational operation expressions and relevant SQL statements forfollowing queries using Database Design Model-I and Model-II.(a) Retrieve all vouchers pertaining to a particular account with amounts

ranging between Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 20,000.(b) Retrieve details of each voucher whose support document has the same

date as that of the voucher itself.(c) Retrieve details of voucher authorised by employees who do not have

supervisors.(d) Find sum of cash payments, maximum payments, minimum payments

and average.(e) Find sum of cash payment, maximum and minimum amount with

respect to a particular account Code.(f) Retrieve every bank payment voucher details, account name, amount

pertaining to a particular period ranging from Date1 to Date 2.(g) Find details of cash vouchers pertaining to a particular expense account.(h) Make a list of accounts and amount with respect to which a voucher

has been either prepared or authorised by a particular employee.(i) Find all vouchers with total amounts raised during a particular month.(j) Retrieve all vouchers prepared by an employee whose last name is Dev.(k) Retrieve details of each voucher whose support document has the same

date as that of the voucher itself.

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

A. (a) T (b) T (c) T (d) F (e) F

B. (a) Weak entity(b) Computer based(c) Timeware(d) Liveware(e) Total participation(f) Multi-valued(g) Full functional

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In chapter 14, you have learnt about thefundamentals of creating a database design in

the context of accounting system. This chapter dealswith the basics of MS Access for implementing thedatabases and specifically deals with implementa-tion of accounting databases, the design of whichhas been shown, described and discussed in chapter14 as Model-I and Model-II. The accountingdatabase design has been discussed below in termsof its implementation modalities in the context ofMS Access.

15.1 MS Access and its Components

It is one of the popularly used Database ManagementSystem (DBMS) to create, store and managedatabase. It is also popularly called ACCESS.

Every component that is created using Accessis an object and several such similar objectsconstitute a class. Access is functionally availablewith the following seven-object classes. Each ofthese object classes is capable of creating theirrespective object replicas.• Tables : This object class allows a database

designer to create the data tables with theirrespective fieldnames, data types and properties.

• Queries : This object class is meant to create theSQL compatible query statement with or withoutthe help of Graphic User Interface (GUI) to definetables, store data and retrieve both data andinformation.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying thischapter, you will be ableto :• identify the resources

of MS ACCESS asDBMS;

• create data tablesdescribed in a data-base design and setrelationship amongthese tables;

• explain the ACCESSbasics and proceduresto create forms usingACCESS;

• describe and createvoucher forms inconsonance with diffe-rent database designs;

• identify informationrequirement of reportsfor querying databases;

• formulate and imple-ment queries for retri-eving data and inform-ation for presentationin accounting reports ;and

• implement the processin ACCESS for genera-ting accounting reportsby using accountinginformation queries.

15Accounting System UsingDatabase Management System

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• Forms : This object class allows the designer to create an appropriate userinterface to formally interact with the back end database, defined by thetables and queries.

• Reports: This object class is used to create various reports, the source ofinformation content of which is based on tables, queries or both. Suchreports are designed in Access according to the requirement of end-user.

• Pages : This object class is meant to create Data Access Pages, which canbe posted on a Web site of an organisation using Internet or sent viae-mail to someone of the organisation’s network.

• Macros : In macro programming, the objects using individual instructionscalled macro-oriented actions are manipulated. A Macro is a list of macro-oriented actions that run as a unit. Access provides for such Macroprogramming.

Fig. 15.1 : An example of database window to work in Access

• Modules : These are the foundations of any application and allow thedesigner to create a set of programming instructions, called functions orsub-routines that can be used throughout the application.

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The functions return a value while subroutines do not return any value.Access provides for creating such modules.Each of these object classes is contained in the named database file of

Access with MDB extension. Whenever this file is opened, a database window,as shown on next page, opens with all the above object classes available onthe left hand side. As and when the specific objects are created or designed,they get listed on right hand side of this window against each of these objectclasses.

Box 1Capabilities of MS Access

Access has certain capabilities, which bring it closer to an ideal DatabaseManagement System. These capabilities are :• Storing the data in an organised manner.• Enforcing data integrity constraints.• Representing complex relationship among data.• Providing for persistent storage of database objects.• Restricting unauthorised access to database.• Allowing fast retrieval of data with or without processing by using SQL.• Flexibility to create multiple user interfaces.• Providing for data sharing and multi-user transaction processing.• Supporting multiple views of data and information.

15.1.1 Access Basics for Creating a Database

When a new database is created from the scratch, there is complete controlover the database objects, their properties and the relationships. In order tocreate a new database without the help of database wizard (that is anautomated process in Access), the following steps are required :

(i) Open Access Window to choose blank Access database and click OKbutton.

(ii) Access responds by displaying File New Database dialog box, whichprompts the designer to enter a file name and a location for the database.This must be followed by clicking Create button.

(iii) If the task pane is not open, choose File from menu bar and click atnew to open the task pane to create a new database.

15.1.2 Creating of Tables in Access

The creation of tables in Access requires the following steps and understandingof the components of table object.

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Click at Tables object of Access, followed by double click at create table bydesign view. This results in providing a table window, the upper part ofwhich has three columns: Field Name, Data Type and Description. It is meantto define the schema of a table being created. Each of its rows corresponds toa column of the table being created. Two primary properties of the column ofa table are its field name and data type.(a) Field name : refers to column name of the table being created. The name of

the column should be a string of contiguous characters. The Field name ismeant to define the name of column to be created, followed by data type ofsuch column. The designer can optionally provide description of the columnalso. Once the data type is defined, the designer can further specify theproperties of each column in the lower part of the Table window.

(b) Data Types : Access supports different data types, the details of which areas given below :• Text : It is used for a string of characters: words or numbers that are

not to be used in any arithmetic calculations. The maximum length fora text field is 255 characters. It is the default data type because ofbeing used most frequently.

• Memo : It is used for storing comments and is capable of accommodating65,536 characters. But a field with this data type is not amenable tosorting or filtering of data records.

• Number : It is meant to store numbers, which could be integers (-32768to 32767), long integers (–2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647), bytes( 0 – 255), single (to store values with decimal point up to a certainlimit), double (to store values in decimal point with greater magnitudeand more precision) or decimal types.

• Date/Time : It is used to store dates, times or a combination of both.• Currency : It is used for storing numbers in terms of Dollars, Rupees or

other Currencies.• AutoNumber : It is a numeric data automatically entered by Access. It

is of particular importance in a situation where none of the fieldsindividually or a set of fields as a combination in a table is unique.

• Yes/No : It is to declare a logical field which may have only one of the twoopposite values alternatively given as: Yes or No, On or Off, True or False.

• OLE Object : OLE stands for Object Linking and Embedding. It refers toan object that could be a photograph, bar code image or anotherdocument created in another software application.

• Hyperlink : This data type is meant to store a Universal Resource Locator(URL) and e-mail addresses.

(c) Properties : Once the data type of a column is specified, Access allows thedesigner to define the properties of each column. These properties are oftwo types General and Look up.

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(i) General : In the context of text data type the general properties are :• Field Size : This property, in case of text fields, refers to the maximum

number of characters allowed in the column. The same property, incase of numbers, refers to the type of numbers being stored as perrequirements.

• Format : It is meant to indicate as to how the field’s contents aredisplayed. There are standard types of formats to choose from.

• Decimal places property : It applies to single, double or decimal typesof numbers.

• Input mask : Formats for data entry that include placeholders andpunctuations are called input masks. It works only for text and datetype of fields. It is of particular importance when the accounting codesbeing used in the system are formatted with hyphens.

• Caption : It is a label used for the field in datasheet view and on theForms and reports. If the caption property is set to blank, the fieldname becomes the default caption and is used to label the field.

• Default Value : It is used for specifying a value for new entries of datarecords. While entering the data item, the operator can always overwrite the default value. The default value should be the most frequentlyentered value in the field.

• Validation Rule and Text : Validation means checking of data to eliminateincorrect entries. Validation criteria can be specified for this property.If the data so entered does not satisfy the validation criteria, thevalidation text gets displayed.

• Required and Indexed : The Required property must be provided a logicalvalue Yes or No. When a field’s required property is set to Yes, a usermust enter data in the field before saving the record. A value of Noimplies that the data entry in the field is optional. In other words, anull value is also acceptable to the database. Indexing a field resultsin speeding up sorting, searching and filtering of records on that field.Primary key field is always indexed. For a single field primary key,Access sets the Required property to Yes and the Indexed property toYes (No duplicates) because a primary key by definition must haveunique values without null entries.

• Allow-Zero Length : This property is available only for text fields. Settingit to Yes/No determines whether a text string with zero length is avalid entry or not.

(ii) Look up : The look up feature is used by a field to find its values in anothertable, query or from a fixed list of values. A list of valid values can bedisplayed using a list box or combo box. Text box is the default displaycontrol of look up. Look up is created in case of a field, which is foreign

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key (many side) into primary key (one side) between the tables that haveone-to-many relationship. Its other display controls are list control andcombo control. When list box or combo box is used as display control inlook up, it is important to specify the row source type (that is table, queryor list of values or field list). The list of values must be separated by comma.Some additional properties in case of list box or combo box are meant tospecify the bound column whose values are copied to this field as references.Number of columns to appear in the list box or combo box is determinedby column count property.• The above steps for defining a column need be repeated for every column

to be created for a particular table.• After defining all the columns of the table, the primary key column of

the table can be specified as any of the columns that are expected tohave unique data values. This can be achieved by right clicking at thefield to be specified as primary key followed by primary key item ofright clicked window. If more than one field constitutes a primary key,select first field (of such composite primary key) by pressing and holdingCtrl key and clicking other fields (of the composite primary key) one byone in the same order in which they together constitute the primarykey. This must be followed by right click at selected fields to mark theselected fields as primary key.

• Save the table design by clicking at File item of menu bar followed byclick at Save option. Access responds by providing a generic defaultname of table. The table name provided by Access may be accepted byclicking at OK or changed by re-typing another name at the inputdialog box. This must be followed by clicking OK. The table standscreated and appears as listed to the right of table object.

• Every other table, which constitutes part of the database design, mayalso be created in the same manner as described above.

The foregoing discussion in this chapter is divided into four sections:Creating tables and relationships for accounting databases; Vouchers andforms; information using queries and generating accounting reports.

15.2 Creating Tables and Relationships for Accounting Database

The database designed in of this chapter is to be discussed in the context ofdatabase components as detailed above. This is because the implementationof each database design is conditioned by its particular table structure andinterrelationships. Such implementation modalities have been discussed indetail for various types of transaction vouchers already described in thepreceding chapter.

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15.2.1 Database Design for Simple Transaction Vouchers

According to the design shown in figure 14.24 (Model-1) of preceding chapter,there are five data tables: Employees, Accounts, Vouchers, Support andAccountType. For the purpose of implementation, each table is described belowin terms of their storage structure, i.e. column names, data types and properties:(a) AccountType : This table has two columns: CatId and Category.

• CatId : This column of the AccountType table is meant to specify theidentification value of the category of accounts. Since there are limitednumber of accounts type and are being expressed as numeric only,the data type of this field can be safely taken as ‘Number/byte’ becausethe storage space taken by the data type ‘Number/byte’ is minimum.This field has been designated as primary key because it has uniquevalues across a set of category records.

• Category : This field is meant to store the string of characters to expressthe category of account such as Expenses, Revenues, Assets andLiabilities. Its data type should be Text with suggested field size set to15 characters.

(b) Accounts : This table has three columns: Code, Name and Type.• Code : A unique account number or code identifies an account. This

column is meant to store this code. Its data type is chosen as Textbecause it is not to be subjected to any calculations. Its field size isrequired to have a length of six characters because every account isdesigned to have six digits at leaf level. Because of uniqueness in values,this field is a good primary key field. The Allow Zero Length propertymust be set to No. Indexed property of this field must be set to Yes (Noduplicates) to imply that the database creates automatically an internalindex on this field for fast retrieval of data records and No duplicatesindicates that this index is based on unique values of code.

• Name : In a system of accounting, every account has a name. Thiscolumn is meant to store the name of an account corresponding to theaccount code by which it is identified. Its data type is declared as Textbecause it is a string of characters not required for any calculations.Its field size need be set to 30 characters, which is considered to belong enough to accommodate the name of account.

• Type : Every account must belong to one of the accounts type as storedin AccountType table. This field is a foreign key to reference CatId fieldof AccountType table. Its data type and other properties must be thesame as that of CatId field in AccountType table, except that its Indexproperty can be set to YES (Duplicates OK). This is because Typevalue within accounts table cannot be unique as a number of accountsmight belong to a particular AccountType and store a common CatId

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as data value in Type field. The relationship between the CatId columnof AccountType table and type column of Accounts table must also bedefined so as to maintain referential integrity.

(c) Employees : This table stores the data pertaining to employees of theorganisation and is designed to have following columns :• EmpId : Each employee is identified by a unique data value called

EmpId, which in turn gets reflected in employee table as a column tostore for each employee record a unique identification value. The datatype of this column is text with field size equal to 4. Being a column tostore unique values and also because of its capability to identify anemployee record, it is designated as primary key field. Its Requiredproperty is set to Yes and Zero length property is set to No withIndexed property as Yes (No Duplicates).

• Fname : This column refers to the first name of employee and its datatype is declared as Text because it is meant to store string of alphabets.Its Field size is set to 10 on the assumption that first name of everyemployee can be completely accommodated within this field size. TheRequired property is set to Yes with Zero Length Property being Noto imply that every employee has a first name and no employee recordcan be stored unless the first name is also stored.

• Mname : Mname column is meant to store the middle name of anemployee. It data type is declared as text with field width equal to 10.The Required Property can be set to No and Zero Length property toYes to imply that many employees may not have middle name.Therefore, the storing of value in this field becomes optional.

• Lname : Lname column has been included in the table structure tostore the Last name of an employee. The data type of this column isText with field size set to 10. The Required Property can be set to Noand Allow Zero Length property to Yes for the reason which appliesto Mname.

• PhoneNo : This column is meant to store the Phone number of theemployee and its data type is set to Text with field size equal to 12.The Required property is set to No with Allow Zero Length propertyset to Yes to imply that null values are permitted for this field becausemany employees may not have phone numbers.

• SuperId : This column in the Employee table structure refers to EmpIdof the supervisor or immediate superior of the employee. Its data typeis set to Text with field width 4, the same as is for EmpId. Its Requiredproperty is set to No with Allow Zero Length property being Yes toimply that null values are also permitted. This is because the overallboss of the organisation, although an employee, does not have any

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boss and therefore a null value in this field is to be allowed toaccommodate the situation.

(d) Vouchers : This table has been designed to store the transaction data ascontained in a voucher. It has nine columns, the details of each are givenbelow :• Vno : This column is meant to store voucher number, which indicates

the distinct identity of a transaction. Its data type could be number ifnumeric digits are assigned to each of the vouchers. However, its datatype is normally taken as text because it is amenable to any type ofnumbering, coding or ordering scheme: numeric, alpha-numeric orformatted reference. Its width may be set to 6 so that first 2 places tothe left refer to numeric month of the date and next 4 places to numericdigits giving identity to each of the transactions that have occurredduring the month under reference. This column is designed to havedistinct values and therefore can be designated as primary key of thetable. Accordingly, its value cannot be null and therefore its AllowZero Length property must be set to No with Required property beingYes. However, its data type needs be taken as number (with Integer),when numeric function(s) such as Dmax() is applied to find maximumvalues for auto-generating the vouchers.

• Debit : This column is meant to store the code corresponding to anaccount, which has been debited in recording a transaction. Since itreferences the code column, which is the primary key of Accountstable as described above, it is a foreign key column in Vouchers table.The data type and properties of this column should be the same asthat of code column of Accounts table, except that its Indexed propertyneed be set to Yes Duplicates OK). The relationship between the codecolumn of accounts table and debit column of Vouchers table mustalso be defined so as to maintain referential integrity.

• Amount : This column is meant to store the amount of transaction andis common to the accounts being debited and credited. Its data typecan be Number with field size set to double; format set to standard;decimal places set to 2 and default value set to 0.00. Alternatively, itsdata type can be chosen as currency type, in that case its format canbe either accepted as currency or set to standard with decimal placesset to 2.

• Vdate : This column of the table stores the date of transaction. Its datatype is set to Date/Time with format set to Medium Date (dd-MMM-yy); Default value set to = Now() to imply current date in Real TimeClock (RTC) of computer system and caption property set to Date.

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• Credit : This column is meant to store the code corresponding to theaccount being credited in recording a transaction. Like Debit column,this column too shares the same properties as code column of Accountstable and must also be dealt with in the same manner as Debit columndescribed above.

• Narration : This column is meant to store the narration. Its data typecan be set to text type with field size set to 100 characters; Required toNo; Allow Zero Length to Yes and Indexed to No. If the narrations arevery large beyond 255 characters, its data type can be set to Memo soas to accommodate the narrations up to 65,536 characters, almostequal to 64 pages.

• PrepBy : This column is meant to store the identity of an employee whohas prepared the voucher. EmpId as defined and described in schemaof Employees table identifies the employee. The data type of this fieldand other properties must be identical to that of EmpId, except that itsIndexed property must be set to No. This column as per design isexpected to refer to EmpId column of Employees table and thereforemust be defined as foreign key. Its relationship with EmpId column ofEmployees table must also be specified to ensure referential integrity.

• AuthBy : This column is meant to store the identity of the employeewho has authorised the vouchers. This column is similar to PrepBycolumn. Therefore, its data type, properties and relationship with EmpIdare the same as those for PrepBy column.

• Support : This table is created to store the details of support documentsannexed to a voucher. It is designed to have the following four columns:• vNo : This column is meant to store the voucher number to which

this document is annexed. Its data type should be the same as thatof Vno in Vouchers table because this column refers to Vno columnof Vouchers table to maintain referential integrity. Its value cannotbe null and therefore its Allow Zero Length property must be setto No with Required Property being Yes. Since there may be morethan one support documents annexed to a voucher, the valuesstored in this column cannot be unique and therefore this columnalone cannot be a primary key field.

• sNo : This column has been included in the table structure to storeserial numbers 1,2,3… to correspond to the serial number ofdocuments being annexed. Duplicate values will occur in this fieldalso because the serial number of documents across the vouchersshall be the same. However, both the columns: Svno and Snotogether provide a unique value because the documents, for everyvoucher are serially numbered and therefore unique. Both the

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columns together need be declared as Primary key of this table.• dName : This column refers to Document name. Its data type is

Text with field size equal to 30 to mean that within this characterlimit the document name can be suitable accommodated.

• sDate : This column refers to any date reference given in the supportdocument. Its data type is Date/Time. Its format can be declaredas Medium Date with Required and Indexed property set to No.

15.2.2 Modified Design for Implementing Compound Vouchers

There are two tables: VouchersMain and VouchersDetails(a) VouchersMain : This table has been created to store one record for every

transaction. The rows of this table refer to those data items of the vouchers,which lie outside the voucher grid. It consists of Vno, AccCode, vdate,PrepBy, AuthBy and Type.• AccCode : This column is meant to store the complementing account

code, which in the context of debit voucher is credit account and in thecontext of credit voucher is a debit account. In debit voucher, the debitaccounts are displayed in Debit Accounts Grid and therefore thecomplementing account is the account to be credited. Similarly, inCredit Voucher, the Credit Accounts Grid displays only the accounts,which are being credited in recording a transaction. Therefore, thecomplementing debit account need be stored in this column. Thiscolumn is also the foreign key column because it references the primarykey column of Accounts table. Its data type and properties must bethe same as that of Code column of Accounts table, except that itsIndexed property must be set to Yes (Duplicates OK) and the domainof its data values is confined to the code values stored in Accountstable.

• Type : This column has been created to store a value 0 (for debit voucher)or 1 (for credit voucher). Its data type therefore is set to Number withfield size set to byte. This column is very important and therefore itsvalues must be carefully stored and interpreted in preparing accountingreports. Improper handling of this column may cause the Errors ofPrinciple in accounting. The data types and properties of Vno,Vdate,AuthBy and PrepBy continues to be same as have been defined anddiscussed in Vouchers table of Simple Vouchers Design. However, Vnocolumn has acquired an added importance because of being referencedby Vno column of VouchersDetail table.

(b) VouchersDetail : This table is meant to store those data items of the voucher,which appear in the grid of debit or credit vouchers. However, the Total

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amount of voucher is not stored because it is derived data. It consistsof Vno, Sno, Code, Amount and Narration as its columns.• Vno : This column is meant to store voucher number of Debit/

Credit record of VouchersMain table to which the Credit/Debitentries of vouchersDetails table are related. Its data type shouldbe the same as that of Vno in VouchersMain table because thiscolumn refers to Vno column of vouchersMain table to maintainreferential integrity. Its value cannot be null and therefore itsAllow Zero Length property must be set to No with Requiredproperty being Yes. Since there can be more than one debit/creditEntry against each of the credit/debit entry of VoucherMain table,the values stored in this column cannot be unique and thereforethis column alone cannot be a primary key field.

• Sno : This column has been included in the table structure tostore serial numbers 1,2,3… to correspond to the serial number ofdebit/credit entries being referred to in the grid of an accountingVoucher: Debit or Credit. Duplicate values will occur in this fieldalso because the serial numbers of entries across the vouchersare bound to be the same. However, both the columns: vno andSno together provide a unique value because for every voucherthe entries are serially numbered and therefore unique. Both thecolumns together need be declared as primary key of this table.

• Code : This column is meant to store the account codes, which inthe context of debit voucher are debit accounts and in the contextof credit voucher are credit accounts. This column is also theforeign key column because it references the primary key columnof Accounts table. Its data type and properties must be the sameas that of Code column of Accounts table, except that its Indexedproperty must be set to Yes (Duplicates OK). The domain of itsdata values gets confined to the Code values stored in Accountstable. The data type and properties of amount and narrationcolumn continue to be the same as already described anddiscussed for Vouchers table.

15.3 Vouchers Using Forms

The scope of this section includes the basics of Access for creating aForm in Access; transforming the voucher designs in terms of Accessobjects and properties; and also the procedure for creating Forms forvouchers.

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15.3.1 Access Basics for Creating Forms

A Form in Access may be designed, developed and used for the followingpurposes :• Data Entry: Form is used for entering, editing and displaying data.• Application flow : Form is used for navigating through an application.• Custom Dialog Box : It can be used for providing messages to the user or

getting parameters from the user for executing a parameter-based query.• Printing information: It can be used for providing hard copies of data entry

information.This is contrary to the belief that Forms in Access can be used only for

data entry. The most common use of a Form in Access is to display and editexisting data and also for adding new data records.

15.3.2 Tool Box and Form Controls

A tool box is a collection of visual objects (or controls) that are placed (orembedded) on the Form to provide some meaning or functionality. The Formis designed by placing several such controls, which have their own functionalityand properties.

15.3.3 Properties of Controls

Every form control is a complete object with its independent set of properties,which determine the shape, size, behaviour and functionality of the object.The properties of these objects are divided into three categories: Format, Dataand Others. All these properties may not apply to all the controls. Someimportant properties of these objects are as described below :(a) Format Properties : Some of the important properties are as described as

under:• Format : It determines the manner in which the data in the control is

displayed. This property is inherited from its underlying data source.It is set and used in three situations : one when the property is not setfor the underlying field; second when the format setting of the underlyingfield is to be overridden; third when a control, which is not bound toany underlying data field, is to be displayed in a particular manner.

• Decimal Places : This property specifies the number of decimal placesup to which the control should display a numeric data. It must beused in conjunction with format property to determine the finalappearance of numeric data.

• Caption : The caption property applies to label, command button andtoggle buttons. This property is used to specify what printed matterwill appear on the face of the control. In the context of label control,the printed matter is made to appear using this caption property.

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• Visible : This property specifies whether the control embedded on theForm should be visible or hidden when the Form is opened. The propertycan make a control appear conditionally when required.

• Layout Properties (Left, Top, Width, Height) : These properties are usedto set the position and size of the control.

• Back Colour and Style: The back colour property specifies backgroundcolour, as opposed to text colour, for the control. This property, whenset to transparent, shows the form’s background colour through thecontrol. The setting is preferred for an Option group.

• Special effects: This property provides the three dimensional effect to acontrol in its appearance. The options for this property are: Flat, Raised,Sunken, Etched, Shadowed and Chiseled. Each of these effects give adifferent look to the control.

• Border Properties(style, colour, and effect): The Border properties arecapable of affecting the style, colour and thickness of the Border of acontrol. The Border style options are Transparent, Solid, Dashes, Dots,etc. The Border colour property specifies the colour of the Border andit is possible to select from a variety of colours. The Border widthproperty can be set to one of several point sizes. When the Border styleof a control is set to transparent, its colour and width properties areignored.

• Fore Colour: This property can be used for assigning a colour of choiceto the text being formatted.

• Font Properties (Name, Size, Weight, Italics, Underline): These propertiesare meant to control the appearance of text within a control. These arecapable of affecting font, its point size, thickness and also whether thetext is italicised or underlined.

• Text Align : The text-align property affects the manner in which data isaligned within the control. The available options are: General, Left,Centre, Right and Distribute.

• Margins (Top, Left, Right and Bottom) : These properties determine howfar the text appears from top, left, right and bottom of a control. Themargin properties are of particular importance while using Text boxfor memo field.

• Line Spacing: It is used to determine the spacing between the lines of atext with multiple lines. This is useful when a text control is used fordisplaying and storing data pertaining to Memo fields.

• Display When: This property is capable of deciding whether to send thedata of a control to a Printer or to a Screen. For example, the labelscontaining instructions can be displayed on the screen but not on theprinter.

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• Scroll Bars: This property is capable of determining whether scroll barsappear when the data in the control does not fit within its size or not.The options are none or vertical. This property is normally set to verticalfor text control to interact with data pertaining to Memo field.

(b) Data Properties• Control Source : This property specifies the field from a record source

that is associated with particular control. By default, it is the recordsource that underlies the Form being designed.

• Input Mask : The input mask property affects the format used for dataentry into the control as opposed to its appearance, which is affectedby Format and Decimal places property. The input mask of the fieldunderlying the control is automatically inherited by the control.However, the input mask property of control in the Form is used tofurther restrict what data is entered into the field.

• Default Value : This property determines the value assigned to the fieldwhile adding a new data record. It is inherited from the underlyingfield of record source to which the control is bound. The default value,when set for control, has an overriding effect over the default value setat the underlying field level.

• Validation (Rule and Text) : The function performed by Validation Ruleand Validation Text for controls is the same as it applies to Fields ofdatabase tables, except that the validation is performed at Form levelin case of control and database level in case of fields. In case of boundcontrols, the user cannot enter data into the control, if the validationrules for control and the underlying field are in conflict.

• Enabled and Locked : This property is meant to determine whetherfocus is allowed on the control or not. If it is set to No, the controlappears dimmed and mouse action cannot be performed on suchcontrol. This property is useful for calculated controls meant only fordisplay of data. Locked property determines whether the data in thecontrol can be modified or not. This property, when set to Yes, deprivesa user the facility to edit data, though the focus becomes available.The two properties interact with one another resulting in followingbehaviour of control :

Locked Enabled Effect : The control can

Yes Yes get focus ; its data can be copied but not modifiedNo Yes get focus and its data can be modifiedYes No not get focusNo No not get focus; its data is displayed dimmed

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(c) Other Properties• Name : This property allows the designer to provide a customised name

to a control. The names assigned by the designer should be purposeoriented so that the design structure of the Form becomes self-documenting.

• Status Bar Text : This control specifies the text message that is displayedin the status bar when the control acquires the focus.

• Enter Key Behaviour : This property is meant to determine whether theuse of Enter key adds a new line in the current control or results inmoving the cursor to next control. Its setting is useful for Text controlbound to Memo field.

• Allow AutoCorrect : This property, when set to Yes, enables the autocorrection feature to correct automatically common spelling errors andtypes. It is useful while using Text control for Memo field.

• Vertical: This property is meant to determine whether the text in acontrol appears horizontally or vertically. The default setting is No tomean the horizontal. When set to Yes, the text within the control isrotated at 90 degrees.

• Default : This property applies to command button and specifies whetherthe control is a default control on the form or not.

• Tab Stop : This property indicates whether the Tab key can be used toenter a control or not. It is desirable to set this property to No for thosecontrols whose values are rarely changed.

• Tab Index : This property is used to set the tab order for the control.This property helps in setting the tab order manually as opposed toautomatic setting at Form level.

• Short cut Menu : This control is capable of attaching a specific menu toa control and a bar/window gets displayed when the user right-clicksat the control.

• Control Tip Text : This property is meant to enter text that acts as atool tip for the control. The tool tip appears automatically when themouse pointer is placed over the control and left there for a moment.

• Help Context ID : This property indicates the Help topic attached to aparticular control.

15.3.4 Common Controls in MS Access

Access provides for a number of controls and more can be added using theadd-in-manager in Tools of menu bar. There are three types of controls: Bound,unbound and calculated. Bound controls are used to display and modify datastored in a data table of database. These controls automatically appear in theForm specified in its display control property and inherit many of the properties

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assigned to the field to which such controls are bound. Unbound controlsdisplay information to the user or get data from user that is not going to bestored in the database. A Calculated control is a special type of control,which displays the derived results of an expression or query. The expressionmay consist of ready-to-use functions that are meant to make computationsby using input values. Some commonly used functions have been discussedand described in Appendix given at the end of the chapter. Therefore, the datain calculated control cannot be modified because it is derived data orinformation. The value of these controls changes automatically as and whenthe data, to which the expression of the control is bound, changes. Some ofthe common controls important for designing a Form are discussed below :(a) Label : This control is used to write dark prints on the Form such as

Transaction Voucher, Voucher No, S.No, Debit, Credit, Amount, Narration,Authorised By, Prepared By on the left hand side and “Choose the Accountto Debited” and “Choose the account to be Credited “on the right handside of Access voucher Form design of which is shown in Fig 15.4. Theattached labels are automatically appended to the Form when othercontrols such as Text boxes, List boxes, Combo boxes, etc. are addedbecause every such added control has to be labeled to inform the user asto what data to enter or edit through the control. The default caption ofthe label is the caption of the field that underlies the control to which it isbound. If the caption property of the field is kept blank, the label captionuses field name as its caption.

(b) Text Box : This control is included in a Form to provide a blank area forentering the data with or without default values. Blank space next toAmount label, for example, is a text box control to receive the value ofamount of voucher. Text box, when bound to a particular field of the table,retrieves and displays the data stored in field for a particular row and iscapable of modifying and adding data to the table. The unbound text boxis used to get the data from the user for its subsequent use in report forproviding report criteria.

(c) List Box : This control is used for allowing a user to make a limited choicefrom a given set of values. The domain of its values is predefined andtherefore limited. List control may be used next to Debit and Credit labelsin a simple transaction voucher, so as to locate the accounts to be debitedor credited.

(d) Combo Box : This control combines the features of a list box and text boxby allowing a user to select an item from a list or enter a value using thekeyboard.

(e) Sub-form : Many Forms are based on more than one table with One-to-Many relationship. The records of such tables can be displayed by creating

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form within a form, with tabular presentation of records. The Form withina Form (also referred to as Main Form) is called SubForm. The Main Formand SubForm have parent-child relationship. The Control used for creatingsuch a child Form is called SubForm/SubReport. Data records appearingin a grid can be stored in database by using SubForm Control. The SubFormwhenever created is listed as an independent object like main form inDatabase Window. However, the SubForm Control in main Form has threeproperties for creating a link :• Source Object : It contains name of the Form that is being displayed in

SubForm control.• Link Child Fields : These are the fields from the Child form that link the

this form to the Main form. These are also referred to as Foreign key ofrelated table.

• Link Master Fields : These are the fields from the Main Form that linkthe Child form to the Main Form. These are also referred to as Primarykey of primary table. Make sure the Control Wizards tool is selectedbefore adding the SubForm/SubReport control to the Main form.

(f) Option Groups : Control, when applied to Option button, allows the designerto select a particular option from out of a set of mutually exclusive options.This option is useful in designing a common Voucher Form for Debit andCredit Voucher for compound transactions.

(g) Command Button : It is meant to execute a defined action on the Form.Access provides for six categories of command buttons as described below:• Record Navigation : The record navigation set of command buttons are

meant to facilitate pointer movement on data records. At a point oftime, only one row of a table, called data record, is accessed. To accessother rows, there has to be a pointer for causing record movement.

• Record Operation : There are several operations on data records. Theseare meant to facilitate such operations as add new record, delete record,undo record, save record, duplicate and print record.

• Form Operation : These operations are meant to be performed on theentire form as an object. These are Open form, Close form, Print form,Refresh form data and so on.

• Report Operation : These operations are related to the report object.Once a report is created, further actions, which can be taken on suchreport are Mail report, Preview report, Print report and Send report tofile. Access provides separate command buttons for each of theseactions.

• Application : There are five command buttons especially designed forpossible operations pertaining to other application programs. Runapplication is meant to execute any existing program ; and Quit

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application is used to stop the execution of a running application; RunMS Excel command button is used for calling the MS Excel, spreadsheet program which is part of MS Office package. Similarly, a commandbutton to run MS Word results in calling the text processing programof MS Office package; Run Note Pad command button when executedcalls the text writing program provided by the Operating System-Windows.

• Miscellaneous : This category include four command buttons: Autodialer; Run query, Run macro, Print table. Auto dialer button in a formwhen clicked is capable of dialing a telephone number, provided amodem is attached and configured in the computer system. Run querycommand button is meant to execute an existing query. Run macrocommand button is used to execute a specified Macro and Print tablecommand button, when clicked is capable of printing contents of aspecified data table from among available tables in database.

In the example of Access Voucher Form shown in Fig 15.4, four commandbuttons have been embedded. First button when clicked adds a Record whilea click action on the second button results in undoing the record. The thirdcommand button is meant to delete a record and the fourth button whenclicked saves the record to back-end database tables while in this case it isVouchers table as already described.(h) Control Wizard : If the selected controls (such as List box, combo box or

SubForm) when added to the Form do not invoke the automated wizard,the control wizard need be selected by click action before selecting thecontrol which is to be embedded on the Form for design purposes.

15.3.5 Creation of Form

Access provides for creation of a Form either by Design or Wizard. This can beachieved by double clicking at the database file. Immediately the DatabaseWindow appears, which is vertically divided into two parts: left and right. Theleft side displays a list of database objects such as Tables, Queries, Forms,Reports, Pages, Macros and Modules. The right hand side of Database Windowshows the various objects created under each of the classes of objects. At thetop of Database Window and just below the title bar, there is a menu bar,which consists of three named menu items: Open, Design and New, and fiveIcons: one to delete an object, second and third to toggle between Large andSmall (default) Icons and fourth and fifth to toggle between list (default) anddetails.Select Forms Object : This can achieved by a click at Forms listed as object-class. By default, two items appear on the right side of window: “Create Formin design view” and “Create Form by using wizard”.

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Fig. 15.2 : Database window showing the methods to create forms

(a) Create Form by using wizard : The following procedure is followed for usingthe wizard to create a data entry Form :• Double click at Create Form by using wizard. Immediately there is a

window titled, Form Wizard which allows the designer to choose thedata table along with the related available fields to choose from. Thedesigner should choose only those fields, which pertain to the datacontent of Form being designed. But it must be ensured that everyessential field (defined as one with Required property set to Yes andAllow Zero Length property set to No) must be included. In case ofvoucher, choose all the fields by clicking at >> button.

• Click at Next command button. Form wizard responds by providingsix mutually exclusive choices with respect to layout of the Form. Oneof these choices is exercised by clicking at an option button from agroup of six such buttons.

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• Click at Next command button after exercising layout choice. The Formwizard responds by prompting the user to select from a list control oneout of the ten options to specify the style of presentation of this Form.

• Click at Next to move forward. Access responds by asking for the Titleof the Form. The designer can provide a useful title, which explains thepurpose for which the Form is being created. Further, the designermay specify whether the Form is to be opened for entering data or formodifying the design.

• Finally click at Finish command button to get the initial design of theForm in run mode, if the option for entering data is exercised. If theoption for modify design is exercised, the design of the Form is availablealong with tool box with various controls to facilitate modification ofdesign.

Modifying Form Design : The Forms created with wizard have limited visualappeal. However, Forms have a design view, just as table do, and Accessincludes many tools for modifying a Form’s design. Some of the commonmodifications to the Form are listed below :• Changing Properties of controls• Re-sizing and moving controls• Aligning and spacing controls• Converting (or Morphing) controls• Conditional formatting of controls• Re-arranging Tab Order• Adding New controls• Deleting existing controls

Each of these modifications has been briefly discussed after describingthe procedure for creating a Form by Design view.(b) Create Form by Design view : Under this method, a data entry Form is

created either as a data bound object or as an unbound object. A doubleclick at “Create Form in Design View” provides a New Form dialog but theForm created in this manner is not bound to any back end database.However, a click at New to open New Form dialog results in creating theForm, which is bound to database. The use of drop down list in the newForm dialog box to select a table or query serves as the foundation of theForm being created. Fields can be easily added to a Form by using theField List window, which contains all the fields that are part of the Form’srecord source. The record source for the Form is the table or query thatunderlies the Form. Make sure that the Field List window is visible. If it isnot, click at the Field List button on the tool bar. Pick up from the field listevery field, which is to be displayed in the Form for entering the data. It isimportant to ensure that every essential field must appear in the Form, if

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the Form is being designed to enter records rather than displaying justpart of record contents. Select and drag the field from the field list to aplace on the Form where it is desired to appear. The location selectedbecomes the upper left corner of the text box, and the attached label appearsto the left of where the text control is dropped. Further, the following stepsare taken to develop a data entry Form :

(i) Click at New to open the New Form dialog. Two list controls appearin the dialog box : one provides for various options to create a Formsuch as Design view, Form Wizard, Auto Form; etc. and another to“choose the table or query where object’s data comes from” (alsocalled record source). From First List control choose Designview(default) by a click.

(ii) Choose a table as the record source because the entire data is storedin the table record by record. Click OK after the table is selected.

(iii) Access responds by providing three windows : one for new blankForm, second for tool box and third for Field list corresponding tothe selected record source. The Form object henceforth shall act asa container for other controls to be used in designing Form.

(iv) Select and drag a field from the Field list and place it in the blankForm by drag and drop method. Repeat this process for every fieldin succession. Alternatively, all the fields can be selected by clickingat every field in the field list while Ctrl Key is kept pressed. Theselected fields can be dragged and dropped at the Voucher Form.

(v) Adding a Title : The Form must be suitably titled for its identity,which should be self-descriptive. To add a title, use tool box byclicking at the label control. While the pointer is moved back intothe design area, it changes to a large letter A with crosshairs.Move the pointer into the header area and click where the label isdesired to be placed and then type the text of title. Once the text isentered, the focus from the label control can be freed by clickinganywhere in the Form. The label can be reselected by a click, followedby using the formatting tool bar to format the title. Alternativelyand in addition to the above, more formatting options can beexercised by right clicking at the label control and clicking atProperties item of drop down window of right click action.

(vi) Changing the Properties of Forms and Controls : Every Access object:Form or Controls is described by its properties. These properties,as already stated above, have been classified into three broadcategories: Format, Data and Others. It is not essential to knowevery available property to work well in designing Forms in Access.But it is always good idea to check up the property values if theobject is not behaving the way it is expected to. To view the properties

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for an object or control, right click at the control and select theproperties. Access responds by providing all the properties listedunder category tabs. The property sheet title bar includes names ofobjects contained in the Form. Once property sheet is opened forone object, it is easy to call for the properties of other objects byselecting the name of object from property sheet title bar. The valuesof such properties are changed as desired. The Form’s propertysheet can be opened by double-click at Form selector, which islocated at the left most intersection of vertical and horizontal rulers.The property setting on multiple controls can be changed at thesame time by selecting multiple objects, in which case only thoseproperties become available for editing which are common to theselected objects. The multiple objects can be selected by keepingthe Shift Key pressed, followed by clicking at desired objects.

(vii) Moving and Resising controls : In order to move a control, first selectit by a click action, then move the pointer to the edge of the selectedcontrol, ensuring that any of the re-sizing handles appearing asbold dot is not pointed at directly. The pointer turns its shape to asmall hand. At this stage, hold mouse button pressed and drag thecontrol to its new location. Movement of control beyond the bottomor right edge of the Form, leads to increasing the Form areaautomatically. Access also allows for combining of select and movestep thereby making it easier and more efficient to reposition thecontrol. A control can be re-sized by dragging the re-sizing handlesat the corners and sides of the object. A change in the size of textcontrol, however, does not result in changing the size of itsunderlying field because the size of the field is specified in table’sdesign and can be changed only by modifying the properties of thefield in table design.

(viii) Aligning and Spacing Controls : Select two or more controls (click atcontrol to be selected by holding the Shift Key pressed) to be alignedand choose Format-align or right click and choose Align from theshortcut menu to open the list of alignment options. Align-Left leadsto aligning the left edges of all the selected controls; Align-Right alignsthe right edges of the control. To adjust controls on the samehorizontal line, Align-Top or Bottom options can be used. Spacing ofcontrols allows to change (increase or decrease) the relative positionof selected controls by one grid point horizontally or vertically. Thespacing becomes important when the controls are to be spread outor move closer together for a neater visual layout. Spacing can alsobe used for ensuring that the controls are evenly spaced.

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(ix) Converting (or Morphing) Controls : Initially, when a Form is built, itis not always possible to choose the best type of controls to displayeach field on the Form. One might make a choice for the controlonly to find out later that it does not suit to the requirements. Thisis particularly important when the initial design of a Form is createdusing Form wizard. Access provides for conversion (or morphing) ofsuch control into the desired ones. One of the most common typesof morphing is from text to List box or combo box. This is achievedby right click on the text box, followed by choosing Change To andselecting the type of control to into which text box is to be morphed.Every control cannot be morphed into every other type of control.Text box, for instance, can be converted into a label, list box orcombo box. After morphing, a text box to list box, for instance, it isimportant to modify the control properties such as row source,bound column, column count and column width so that the changedcontrol behaves in a desired manner.

(x) Conditional formatting of text boxes : The conditional formatting isdisplayed in a text control when the value of text control meets aspecified criteria or a set of specified criterion. For example, thecolour of Amount entered should turn Red when it exceeds acertain limit say Rs. 20,000. In order to create conditional format,right click at text box to be conditionally formatted when in designmode, followed by conditional formatting item of right click window.Access responds by providing conditional formatting window whichappears as follows : Conditional formatting window, as shown above,is divided into two parts: the default setting and condition-1. Sincethe formatting is to occur on the basis of a field value, the criterialist control can be used to select greater than and Rs. 20,000 isentered in the right most box of condtion-1. There are five icons:bold, Italics, underline, Back colour and Fore colour for formattingthe data value. As and when the condition is satisfied, the formattingbased on the selected icons applies to the data value. If there aremultiple conditions for formatting, Add button can be clicked to callfor additional formatting conditions. At the most three conditionscan be set up for conditional formatting. Click OK to apply theconditions and click Delete to remove the conditional format.

(xi) Re-arranging the Tab Order : The tab order of the Form (defined asa sequence of controls to move through when pressing a tab) isassigned while creating a Form. The tab order goes out of sequencewhen the controls in the Form are re-arranged. An inconsistenttab order leads to an erroneous data entry. To change the tab order,choose View-Tab order or right click and choose tab order to open

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Tab Order dialog box. Clicking Auto Order generally rearrangesthe fields in the correct order. It is preferable to try this option first.If the auto order is not correct, the tab order can be set manuallyby clicking the row selector for a control and then dragging thecontrol up or down into position in the Tab Order.

Fig. 15.3 : Conditional formatting window

15.3.6 Procedure for Creating Voucher Forms

On the basis of above discussion, the following procedure can be followed tocreate the different types of vouchers :(a) Simple Transaction Voucher : The transaction data of simple accounting

vouchers is required to be stored in the Vouchers table of a database byusing a data entry Form in Access. The format of such a form is shown infigure 15.4.

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Fig. 15.4 : Transaction voucher, using database design (model-I)

The above voucher form uses database design (Model-I) at the backend. Aperusal of the this voucher Form reveals that there are two parts: Left andRight separated by a dark vertical line. Left part is dedicated to the dataentry of transaction data while the right part has two list controls: oneeach giving the accounts to be debited and credited. The pre-printedcontents of simple transaction voucher appear to the left of above Form asbold dark words. The access resource required to display such pre-printedmatter is label control. The data entry spaces against Voucher Number,Dated, Amount and Narration are Text Controls. The list controls havebeen deployed against Debit Account, Credit Account, Prepared By andAuthorised By. The Title of the Voucher Form has been written by usingthe Label Control. Four operation buttons called Command Buttons controlthe data entry into the voucher Form. On the Right hand side of abovevoucher Form, the list controls have been used in expanded Form to choosedebit and credit accounts. The resources used in creation of above voucher

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Form, therefore, consist of Labels, Texts, List controls and CommandButtons. Once a blank Form is picked up like a container, it is capable ofcontaining these controls including command buttons. The following stepsare required for creating the Simple Transaction Voucher as per the Accessdesign given above.

(i) Once the Database Window is opened and Forms object is selected,click at New item of menu bar. Access responds by displaying aNew Form window in which design view option among othersappears by default along with a list control to select a table orquery which is to act as underlying data source for the voucherbeing designed. In designing Simple voucher Form, it is fairly clearthat the data entered using this voucher Form is to be stored onlyin the Vouchers table.

(ii) Choose Vouchers table, which has been designed to include thetransaction data in each row as a stand-alone record and click OK.

(iii) Access responds by displaying a blank Form object in Form window,along with two other windows: Tool box and Field List of Voucherstable. Expand this Form towards the right and divide it into two partsleft and right using line controls of tool box say in the ratio of 3:1.

(iv) Keep the Ctrl Key pressed and click at every field in Field ListVouchers window. The colour of the list of fields turns blue.

(v) Press at the selected field’s area and drag all the fields to left side ofblank Form on which data entry contents of voucher are to belocated. It may be noted that every data entry control has beenassigned to its left an attached label control whose caption is thecaption of the fields in Vouchers table.

(vi) Re-position all the controls to their desired location in the left partof the Form and set the font weight property of each to bold. Thecaption property of each label can be modified to match the pre-printed layout of the voucher.

(vii) Click at label control in tool box and add it to the centre top of left-hand side of the Form to add the title: Transaction Voucher. Itsfont size property need be set to 16 with font weight set to bold. Setthe fore colour to Blue.

(viii) Paste another text box anywhere in the Form and set its ControlSource property as =Val(DMax(“Vno”,”Voucher”))+1 and Visibleproperty to No. Further, Set Default value property of Text Box tothe left of label Voucher No. as =Val(DMax(“Vno”,”Voucher”))+1.This ensures that the text control generates a new value one morethan the preceding value of last voucher number entered in Voucherstable, as and when a new record is added. As a result, the voucher

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number is detected in Vouchers table and incremented by one toauto generate the voucher number sequentially. Further, set theEnabled property to No so that the auto generated value is notamenable to any changes by the user.

(ix) Set Default value of Text box meant for entering the voucher dateas = Now(). This results in giving current RTC date as the defaultdate to voucher as and when a new voucher record is added.Alternatively, click at More Control button in tool box to selectMicrosoft Data and Time Picker Control, Version 6. This controlprovides a user-friendly and interactive method of selecting a date.Set the format property of this control to “3-dpt custom” andcustom-Format property to “dd-MMM-yy” by using DT Pickerproperties dialog. Control source of this control is set to vdate sothat the selected date is stored directly into this field.

(x) Set the format property of Text box meant for Amount to Standardwith decimal places to 2. This ensures the appearance of amount upto two decimal places with standard punctuation of numeric values.

(xi) Provide for conditional formatting of amount so that its colourturns red as and when an expense voucher exceeding Rs. 20,000 isnot authorised by an employee whose EmpId =’A001’. This can beachieved by a right click at text box for amount to click at conditionalformatting. A conditional formatting dialog appears in whichcondition-1 is to be given as “Field value greater than Rs. 20,000”interactively. Click Add button to provide condition-2 as Expressionis [AuthBy]<>’A001’ and [Debit] like ‘71*’. Click colour icon toselect red colour in condition-2. Click OK to close the conditionalformatting dialog.

(xii) Control morphing from Text box to List box is to be applied onfour-text control, each one meant to store Debit, Credit, AuthByand PrepBy. This can be achieved by right click at each of thesecontrols one by one and click at Change To item of right clickwindow. To begin with, select List Box option for text box next toLabel Debit. Height of text box is expanded. Re-size, it to its originalshape and right click to select the property window. Select Dataproperties button to provide the Row Source as Account table. Clickat format properties button to set the column count property to 2and column width property to 0.5". Ensure that the width propertyof list control for debit is set to a minimum of 1.75” to accommodatethe code as well as Name of Account in a row of list control. Theprocess can be repeated for Text boxes next to Credit. Text controlsmeant for AuthBy and PrepBy can also be morphed into List Box

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controls in a similar way, except that the Row Source Propertyshould be Set to Employees table and Column width be set to .33”only because Empl_Id occupies only four text spaces as opposed toAccount code, which need six spaces. Width property of these listcontrols can be suitably adjusted to accommodate both EmpId andFname of employees authorising or preparing a voucher.

(xiii) Paste List Controls for selecting debit and credit Accounts on theRight Hand Side (RHS) of Voucher Form. Following steps are takento accomplish this :• Click at list box control available in tool box and carry the

mouse pointer to the right side of the Form. Its shape will turninto a cross with icon of list control. Place it at the top of rightpart of the Form. Access responds by invoking List Box Wizard,which provides for three options to choose the look up values.By default, the wizard provides for choosing look up values fromtable or query.

• Click at Next button to get the classified list of tables and queriesto choose from. At this stage, choose the Accounts table becausedomain of accounts to be debited or credited remains confinedto accounts available in Accounts table only.

• Click at Next button to get the available fields of Accounts table:Code, Name and Type. Select Code and Name by clicking at >button.

• Click at Next to get a list of accounts with key column hidden.Uncheck the already checked box to display the key columnalso in list control.

• Click at Next to get an option to select code to store in database.• Clicking at Next provides two options: One to remember the value

for later use and second to store that value in this field. Choosesecond option and select the debit field to the right of this optionas the column against which the key value of accounts from listcontrol is to be stored.

• Repeat the above process to provide for a list control for Accountto be Credited.

• Once both the List box controls for debit and credit entries havebeen pasted, change the caption property of labels attached tosuch List boxes and write the text “Choose the Account to beDebited” for first list box and “Choose the Account to be Credited”for second. Set the Font weight property to bold, the fore colourto red and green respectively to distinguish between debit andcredit list control and re-size the label control by increasing itswidth to accommodate the text to caption of label. Re-size the

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list boxes to adjust their width and height appropriately. Thiscan be achieved by right clicking at each of the controls to getthe property windows.

(xiv) Click at Command button in Tool Box and carry the mouse pointer toArea at the bottom of Left most bottom corner of the Voucher Form. Itsshape turns into a cross with command button icon. Paste it by horizontaland vertical dragging to give suitable width and height. Immediately, theCommand Button wizard is invoked to seek information about categoryof operation and the action to be performed using this command button.Choose Record operation as category with Add New Record as the action.Click at Next to state whether the caption of the command button is tobe a text value or an icon. A click at next after appropriate selectionresults in giving a suitable object name to the command button. Acceptthe default value and click at finish. This results in pasting an operationalbutton on the Form with the capability to add a new record.

(xv) Repeat this action to create various other command buttons tomatch the design of Transaction Voucher Form given above.

(b) Compound Transaction Voucher : The transaction data of Debit or Creditvouchers, which have already been described as compound transactionvouchers, is required to be stored in VouchersMain and VouchersDetailstables of database. Its design, when transformed in Access Form layout,is expected to appear in the following format :

A perusal of the above Access Form for Credit Voucher reveals thatthere are four labels: Voucher No, Date, Prepared By and Authorised By inDark bold letters. These labels are meant to define the pre-printed contentof the voucher as per design. Next to first two labels: Voucher No. andDate are text boxes displaying their respective data contents. To the rightof labels Authorised By and Prepared By are List Box controls to get anddisplay the first name of employees. Text Box displays the Title of theVoucher Form Credit Voucher as calculated control because the samevoucher design is used for Debit vouchers also. Just below this dynamictitle is the Option group control whereby the user can make a mutuallyexclusive choice for Debit or Credit Voucher. The title of Entries Grid andText box to the left of a list control are used to select an account to bedebited or credited (the complementing account) against the accounts beingmentioned in the Entries Grid are also calculated text controls. Thecalculated text controls acquire the text value to display on the basis ofwhat is selected in the Option groups. Next to calculated text box controlis a label to print an instruction for refreshing the display in grid. The gridconsists of five columns: S.No, Code, Name of Account, Amount andNarration. The grid appears in the voucher by using SubForm control.Besides this, there are five command buttons, each dedicated to Add

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Record, Undo Record, Delete Record, Save Record and Close. Thesecommand buttons operate on the data entry Form.

Fig. 15.5 : Credit voucher created as a form in access

To create this voucher Form, following steps are taken using design view :(i) Create a blank form in design view and ensure that its underlying

data source is selected as VouchersMain table and Field List windowalong with tool box is also displayed. As already discussed in SectionI of this chapter, the Compound Voucher Form requires another relateddata table, VouchersDetail, for storing the data contents of grid.

(ii) Keep the Ctrl key pressed and click at Vno,Vdate, AuthBy andPrepBy fields in Field List window.

(iii) Press at any of the selected field’s area, drag and drop it to blankForm. It can be observed that all the selected fields are also draggedand dropped along with this field.

(iv) Re-position all the controls to their desired location in the Form andset the font weight property of each to bold. The caption property ofeach label can be modified to match the pre-printed layout of the voucher.

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(v) Paste Option group control just below the form space meant for dynamictitle. Access responds by prompting the user to enter the label namesfor each option. Enter two options by writing Debit and Credit in differentrows. This must be followed by a click at Next button.

(vi) Option group wizard responds by prompting the designer to enterthe default option.

(vii) Select Debit so that by default, the compound voucher is a DebitVoucher. Click at Next button. Access responds by prompting thedesigner to enter the data values corresponding to each of the optionlabels. Enter against Debit and Credit 0 and 1 respectively. ClickNext button.

(viii) Access Responds by requiring the user to either opt for Save thevalue for Later Use or Save the value in this Field. Choose thesecond option for Save the value and select Vno as Type field.Click at Next button.

(ix) Access responds by asking the designer to choose the appropriatecontrol type. Choose Option buttons, along with any of the stylesgiven below in wizard dialog. Click Finish button. Access assigns adefault label to the Option group. Select the label by right clicksand remove it by clicking at Cut.

(x) Click at text control in tool box and add it to the centre top of theForm to provide a dynamic text for the title: Debit or Credit Voucher.The attached label control is removed by a right click on this labelfollowed by a click on Cut. The font size property of Text need be set to16 with font weight set to bold. Set the fore colour to Blue. Set itsControl Source property as = IIF([Type] = 0,”Debit”,”Credit”) & “ “ &“Voucher” Re-size the width of this text control so that it canaccommodate and display the dynamic title of voucher. By entering theabove formulae in Control Source property, text control for title becomesdynamic. Whenever, the Type field is assigned 0 value, a text control fortitle displays Debit Voucher and when the value of Type is set to 1, theCredit Voucher is displayed by the this Text control. The title of simpleTransaction Voucher is static. Therefore, a label control has been usedfor this purpose. Further, set the Enabled property to No so that thedisplayed text is not amendable to any changes by the user. Thisapplies to other similar controls meant for dynamic texts in this VoucherForm.

(xi) Paste another text box anywhere in the Form and set its ControlSource Property as = Val(DMax(“Vno”,”Voucher”)) + 1 and Visibleproperty to No. Further, Set Default value property of Text box tothe left of label Voucher No. as =Val(DMax(“Vno”,”Voucher”))+1.This ensures that the text control generates a new value one more

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than the preceding value of the last voucher number entered invouchers table as and when a new record is added. As a result, thevoucher number is detected in Voucher table and incremented byone to auto generate the voucher number sequentially. Set itsEnabled property to No for reasons already explained earlier.

(xii) Set Default value of Text box meant for entering the voucher dateas = Now(). This results in displaying RTC date as the default dateto voucher as and when a new voucher record is added.

(xiii) Paste another text control below, the label Voucher No: to indicateDebit in case of Credit voucher and Credit in case of Debit Voucher.Remove its attached label and set its Font size and font weightproperty appropriately. However, its Control Source property is setas = IIF([Type] = 0,”Credit”,”Debit”) so that this text box displaysthe desired text as stated above. Pick up a List control from tool boxand place it next to this calculated text control to choose the account.Immediately, the List control wizard gets activated and displayed.Complete the list control creation process as already discussed whiledesigning the simple transaction form. Ensure that its Control sourceproperty is assigned the Field name AccCode; Row Source toAccounts; Column Count set to 2; Bound Column set to 1 andColumn width to 0.5". Re-size the control for proper display.

Creating Grid for Debit/Credit Entries : The grid for entries is created by usingSubForm Control. Following steps are taken to create SubForm to be linkedto Main Voucher Form :

(i) Pick and paste SubForm control for creating a grid to accommodate theDebit/Credit Entries. SubForm wizard gets activated and displayed.Choose existing Tables/Queries, followed by click at Next button.Subform wizard displays a dialog to giving fields classified by theirrespective tables. Choose Sno, Code from VouchersDetail table; Namefrom Accounts table; again Amount, narration and Vno fromVouchersDetail table. Click Next button.

(ii) Choose “Show VoucherDetail for each record in VouchersMain usingVno” and Click Next and provide the name for subform object as“VouchersDetail SubForm” Click at Finish. The SubForm stands createdto accommodate the data contents in voucher grid. The attached labelof SubForm is removed to pave the way for creating dynamic title. Thisis achieved by adding another text control (remove the attached labelcontrol) at the top of the SubForm in the same manner as applies to thetitle of voucher, except that the Control Source property is set to =IIF([Type] = 0,”Debit”,”Credit”) & “ “ & “Entries”. This calculatedcontrol is capable of showing the title of the grid as Debit Entries orCredit Entries, depending on choice of Option button at run time.

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The Voucher number column in grid can be hidden by merging its rightmost vertical line with vertical line separating narration and vouchernumber column by drag and drop method.

(iii) Set the format property of Text box meant for Amount to Standardwith decimal places to 2. This ensures the appearance of amount up totwo decimal places with standard punctuation of numeric values.

(iv) Provide conditional formatting of amount so that its colour turns ino redas and when an expense voucher exceeding Rs. 20,000 is not authorisedby an employee whose EmpId =’A001’. This is achieved by a right click attext box for amount to get short-cut window so that conditional formattingitem is selected. A conditional formatting dialog appears in which condition-1 is to be given as “Field value greater than Rs. 20,000” interactively. ClickAdd button to provide condition-2 as Expression is [AuthBy]<>’A001’ and[Debit] like ‘71*’. Click colour icon to select Red colour in condition-2.Click OK to close the conditional formatting dialog.

(v) Text control for entering Code in SubForm can be morphed to List controlin the same manner as already explained for Debit/Credit Account insimple Transaction Voucher except that the Control source property isassigned the Field name Code of VouchersDetail Table.

(vi) Control morphing from Text box to List box is also to be applied on textcontrols meant to store the data values for AuthBy and PrepByrespectively. This can be achieved in the manner as already describedin the context of designing a simple Transaction Voucher.

(vii) Paste a label control to the top right of SubForm for displaying theinstruction “Press F9 to Refresh Display”.

(viii) Command button at the bottom of Debit/Credit Voucher Form can beadded in the same manner as described above in the context of SimpleTransaction Form. An additional Command button with Caption CloseForm can be added by choosing Form Operation as category with CloseForm as the action.

While operating on the above form in run mode, it must be ensured by theuser that the entries in the grid are made only after saving the data contentsof voucher outside the grid. This is because a data record for contents outsidethe grid belongs to VouchersMain table. Such record in primary table mustexist before any data record is entered in grid to be finally stored inVouchersDetail table.

15.4 Information Using Queries

Accounting information that is presented in an accounting report is generatedby creating and executing various queries using DBMS. The basics of creatingsuch queries in MS Access have been described below along with their usagein the context of Model-1.

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15.4.1 Basics of Creating Queries in Access

Recall that one of the great advantages of relational databases is that thefragmented data is stored in different data tables so that there is no or minimumredundancy. But a complete view of data stored across various tables isachieved only by executing queries based on SQL. A query is capable ofdisplaying records containing fields from across a number of data tables.

15.4.2 Types of Queries

There are several types of queries in Access that are used to generateinformation. Such queries are called select queries because they are used to“select” records with a given set of fields: actual and computed and also for agiven criteria. There are three important query types that are required forgenerating the accounting reports. These queries have been discussed as below:(a) Simple Query : A select query is a simple query if it does not involve use of

any query function to produce a summary of data. The criteria, if any,used in such a query is based on some constant value or values, formingan integral part of the query. For example, a query, to find date andamount of transactions records in which an account, identified by code =’711001’ is debited, is a simple query and is executed, using databasedesign of Model-I by the following SQL statement :

SELECT vDate, AmountFROM VouchersWHERE Debit = ’711001’

In the above SQL statement, the SELECT statement is meant to specifythe fields to be selected, FROM clause specifies the source of data andWHERE clause filters the records matching the condition that Debit fieldhas code = ’711001’

(b) Parameter Queries : A parameter query prompts the user to enterparameters, or criteria through an input box, for selecting a set of records.A parameter query is useful when there is a need to repeat the same querywith different criteria. The criteria, this means, is not constant as in thecase of the simple query. While extracting the transactions to prepareledger accounts, the same set of queries need be executed for differentaccount codes. Consider the following SQL statement :

PARAMETERS AccountName Text (255)

SELECT NameFROM AccountsWHERE Code = AccountNo

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In the above query, the PARAMETERS clause is meant to declare thevariable AccountNo. This SQL statement, when executed, prompts theuser to provide the value of AccountNo.

(c) Summary Queries : A summary query, as opposed to a simple query, isused to extract aggregate of data items for a group of records rather thana detailed set of records. This query type is of particular importance inaccounting because the accounting reports are based on summarisationof transaction data. Consider the following SQL statement :

SELECT Code, Name, Sum(Amount)From Vouchers INNER JOIN AccountsON (Accounts.Code=Vouchers.Debit)GROUP BY Code, Name

In the above query, the Vouchers table has been joined with Accounts tableon the basis of Code field of Accounts and Debit field of Vouchers. The resultantrecord set has been grouped on the basis of Code and name of accounts.Accordingly, the sum of amount for each group (or set of records) has beenascertained and displayed. Finding the sum is the process of summarisation.

15.4.3 Adding Computed fields

The computed fields, representing secondary data, do not form part of datastored in tables because such data items unnecessarily increase the size ofdatabase. The secondary data items can always be generated on the basis ofprimary (or stored) data. In order to find values of such secondary data items,the query is based on computed fields. The computed fields provide up-to-date calculated results because they rely upon updated stored data values.For example, a data table, named Sales, which includes ItemCode, Quantity,Price, Dated and CustId, is maintained in a database to store salestransactions. In order to get list of sales transactions along with total salesrelating to CustId=’A051', the following simple query is executed by includingSales as computed field :

SELECT Dated, ItemCode, Quantity*Price AS SalesFROM Sales WHERE CustId= ‘A051’;

In the above query the expression Quantity*Price has been given the nameSales by using AS clause.

15.4.4 Using Functions in Queries

A function in the Access environment is named and followed by parenthesis( ). The function receives some inputs as its arguments and returns a value(also called its output). These functions also form a part of the expression fora computed field. Some commonly used functions have been described anddiscussed in Appendix given at the end of the chapter.

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15.4.5 Methods of Creating Query

There are three ways in which any of the above queries can be created inAccess. These methods are Wizard, Design and SQL View. A brief descriptionof each is given below :(a) Wizard Method : In order to create a query using Wizard, the following

steps are required :(i) Select Queries from Objects list given in LHS (Left Hand Side) of

Database window.(ii) Double click at Create Query by Using Wizard given on the RHS

(Right Hand Side). Immediately, there is a window titled ‘Simple QueryWizard’ (Shown in figure: 14.6) that prompts the user to select afield from a table or an existing query that is to be included in thequery being created. Many such fields may be selected according tothe information requirement of the query. The tables (or queries)

Fig. 15.6 : Window to display simple query wizard

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being chosen represent the data source of the query being created.The fields being selected imply the data items to be displayed by thequery. Use arrow buttons or double click at the list of fields on LHSof this window to select fields.

(iii) Click at Next after the desired fields have been selected. If the selectedfields include a number or currency field, the designer is promptedto choose an option button to specify whether the query to be createdis a summary or detail query.• If detail option is chosen, the execution of query results in

displaying records from data source.• If summary option is selected, the user is prompted to indicate

the type of summarisation required: Sum, Average, Minimumand Maximum with respect to the field of summarisation. Clickingat check boxes against different types of summarisations specifiesthis. Click OK.

(iv) Click at Next and specify the name of the query being created %Finish to save and execute the query. The results of the query aredisplayed in datasheet view.

(b) Design Method : In order to create a query by design method, the followingsteps are required :

(i) Select Queries from Objects list given in LHS of database window.Double click at Create Query by Using Design View given on theRHS.

(ii) Access responds by displaying a Select Query and Show TablesWindow. The Select query window is vertically divided into two panes:upper pane and lower pane, as shown in Figure: 15.7. The upperpane is meant to display data sources (Tables or Existing Queries)and the lower pane, which also called Query By Example (QBE)grid, has one column each for field to be included in query beingcreated. The row of this grid shows field name, table (or query), sortorder, whether the selected field is shown in the query results or notand also the criteria that have been applied to the field or fields torestrict the query results. The Show Table Window is meant to addtables, queries or both to the upper pane of Select Query Window. Ifclosed, the Show Table Window can be recalled by a right click atupper pane % show table.

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Fig. 15.7 : Select query and show tables windows

(iii) Click at View item of Menu bar % Total and then % Table Names.(iv) Click at field row of first column of QBE grid to select the fields to be

included in the query. The process is repeated for second andsubsequent columns of grid to include more fields in the query. Thisprocess of selection constitutes the data items to be displayed bySELECT clause of SQL statement.

(v) The name of table or query is displayed, in accordance with selectionof fields. Such tables or queries constitute the data sources shownafter FROM clause of SQL statement. However, the initial selectionof a table/query in the second row of QBE grid restricts the choiceof fields to the selected table/query only.

(vi) Click at row of grid to specify the Group by clause and aggregatefunctions so that summary a query is created.

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(vii) Click at row of grid to specify the sort order (Ascending or descending)on field(s). The selected fields for sort order are shown after ORDERBY clause of SQL statement in which ascending order is the choiceby default.

(viii) Click at row to check for the selected field to be displayed in thequery result. The field(s) may be selected only for the purpose ofspecifying the sort order or criteria.• Click at row of the grid to specify the criteria to limit the records

to be displayed by the query being created. The specified criteriaresult in a conditional expression, which is shown after theWHERE clause of SQL statement.

• Click File % Save (or Press Ctrl+S) to save a query. A dialog boxprompts the user to specify the name of the query being created.By default a generic name appears which can be accepted orrewritten with a desired name.

(c) SQL View Method : A query may be directly specified in Select Query Paneby a right click at table pane % SQL view. The upper and lower panes ofselected query window are substituted by a pane to specify the SQL statementthat is written by using keyboard. The desired SQL statement is directlyokeyed in on this pane and saved in the same manner as described fordesign method. While forming the SQL statement, the following clauses arenormally used for generating information (or Select) queries :

(i) SELECT : This clause is used to specify the fields to display data orinformation. Consider the following SQL statement segment :

SELECT Code, Name, Amount

The fields Code, Name and Amount after SELECT clause indicatethe data items to be displayed by the query statement.

(ii) FROM : This clause is meant to indicate the source of data in termsof tables or queries or a combination of both. Two tables are joinedby specifying a JOIN clause based on a condition of Join. There canbe three types of Join: Inner, Left and right.

(iii) INNER : This Join clause is meant to display only exactly matchingrecords between two data sources. Consider the following SQLstatement segment:

FROM Accounts INNER JOIN AccountTypeON ( CatId=Type)

In the above statement, only those records of Accounts andAccountType table constitute the source of query data, which matchexactly on CatId = Type.

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(iv) LEFT : With this Join, all the records in the primary table in therelationship are displayed irrespective whether there are matchingrecords in the related table or not. Consider the following SQLstatement segment :

FROM Accounts LEFT JOIN AccountType

ON ( CatId=Type)

In the above statement, all records of Accounts along with matchingrecords of AccountType table constitute the source of query data,The matching condition is CatId = Type.

(v) RIGHT : With this Join, all the records of related table in therelationship are displayed irrespective whether there are matchingrecords in the primary table or not. Consider the following SQLstatement segment

FROM Accounts RIGHT JOIN AccountType

ON ( CatId=Type)

In the above statement, all records of AccountType along withmatching records of Accounts table constitute the source of querydata. The matching condition is CatId=Type.

(iv) WHERE : This clause in SQL statement is used to provide thecondition to restrict the records to be returned by query. Theresultant records of query must satisfy the condition which isspecified after WHERE clause. This is meant to filter records returnedby the query.

(v) ORDER BY : This clause is meant to specify the order in which theresultant records of query are required to appear. The basis ofordering is determined by the list of fields specified after the orderby clause. Consider the following SQL statement segment :

ORDER BY Type, Code

The above statement in the context of Accounts table implies thatthe resultant record set is ordered by the Type field of Accountsand within Type, by Code field of Accounts.

(vi) GROUP BY : The group by clause is used in the SQL statement toenable grouping of records for creating summary query. The fieldsafter GROUP BY clause constitute the basis of grouping for whichsummary results are obtained. Consider the following SQL statement:

SELECT Debit, Sum(Amount)FROM Vouchers

GROUP BY Debit

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In the above SQL statement, the GROUP BY clause uses Debitaccount codes as the basis for computing the sum of amount ofvoucher. The total amount, by which every transacted account hasbeen debited, is given by this SQL statement In this case, sum ofamount is found for each group of records formed using GROUP BYclause.

15.5 Generating Accounting Reports

An Accounting system without reporting capability is incomplete as reportingis one of the main purposes for which an accounting system is designed andoperated upon. The output of accounting system takes the form of accountingreports. Access offers a great flexibility in designing and generating customisedreports.

15.5.1 Accounting Reports

Every report consists of ‘information’, which is different from ‘data’. Dataprocessing leads to data transformation and when this processing is inaccordance with decision usefulness, it is called information. Informationgeneration is the process of compiling, arranging, formatting and presentinginformation to the users. A report is prepared with a definite objective. Everyreport is collection of related information for a particular need and purposeand must meet the twin objectives of reporting : one to reduce the level ofuncertainty that is faced by a decision-maker; second to influence the behaviour(or positive actions) of the decision-maker. Accordingly, accounting information,generated by processing accounting data is gathered to generate an accountingreport. An accounting report, therefore, is the physical form of accountinginformation. Useful accounting information, regardless of its physical form,must have five characteristics: relevance, timeliness, accuracy, completenessand summarisation. An accounting report, in order to be useful, must displayinformation content in such a manner as to give confidence to the user,influence his behaviour and prompt him to take positive actions. Reports,which do not meet the above stated objectives, lack or do not have sufficientinformation content, have no value. There are two broad classes of accountingreports: Programmed and Casual (also called Adhoc or Pass through).(a) Programmed Reports : These reports contain information useful for decision-

making situations that the users have anticipated to occur. There are twotypes of reports within this report type: Scheduled and On demand.• Scheduled Reports : The reports, which are produced according to a

given time frame, are called scheduled reports. The time frame may bedaily, weekly, monthly, quarterly or yearly. Some examples of scheduled

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reports are: Trial Balance, Ledger, Statement of Cash Transactions(Cash Book), Statement of Ageing Accounts, Closing Stock Report, Profitand Loss Account and Balance Sheet, etc.

• On Demand Reports : The reports, which are generated only on thetriggering of some event, are called On demand reports. Some examplesof On demand reports are a Customer’s Statement of Account, InventoryRe-order Report, Stock in hand Report for a Selected Group ofitems, etc.

• Casual Reports : There are reports, the need for which is not anticipated,the information content of which may be useful but casually required.These are adhoc reports and are generated casually by executing somesimple queries without requiring much of professional assistance. Asopposed to programmed reports, casual reports are generated as andwhen required.

15.5.2 Process of Creating Reports

The process of generating accounting reports in Access involves three steps:designing the report, identifying the accounting information queries, and finallycreating an accounting report by using such queries.

(i) Designing the Report : Every report is expected to meet certain objectivesof reporting for which it is designed and developed. It should not be toobig so as not to be read at all or too small so as to conceal certain vitalinformation of importance that is expected to facilitate decision-making.Objective-oriented reporting means designing the report in such a manneras to meet the pre-conceived objectives in view.

(ii) Identifying Accounting Information Queries : A number of SQL statementsare written in such a manner that each successive SQL relies on theresults of the preceding SQL statement and refines its results by usingfresh data (or information) from existing data tables (or queries).

(iii) Using the Record set of Final SQL : The record set of final SQL that relies uponpreceding SQL statement, is collection of report-oriented information. Thisrecord set need be embedded in the report being produced.

15.5.3 Basics of Designing a Report in Access

A report, in Access, is a static presentation of stored or transformed data inan organised manner. Access saves the design of the report, which consists ofinformation structure along with various controls to display informationcontent and its record source. When a saved report is opened, the informationcontent is retrieved from the tables and displayed according to the design. Asa result, a saved report design, when opened, displays the information content

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according to the current state of data. There are two types of formats ofpresenting information through a report: Columnar and Tabular.• Columnar Report Format : A columnar format displays the caption of each

field on a separate line in a single column down the page. The correspondinginformation contents of the fields are shown in another column next totheir respective fields. If the caption property of a field is kept blank, thename of the field is used as its caption. This implies that there are twocolumns in this format: one for displaying the fields and another for showingthe corresponding information content. A record set that consists of ninefields, when presented in such a format, requires nine lines of report. Incolumnar format, the total number of lines to be printed equals the numberof fields multiplied by the number of record sets to be displayed.

• Tabular Report Format : A tabular format displays the caption of fields onthe same line so that their respective information contents appear in thenext line. The number of columns in tabular report is exactly equal to thenumber of fields to be displayed. It implies that the above mentioned recordset, when presented in tabular format, requires one line for captions offields and another line for information content. In tabular format, thetotal number of lines to be printed equals the number of record sets to bedisplayed plus one for captions of fields to constitute column headings.

15.5.4 Structure of Report in Access

A report in Access is designed using seven sections which taken togetherconstitutes the structure of report design. It is not necessary that every reportdesigned in Access must have all the sections that have been described below:• Report Header : Report header appears at the top of the report and may

include title and other relevant information pertaining to the report.• Page Header : Page header appears at the top of every page of the report.

It may include a uniform title to indicate that the page belongs to aparticular report.

• Group Header : The group header and footer are available in a report onlyif the sort order and grouping levels are also defined on the basis of a fieldof data source. This is because Group Header and Footers are propertiesof the field that are used for defining the sort order. Depending on groupinglevel, the group header appears at the top of each report group. A set ofreport pages constitutes a report group. Each group level of report containsa separate group header.

• Details : The details section, which is also called the main body of a report,contains data from tables or queries that provide the record source to areport. This section is most important as it consists of the main informationcontent of a report.

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• Group Footer : The group footer appears at the bottom of each groupinglevel and may contain summaries or sub-totals for the grouped data.

• Page Footer : The page footer appears at the bottom of each page of thereport and is meant to include page numbers, date and time of reportgeneration.

• Report Footer : The report footer appears once on the last page of thereport to include summaries or totals for all data of the report.

It is not necessary to incorporate each and every section or component ofreport structure. Those report structure components, which are not requiredin a specific report being designed, are suppressed. To achieve this suppression,open the View Menu to hide or display the Report Header/Footer, ReportPage Header/Footer. The size of every section or report structure componentis increased or decreased by dragging section bars up or down using a mouse.

15.5.5 Methods of Creating a Report

There are three ways in which a report can be created in Access. A briefdescription of each method is given below:(a) Auto Report: This is the easiest method of creating a report both with

columnar and tabular formats. To begin with formulate, create and save aquery, which is capable of providing a record set as the information sourceof report. Alternatively, the information content must be available in asingle table of the database. If the information is generated by relyingupon more than one table, query is the option to be exercise. After theinformation source becomes available in the database, the followingprocedure is adopted to create Auto Reports.

(i) Select Reports from objects list given in LHS of Database windowand click at New object button of tool bar. Access responds bydisplaying the following New Report Window.

(ii) Choose AutoReport: Columnar or AutoReport: Tabular, followedby selecting the information source query or table.

(iii) Click OK to generate the report. Access responds by creating anddisplaying the report in printpreview mode.

(iv) To print the report, click at the print icon on tool bar.(v) To save the report design as object, close the print preview window,

and provide a suitable name.Auto Reports are easy and fast to create. But these reports are lessattractive. To prepare more professional report, report wizard is used.

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Fig. 15.8 : New report window to choose methods of report design

(b) Wizard : The Report wizard allows a designer to choose the fields frommultiple tables along with specification for grouping, sorting and formattingof information content in report. This obviates the limitation of AutoReports. In order to create reports by wizard, following steps are required.

(i) After selecting Reports object, double click at Create Report byUsing Wizard. Access responds by displaying Report Wizard windowsimilar to the one displayed for query wizard (See Fig 14.10).

(ii) Choose the table or query that includes information content of report,from Tables/Queries drop-down list on LHS.

(iii) Use arrow buttons to select fields to provide the information sourceto report. Single right arrow button is used to select one field anddouble arrow button to select all fields. Alternatively, double clickat the fields to be selected in the same order in which they are requiredto be displayed in the report.

(iv) Another table or query can be chosen to select more fields for areport to provide a definite relationship between the tables is defined.Click Next when selection process of data source is complete.

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(v) Access responds by prompting the designer to add any groupinglevel(s) for displaying the information content of the report. The reportis prepared by choosing any repeated data item to constitute a group.Click Next when the grouping level is added and defined.

(vi) Access responds by requiring the designer to specify the sort orderbased on any of the fields contained in the report. The records maybe sorted up to four fields by specifying either ascending ordescending order for each field. After specifying the sort order, clickNext or specify the summary values to calculate. The summaryvalues are sum, average, minimum and maximum. Once summaryvalues are specified, click OK, followed by click Next.

(vii) Report wizard responds by requiring the designer to choose the reportlayout (stepped, block, outline and align left) and its orientation(portrait and landscape). Click Next after specifying the layout andorientation.

(viii) Report wizard prompts the designer to choose a particular style ofreport from among six styles: bold, casual, compact, corporate,formal and soft-gray. After choosing a suitable style for report, clickNext.

(ix) Report wizard prompts the designer to specify the title of reportbeing designed. Further, the designer is provided with two options:preview the report or modify its design. After exercising the option,click Finish.

(x) Access presents the report in preview mode or design mode dependingon which option is chosen in (i) above.

(c) Design View : The design view method offers greatest flexibility to thedesigner in designing a report. In this method, the report is designed byassembling and embedding various components from report tool box. Inorder to design a report by using design view, following steps are required:

(i) After selecting Reports object, double click Create report in Designview. Access responds by providing a blank report object with threesections: Report/Page header, Detail and Report/Page footer asshown in Figure : 15.9.

(ii) Right click the mouse at the black spot appearing at the left ofhorizontal ruler of above report. Report object responds by displayinga drop down window.

(iii) Click Properties and select Record Source from Data tab. The recordsource turns into a combo control giving a list of various tables andqueries. Choose the appropriate source of information to be presented

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in the report being designed. Access responds by providing a list offields of the selected record source. If this list does not appear or itis closed by mistake, it can be recalled by clicking at the field listicon appearing before the icon for tool box.

Fig.15.9 : Window displaying design view of report

(iv) Select the required fields from list of fields displayed as discussed in(c) above, by clicking at each of the fields to be selected while keepingthe Ctrl key pressed. Drag and drop the selected fields to Detailsection.

(v) The label part of each field is moved to Report/Page header and textpart is accordingly aligned below their respective labels column wise.The caption of each label giving headings can be suitably modified,if required.

(vii) The vertical ruler controlling the distance between various reportsections can be suitably adjusted to give a better look to the report.

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The Report/Page footer bar is brought close to the fields laid out inDetail section so that the gap between records of details section isminimized.

(viii) Page headers and page footers may also be added by right click attitle bar of report object, followed by click at Page header/footer.

15.5.6 Refining the Report Design

The design of the report created by any of the methods described above maybe improved upon by making the following additions and modifications to thereport. For this purpose, an existing report is opened in design mode.

• Adding Dates and Page Numbers : When an existing report is opened indesign mode, the page footer of the report contains two unbound controls:the current date and current page number of total number of pages.Both the controls may be customised according to the requirement of thedesigner. The date control uses = Now() function to retrieve the currentdate from RTC of computer. The format of date may be modified by selectingGeneral date, Medium date, Short date or Long date from format propertyof this control.Further, when a report is created using design view method, the date and/or time and also the page numbers may be added to any of its part. Thedate and time is added by clicking Insert % date and time from the menubar to open the Date and Time dialog box. After selecting and specifyingthe desired preferences regarding date and time, click OK to find that atext control with chosen date and time preferences is added at the top ofactive report section. This added text control containing date and timemay be dragged and dropped in any part of the report as per requirement.Similarly, the page number is added by clicking Insert % page numbersfrom the menu bar to open the Page numbers dialogue box. This dialogueallows the designer to specify the format, position and alignment. The twoformats are: Page N (for example Page 1) and Page N of M ( for examplePage 1 of 10). The position to specify is either Top of Page (header) orBottom of Page (footer). Possible alignment, which may be specified areCentre, left, right, inside and outside.

• Adding and Deleting Report Controls : After a report has been designed,additional report controls may be added or deleted by the same procedureas applicable to forms. Clicking tool bar icon opens report design tool bar,which contains a set of useful controls.(a) After opening the report in design mode, click Field List button on

report design tool bar. This results in opening the field list window.

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(b) Drag the field into an appropriate section of the report. The field appearswith both label and text box control. The label part gives a constantfield heading while the text part provid

.es different values of the field. These two parts are accordingly placed at theappropriate sections of the report.

(c) A field control may be deleted by selecting the control and pressing theDelete key.

• Conditionally Formatting Report Controls : The conditional formatting oftext boxes and combo boxes in reports can be achieved in the same manner,as it applies to Forms. The conditional formatting allows the designer toapply special text formats that depend on the value of field. This facility isa useful tool to draw the attention of user or reader of report to somevalues of particular interest, such as amounts exceeding certain limit orunexpected balances in some accounts. In order to create a conditionalformatting, following steps are required:

(a) Open the report in design view.(b) Select a control and click at format on menu bar, followed by conditional

formatting.(c) Provide the necessary conditions for formatting to occur in the same

manner as already discussed while applying conditional formatting todesign of Forms.

(d) The conditional formatting is removed by re-opening the same dialogand clicking at delete button.

• Grouping Levels and Sorting Order : The purpose of grouping is to organisethe information content of a report into categories. Sorting order is meantto arrange such information content into numerical or alphabetical order.With groupings the sorting applies to each individual group. The groupingand sorting of information, when applied together, make the report moremeaningful and therefore useful to the user of the report. In order to specifythe grouping and sorting order, following procedure is adopted.

(i) Click at Sorting and Grouping icon of Report Design Tool bar (Thisicon is located next to icon for tool box). Immediately, Accessresponds by displaying the following Sorting and Grouping dialoguebox.

(ii) The LHS of this dialog box provides a list of fields or expressionsthat are to be used for grouping and sorting. In the above dialogbox, Type field of Accounts has been chosen as the basis of groupingthe information content of trial balance. The group header and footerproperty is set to Yes to indicate that there is separate header andfooter for each group of accounts in trial balance.

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Fig. 15.10 : Window displaying sorting and grouping dialogue box

15.5.7 Saving and Exporting a Report

After a report is designed, it may be generated to preview its final shape. Boththe design and a generated report are saved for future use and reference. Thegenerated report may also be exported for use by others, as described below:

(a) Saving and Exporting Report Object in Access : The design of a report issaved in Access as report object by assigning a particular name. The reportobject, when opened in access by click action generates the desired reportas per design specification. The design may also be exported to anotherdatabase file of Access. This is achieved by clicking File % Export andthen selecting and existing database into which the report design is to beexported. Access responds by providing a dialog box to give the name bywhich the exported report is saved in a selected database.

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(b) Saving as Snapshot : After a report is created, it may be saved in such amanner so as to be viewed by others without the help of Access. Thisbecomes possible by saving the report as a snapshot file. As a result, ahigh quality picture image of each page of report is created with AdobeAcrobat software. Other users of the report can then view the report andprint any of its pages without being able to modify its contents. It must beensured that this feature of saving a report as snapshot is also installedwhile installing the MS Office 2000 package. In order to create a reportSnapshot, following steps are required :• Select and generate a report in Database Window.• Click File % Export from menu bar. An Export Report dialog box

appears.• Choose the folder from combo box next to Save in; provide a file name;

select snapshot from list control next to Save as type and click atSave button. While saving the report ensure that the auto start checkbox is enabled.

• The generated report is saved as a snapshot and can be supplied toothers for printing and viewing without the help of the Access databaseenvironment.

(c) Exporting to Excel : A generated report may be exported to Excel, which isa spreadsheet package. This software package is a part of MS Office productand is generally installed while installing MS Access. A report is exportedto Excel by following the same steps as have been listed above while savinga report as snapshot, except that before clicking save button in (c) above,one has to select Microsoft Excel 2000/2002 from list control next to Saveas type.

(d) Exporting to MS Word : A report generated using Access can also be exportedto MS word, which is a text processing package. This package is alsoinstalled while installing MS Access, as a part of MS Office. In order toexport a report to MS Word, the following steps are required :

(i) Select and generate a report in Database Window.(ii) If print preview tool bar is absent in Access window, Click View %

Tool bars % Print preview from menu bar of Access. Accessresponds by providing print preview tool bar for reports.

(iii) Click at right corner of icon for Official Links. There are three optionsin the list: Merge It with MS Word, Publish It with MS Word andAnalyse It with MS Excel.

(iv) Click Publish it with MS Word, which is also the default option.(v) The generated report is exported to MS Word package and can be

dealt with like any other document created using MS Word.

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(e) Printing a Report : A generated report may also be printed by taking thefollowing steps provided a printer attached to the computer is installed.

(i) Choose File from menu bar % Print(ii) Access responds by providing a print window, which allows the

user to select a printer, the number of copies to be printed and alsothe range of pages to be printed.

(iii) Properties button is clicked to define print quality under set-up taband orientation under paper tab. Two-sided printing may also beobtained if the printer supports this feature.

(f) E-Mailing a Report : A report generated by Access may also be sent usingE-Mail facility, provided the computer system has Internet facility and isconnected to the Mail Server of the Internet Service Provider (ISP). In orderto send a report using E-mail facility, following steps are required :

(i) Select and generate a report in Database Window(ii) Click at File % Send-To % Mail recipient from Menu bar of Access.

A Send dialog box appears with various options for choosing theFormat: Microsoft Excel, HTML, Snapshot format, Rich Text format,etc.

(iii) Choose an appropriate format and click OK. Access responds byproviding an E-Mail composition window.

(iv) Fill up the details regarding E-mail address of recipient and othersto whom copy of report is to be sent; provide a subject to E-mailand click at Send button. The report gets dispatched to the mailboxof the recipient of E-mail.

Test Your Understanding

Fill in the blanks(a) Reports, the need for which is not anticipated is called ........................reports.(b) ................query does not involve use of any query function to produce a summary

of data.(c) ................ query prompts the user to enter criteria for selecting a set of records.(d) ................clause is used to specify the fields to display data or information.(e) .................. is meant to include page number, data and time of report.(f) The purpose of ................. is to organise the information of report into categories

whereas ............ arranges information into numerical or alphabetical order.(g) When saved as ......................., the contents of reports can not be modified by the

user.

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15.5.8 Designing Accounting Reports using Access

Financial Accounting Reports such as Cash book, Bank book, Ledger Accountsand Trial Balance may be generated in Access by adhering to report generationprocess. The exact process in the context of each of these reports is describedbelow :

Trial Balance

The Trial Balance is one of the accounting reports, which provides the netamount by which each account, during a given period of time, has been debitedor credited. The format of a typical trial balance is as given below :

Trial Balance

Account Title L.F. Debit CreditAmout Amount

Rs. Rs.

Total

Fig. 15.11 : Format of trial balance

To produce a trial balance, it is necessary to retrieve a set of processeddata records each of which provides information on Code (or Account Number),Name of Account (or Particulars), Debit balance and Credit balance withreference to a each account. In order to find net balance corresponding toevery account along with its identity, following steps are taken :

(i) To find the total amount by which every account has been debited;(ii) To find the total amount by which every account has been Credited;(iii) To find a collective record set of accounts with their debit and credit

totals;(iv) To find the net amount with which every account has been debited or

credited; and(vi) To find the record set which consists of Account code, name of Account,

Debit and Credit Amount.Above steps to produce trial balance are transformed into a series of SQL

statements, which vary according to the database design. The details of theabove procedure along with the relevant SQL statements need be explained inthe context of the three Models as given below :Model-I : The following series of SQL statements retrieve a record set forproducing trial balance when database design for Model-I is used.

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(a) To find the total amount by which the accounts have been debited : In orderto ascertain the total amount by which every transacted account has beendebited, the SELECT clause need to have two fields: one code to identifythe transacted account and another to generate the total by which suchaccount has been debited. This is achieved by using Debit field of Voucherstable and finding the sum of amount corresponding to each of thetransacted accounts. The FROM clause relies upon Vouchers table to getthe data source. The GROUP BY clause specifies the field on the basis ofwhich grouping of record set is formed. This grouping is necessary in SQLwhen aggregate query is used to generate summary information. Thesumming of amount is obtained by using aggregate function, Sum( ). Thisfunction, as already explained, uses a field with data type Number, as aninput argument and returns its sum as output. Accordingly, the followingSQL statement is formed :

SELECT Debit AS Code, Sum(amount) AS TotalFROM vouchersGROUP BY debit;

In the above SQL statement, the GROUP BY clause retrieves the rows ofvouchers table accounts-wise because the debit field refers to account code.As a result, the Sum( ) computes the sum of amount of a particular debitaccount and reports against Debit account of SELECT clause. This SQLstatement is saved as Query 01for its subsequent use. The total of debit amountin this query is given by Total field with positive amounts.(b) To find the total amount by which the accounts have been credited : In order

to ascertain the total amount by which every transacted account has beencredited, a query similar to that in (a) need be formed, except that theDebit field in SELECT and GROUP BY clause is substituted by Creditfield. The sum of amount generated by sum(Amount) is multiplied by -1so that the final amount assigned to Total field is always negative. This isbecause the amount of credit must be a negative amount if amount ofdebit is taken as positive. The purpose of using negative values is todifferentiate between debit and credit totals for each account and also tofacilitate the simple arithmetic summation for obtaining the net amount.Accordingly, the following SQL statement is formed :

SELECT Credit AS Code, Sum(Amount)*(-1) AS TotalFROM vouchersGROUP BY Credit;

This SQL statement is saved as Query 02 to be used as source by nextquery.

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(c) To generate a collective record set of accounts with their debit and credittotals : Every transacted account that has been debited (or credited) onlyappears once in this collective record set. However, those transactedaccounts that have been debited as well as credited appear twice in thisrecord set: once with a positive amount and thereafter with a negativeamount. This collective record set is generated by executing a UNION querybetween Query 01 and Query 02.

SELECT*FROM Query 01UNION SELECT*FROM Query 02 ;

This SQL statement is saved as Query 03 for further processing of itsresultant record set.(d) To generate the net amount with which an account has been debited or

credited : Once the records of account codes with debit and/or credittotals have been collected, the next logical step is to find out the net amountby which such accounts have been either debited or credited. This isaccomplished by forming another aggregate query in which FROM clauseuses Query 03 as the data source. The sum of Total for each Code of datasource, provided by Query 03, results in computing net amount for everyaccount. Accordingly, the following SQL statement is formed to generate alist of account codes with their respective balances: positive or negative.

SELECT Code, Sum(Total) AS NetFROM Query 03GROUP BY Code;

A positive net amount implies a debit and negative amount means a creditbalance corresponding to an account code. This is because in Query 02, thetotal of credit amount has been made to appear as negative. This query issaved as Query 04 for its subsequent use in generating record set for trialbalance.(e) To find that record set which consists of account code, name of account,

debit amount and credit amount : Every row of a trial balance report consistsof Account Code, Name of Account, Debit Amount and Credit Amount.The Debit Amount and Credit Amount are mutually exclusive. Such rowsare obtained by generating a record set based on the following SQLstatement.

SELECT a.Code, b.name AS [Name of Account], IIF(a.Net>0,a.Net,null) AS Debit,IIF (a.Net<0,abs(a.Net) ,null) AS CreditFROM Query 04 AS a, Accounts AS bWHERE a.code = b.code ;

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In the above SQL statement, the results of Query 04 and data stored inAccounts table has been used. The SELECT clause of this SQL statement hastwo computed fields as explained below :• IIF(a.Net>0,a.Net,null) AS Debit: According to IIF( ) function, if the net

amount exceeds zero, it is displayed as Debit, otherwise nothing appearsin Debit field.

• IIF(a.Net<0,abs(a.Net) ,null) AS Credit: According to IIF( ) function, if thenet amount is less than zero (implying negative), it is displayed as Credit,otherwise nothing appears in Credit field.Besides, the other two fields: Code and Name, of SELECT clause are

retrieved from Query 04 and Accounts table respectively. This SQL statementis saved as Query 05 for providing the necessary information content for TrialBalance Report.Model-II : The following series of SQL statements retrieve the record set forproducing trial balance when database design for Model-II is used. In additionto this, the accounts have been categorised within the trial balance accordingto the Account Type: Expenses, Revenues, Assets and Liabilities.(a) To find the total amount by which the accounts have been debited : The

transacted accounts in design of Model-II have been stored in AccCode ofVouchersMain and Code of VouchersDetail. The following SQL statementis formed to generate the relevant information from VouchersDetails.

SELECT Code, Sum(amount) AS TotalFROM vouchersMain INNER JOIN vouchersDetails ONVouchersMain.Vno = VouchersDetails.VnoWHERE Type = 0GROUP BY Code ;

Similarly, the following SQL statement is formed to generate the requiredinformation from VouchersMain table.

SELECT AccCode As Code, sum(amount) AS TotalFROM vouchersMain INNER JOIN vouchersDetails ONVouchersMain.Vno = VouchersDetails.VnoWHERE Type = 1GROUP BY AccCode ;

Both the SQL statements are meant to extract similar sets of records, butfrom two different sources. Therefore, the resultant record set of these SQLstatements have been horizontally merged using UNION clause as shown below:

SELECT Code, sum(amount) AS TotalFROM vouchersMain INNER JOIN vouchersDetails ONVouchersMain.Vno = VouchersDetails.VnoWHERE Type = 0GROUP BY Code

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UNION ALL

SELECT AccCode As Code, sum(amount) AS Total

FROM vouchersMain INNER JOIN vouchersDetails ONVouchersMain.Vno = VouchersDetails.Vno

WHERE Type = 1

GROUP BY AcCode ;

The above SQL statement is saved as Query101for its subsequent use.The total of debit amount in this query represents the Total with positiveamounts.(b) To find the total amount by which the accounts have been credited : In

order to ascertain the total amount by which every transacted accounthas been credited, a query similar to that in (a) need be formed. This isachieved by substituting Debit field in SELECT and GROUP BY clause byCredit field and the sum of amount generated by sum(Amount) is multipliedby-1 so that the final amount assigned to Total field is always negative.Accordingly, the following SQL statement is formed :

SELECT Code, sum(amount)*-1 AS Total

FROM vouchersMain INNER JOIN vouchersDetails ONVouchersMain.Vno=VouchersDetails.Vno

WHERE Type=1 GROUP BY Code, Amount

UNION

SELECT AccCode As Code, sum(amount)*-1 AS Total

FROM vouchersMain INNER JOIN vouchersDetails ONVouchersMain.Vno=VouchersDetails.Vno

WHERE Type=0 GROUP BY AccCode, Amount;

In the above SQL statement, the sum of amount has been multiplied by -1 toensure that the amount of credit is always negative just as amount of debit istaken as positive. This query is saved as Query102 for its subsequent use.(c) To find a collective record set of accounts with their debit and credit totals:

A collective record set is generated by forming a union query betweenQuery101 and Query102 to ensure that the debit and credit amount withrespect to each account becomes available for generating the net amount.Accordingly, the following SQL statement is formed.

SELECT*

FROM Query101

UNION Select*

FROM Query102;

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The above SQL statement causes horizontal merger of record sets returnedby Query101 and Query102. This SQL Statement is saved as Query103 for itssubsequent use in next query.(d) To find the net amount with which an account has been debited or credited:

To generate the net amount, an SQL statement similar to Query04 (designedfor query (d) of Model-I) above, is formed as shown below, except that itssource of data is Query103 instead of Query 03.

SELECT Code, Sum(Total) AS NetFROM Query103GROUP BY Code;

This query is saved as Query104 for its subsequent use in generating arecord set, giving details of information for trial balance.(e) To find the record set which consists of Account code, Name of Account,

Debit Amount and Credit Amount : This query, which is meant to providerelevant information to the trial balance report, is similar to Query 05(designed and discussed in (e) of Model-I). Accordingly, the following SQLstatement is formed by changing the source of data from Query 05 toQuery105 as shown below :

SELECT a.Code, b.name AS [Name of Account], IIF(a.Net>0,a.Net,null) ASDebit, IIF(a.Net<0,abs(a.Net) ,null) AS Credit FROM Query104 AS a,Accounts AS b/WHERE a.code = b.code;

In above SQL statement, the results of Query104 and data stored inaccounts table has been used. This SQL statement is saved as Query105 forproviding source of information to Trial Balance Report.

Trial Balance with Sorting and Grouping levels : In order to prepare a trialbalance with all the account duly grouped by and sorted within category ofaccounts, two additional queries (f) and (g) are required.(f) To find the record set of accounts with their category and category ID :

Accounts table is related to AccountType table vide Type field. The followingSQL statement, using INNER JOIN clause, is formed to retrieve the relevantfields for various accounts.

SELECT Accounts.Code, Accounts.Name, Category, CatId FROM AccountsINNER JOIN AccountType ONAccounts.Type = Account type.CatId;

This SQL statement is saved as Query 106 for its subsequent use in nextquery.(g) To find the record set consisting of Account Code, Name of Account, Debit

Amount and Credit Amount along with category details : This query, whencompared with (e) above, reveals that two additional fields: Category and

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CatId are required. Accordingly, the SQL statement stored as Query105is modified by substituting Accounts table with Query106 to form thefollowing Statement.

SELECT a.Code, b.name AS [Name of Account],

IIF(a.Net>0,a.Net,null) AS Debit, IIF(a.Net<0,abs(a.Net) ,null) AS Credit,

Category, CatId

FROM Query104 AS a, Query106 AS b

WHERE a.code = b.code ;

This SQL statement is saved as Query107 to provide information detailsfor designing trial balance with grouping and sorting of the accounts.

15.5.9 Procedure in Access for Designing a Simple Trial Balance

The Trial Balance is generated using the Design View method by followingthe steps listed below :

(i) Select Reports from objects list provided by LHS of Database Windowand click at New object button of tool bar. Access responds by displayingthe New Report Window as shown in figure 15.8 Choose Design Viewfrom list of methods and Query 05 from combo control meant to providedata source to the report. Click OK after choosing method and datasource of report.

(ii) Access responds by displaying a blank report design divided horizontallyinto three sections: Page Header, Detail and Page Footers. Besides, alist of available fields of Query 05 is also provided for embedding on tothis blank design of report.

(iii) Alternatively, double click at Create report in design view. Accessrespond by displaying a blank report design duly divided into threesections as stated above. Right Click at the left most corner point ofreport design where horizontal and vertical rulers converge. Click atProperties of report and select Data tab to define the record source asQuery 05. Immediately, there appears as list of available fields ofQuery 05 so as to be placed on to blank design of report.

(iv) Right click at any part of the report design and choose Report PageHeader and Footer. Access responds by providing two more sections:Page Header and Page Footer.

(v) Click at the icon for tool bar and pick up a label control to be placed atPage Header Section and assign set its caption property to TrialBalance, Font Size to 16, Font colour to Blue, Text align to Left andFont weight to Bold.

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(vi) Select all the fields of Query 05 by clicking at every field while keepingthe Ctrl key pressed. Drag and drop the selected fields on Details section.It may be noted that each of the dropped fields has two controls: Labeland Text. The former gives caption and the latter provides the datacontent.

(vii) Select the label controls of all the four fields by clicking at each whilekeeping the Shift Key pressed. Right click at selected label controlsand choose cut. Place the mouse at Page Header section and pastethese controls.

(viii) Re-arrange these label controls to appear as headings of columns fortrial balance as: Code, Name of Account, Debit and Credit. Select allthese label controls and right click to choose properties. Access providesProperties of these controls. Choose format tab and set the Font weightProperty to Bold; Font Size to 10; Font colour to Blue and Text align toCentre.

(ix) Align the Text controls in Detail section to appear just below each of therespective label controls appearing in Page Header section.

(x) Select the Text controls and Debit and Credit field and modify theirproperties by setting Decimal Places to Zero and Format to Standard.

(xi) Pick up a label control from tool box by click action and place at ReportFooter section, at the area vertically below the column “Name ofAccounts” and give the caption “Total”. Set its Text align property toCentre, Font weight property to Bold and Font Size to 10.

(xii) Pick up a text control and place it at Report Footer section at the areavertically below Debit column. Set its Record source property asexpression given below :

= Sum ([Query 05]![Debit])

The expression is written by clicking at (...) to call the expression pane.The expression [Query 05]![Debit] within Sum( ) function refers to Debitfield of Query 05.

(xiii) Pick up another text control and place it at Report Footer section at thearea vertically below Credit column. Set its Record source property asexpression given below.

=Sum ([Query 05]![Credit])

The expression is written in the manner as it applies to sum of debitcolumn. The expression [Query 05]![Credit] within Sum( ) function refersto Credit field of Query 05.

The report design prepared above is saved as Trial Balance by Design. TheTrial Balance report design appears on the RHS of Database Window as objectunder Reports.

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15.5.10 Designing of Trial Balance with Sorting and Grouping

To design a trial balance with grouping and sorting of accounts, the followingadditional steps are required.

(i) Copy the trial balance design as created above and paste it with differentname say “Trial balance with Grouping”. Open this copied report designfor modification in design view to incorporate the grouping and sortingof accounts in trial balance report.

Fig 15.12 : Window displaying sorting and grouping dialog

(ii) Change the data source property of report design by right click at thetop left corner of report design % click at properties % Choose Tab andset the Record source property as Query107.

(iii) Modify the Record source of Text controls for sum of debit and creditcolumns to replace existing expressions by

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= Sum ([Query107]![Debit]) .......... for Debit= Sum ([Query107]![Credit]) .......... for Credit

(iv) Right click at report design % click at sorting and grouping. Accessresponds by providing a window for sorting and grouping as shown infigure 15.12

(v) Define the basis of grouping as CatId in field/expression and its sortorder set to ascending. Set the Group Header property to Yes. Accessresponds by inserting CatId Header section in report design.

(vi) Click at field list icon and drag and drop category field in CatId Headersection. Set its Font Size property to 10, Fore Colour property to DarkGreen and Font Weight property as Bold.

Save the modifications in the above report design. The trial balance reportis generated by double click at this or the previous object. The generated trialbalance may be saved or exported as desired.

Key Terms Introduced in the Chapter

• MS Access • Database Management System• Accounting Report • Transaction Vouchers• Compound Vouchers • Queries

Summary with Reference to Learning Objectives

1. Accounting Reports : A report displays information that is acquired from dataprocessing and transformation in an organised manner. Reports tend to reducethe level of uncertainty associated with decision-makers and also influence theirpositive actions. The output of the computerised accounting system areaccounting reports. Financial accounting reports such as Cash book, Bankbook, Ledger, and Trial Balance may be generated in Access by adhering toreport generation process.

2. Using Access for Producing Reports : In Access, the reports are created bydesigning a report, identifying its information requirement, creating the queriesin SQL to generate such information so that the final SQL statement providesthe record set of information to the report design. Different Models of databasedesign require different sets of SQL statements to produce different types ofreports.

3. Queries Access : There are several types of queries in Access that may be usedto generate information. Such queries are called select queries because they areused to select records from the given set of records. There are three ways inwhich these queries may be created in Access: Wizard, Design View and SQLView method.

4. Designing Reports in Access : A report in Access may be designed in three ways:Auto Report, Wizard and Design View method. A SQL statement (or query) iscapable of displaying records containing fields from across a number of datatables. A typical report in Access has the structure that consists of Report header,Page header, Group header, Details, Group footer, Page footer and Report footer.

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Questions for Practice

Short Answers

1. State what do you understand by accounting reports.2. What do you mean by programmed or casual reports?3. With the help of an example, briefly state the meaning of parameter queries.4. Briefly state the purpose of functions in SQL environment.5. Briefly explain in steps the method of creating a query, using wizard.6. List the structure of a good report created in Access.7. List the ways to refine the design of a report.8. Briefly explain the purpose of grouping and sorting of the data as a means to

refine a report.9. What do you understand by saving a report as snapshot?

10. State the procedure for creating ledger in MS Access.

Long Answers

1. Describe and discuss the procedure of creating the receipts side of a cashbook.

2. Discuss the concept of accounting reports? Explain the three steps involvedin creating such reports.

3. Discuss with a set of inter-related data tables, the basics of creating queriesin MS Access?

4. Briefly explain the set of SQL statements to produce the receipts side of acash book for Model-I.

5. Describe in steps the design view method to create a query in MS Access?6. Discuss the SQL view method of creating a query?7. Describe the ways to refine the design of a report.8. Explain the data base design for Model-I for producing the receipts the series

of SQL statements for producing the payment side of cash book for Model-II.9. Describe the series of SQL statements to produce trial balance data base

design for Model-II is used.10. Using Model-III discuss the series of SQL statements to produce a trial balance

up to a particular date.

Project Work

1. Payroll Accounting: Using the database design given in Exercise of Chapter-IV,as Project No: 1, you are required to generate the portion of payroll accordingto the specified format under MS Access environment.

2. Financial Accounting: Write the SQL statements for each of the followingqueries separately by using database design of accounting specified as Model-I, II and III in Chapter-IV.(a) List the transactions details of Accounts, which have been debited during

the period April 01, 2001 to September 30, 2001.(b) List the transactions details of accounts which have been credited during

the month of August 2001.(c) Find the total expenses incurred during the period September, 2001.(d) List all the transacted accounts with the amounts by which they have

been debited and also the amount with which they have been credited.(e) List the amount of expenses authorised by each of the employees.

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3. Inventory Accounting: Using the database design developed in Exercise ofChapter-IV, for Project No: 2, you are required to generate Statement of closingstock in the following format by assuming that all goods are sold at a profitof 25% on purchase price.

Statement of Closing Stock

Particulars Purchases Sales Balance

Code Item Name Qty Amount Qty Amount Qty Balance

4. Inventory Accounting: Using the database design developed in Exercise ofChapter-IV, for Project No: 2, Write the SQL statements for each of the followingqueries :(a) List out the Invoice No, Date and amount of sales made during the

month of October, 2002.(b) Make a list of Invoice No, Date and amount of Purchases during the

period April 01, 2002 to October 31, 2002.(c) List items wise the quantity sold during the month of September 2002(d) Find the Minimum and Maximum rate at which each item of goods has

been purchased during the period April 01, 2002.(e) Make a list of physical quantity of each item in stock.

Checklist to Test Your Understanding

(a) Casual(b) Simple(c) Parameter(d) SELECT(e) Design view(f) Sorting(g) Snap shot

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APPENDIX

Description of Commonly Used Functions in Access

There are three types of functions that are used to set the Control Source propertyof calculated controls and/or to form part of calculated field expression in SQLstatement. A brief description of the commonly used functions is below :

A-1. Domain Aggregate Functions

These functions are used to perform calculations based on values in a field of atable or query. Criteria to select the set of records in the table or query that isdesired to be used for calculations may also be specified. The criteria, if notspecified, imply that all the records of the table or query specific to the field areused for computation. All the domain aggregate functions use the same syntaxas is given hereunder :

DFunction (“FldName”, “TblName” or QryName”, “SrchCond”)Wherein DFunction refers to a named domain aggregate function. A briefdescription of its input arguments is given below:FldName : It refers to the name of field that is to be searched in a table orquery, which is specified as an argument.TblName (or QueryName) : It refers to the name of a table or query that containsthe field specified as second input argument.SrchCond : It refers to the search condition on the basis of which the relevantrecord is searched.Some of the important domain aggregate functions have been described asbelow :(a) DLookup : This function is meant to look up information that is stored in

a table or query, which is not the underlying source of Access Form orReport. It is used to set the Control Source property of a calculated controlto display data from other table or query. Consider the following example:

DLookup (“Name”, “Accounts”, “Code = ‘110001’”)In the above example, this function has been applied to search the name ofaccount (in Accounts table) whose code is ‘110001’.(b) DMax and DMin : These functions are used to retrieve respectively the

maximum and minimum values in the specified field. Consider thefollowing example :DMin (“Amount”, “Vouchers”, “Debit = ‘711001’”)Dmax (“Amount”, “Vouchers”, “Debit = ‘711001’")In the above examples, the amount of minimum purchase transactionand maximum purchase transaction is retrieved and reported. It may alsobe noted that ‘711001’ is the code of Purchase account in Accounts table

(c) DSum : This function computes and returns the sum of the values in thespecified field or expression. For Example, in a table : Sales that contains

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ItemCode, Price and Quantity as fields, the total amount of sales may becomputed by using the DSum () function as follows :DSum (“Price*Quantity”, “Sales”)However, if the total sales is to computed for a particular item coded as1678, the DSum () function shall be applied as follows :DSum (“Price*Quantity”, “Sales”, “ItemCode = 1678”)

(d) DFirst and DLast : These functions are used to retrieve respectively thevalues in the specified field from first and last physical records.Consider the following application examples :DFirst (“Name”, “Accounts”)DLast (“Name”, “Accounts”)In the above examples, the name first and last account that physicallyexists in Accounts table is retrieved and reported.

(e) DCount : This function is meant to compute the number of records withnon-null values in the specified field. Consider the following applicationexample :DCount (“*”, “Accounts”)In the above example, The number of records in accounts table are countedand reported by DCount () function.

A-2. SQL Aggregate Functions

The SQL aggregate functions have the functionality similar to that of domainaggregate function. However, unlike domain aggregate functions, these functionscannot be called directly into controls used in Forms and Reports of Access.These functions are used in SQL statements that provide the underlying recordsource of Forms and Reports. All these functions, when used require the GROUPBY clause in SQL statement :(a) Sum : This function is used to compute and return the sum of a set of values.

For Example, consider the following SQL statement that has been used inChapter-V to prepare the underlying information source of Trial Balance(Model-I.).

SELECT Debit As Code, Sum (Amount) As TotalFROM VOUCHERSGROUP By Debit ;

In the above SQL statement, Sum () has been used to compute the total amountby which the transacted accounts have beeen debited.

(b) Min and Max : These functions are used to retrieve respectively the minimumand maximum of value set with respect to field or query expression. ForExample, the following SQL statement is capable of returning the amount ofminimum and maximum sales transaction in Model-I :

SELECT Min (Amount) As MinSales, Max (Amount) As MaxSalesFROM VouchersWHERE Credit = ‘811001’ ;

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It may be noted that the sales account that is coded as ‘811001’ is credited asand when a sales transaction is recorded.

(c) Count : This function counts the number of records returned by a query. Thenumber of times a sales transaction has occurred and recorded in books ofaccounts can be known by executing the following SQL statement.SQL statement.SELECT count (*)FROM VouchersWHERE Credit = ‘811001’

In the above SQL statement, the Credit field stores the account code of saleswhen a sales transaction occurs. The WHERE clause restricts the number ofrecords returned by the above SQL to those in which credit field has theaccount code of sales. Accordingly, the count () function returns the countvalue of records returned by the above SQL statement.

(d) First and Last : These functions are meant to retrieve the first and last recordof a value set pertaining to a field or query expression.

A-3. Other Functions

(a) IIF : The purpose of this function is to provide a value to the field from amutually exclusive set of values. Its syntax is as given below :IIIF (<Condition>, Value-1, Value-2)Wherein <Condition> refers to any logical expression in which a comparisonis made by using following comparison operators := equal to<less than>greater than<= less than or equal to>= greater than or equal toThe condition formed by the above comparison operators is evaluated to resultinto TRUE or FALSE.<Value-1> This value is returned by IIF() function to the field, if the conditionturns out to be TRUE<Value-2> This value is returned by IIF() function to the field, if the conditionturns out to be FALSEExample : Suppose a field Type is to return the string of characters “Debit”when its value is 0 and “Credit” when its value is 1, IIF() function is used asshown below :IIF (Type = 0, “Debit”, “Credit”)

(b) Abs : The purpose of this function is to return absolute value, This functionreceives a numeric value as its input argument and returns an absolute value.Consider the following examples on use of Abs ( ) function :When – 84 is given as input argument to Abs(– 84), it returns 84When 84 is given as input argument to Abs(84), it returns 84

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(c) Val : The purpose of this function is to return the numbers contained in astring as a numeric value of appropriate type. Its Syntax is Val(string)The string argument of the above Val( ) function is any valid string expression.The Val( ) function stops reading the string at the first character that cannotbe recognised as number. For example, Val(“12431”) returns the value 12431by converting the enclosed string of numerals into value. However, Val(“12,431”) returns the numeric value 12 because comma after 12 in theenclosed string of characters in Val ( ) function is not recognised as number.