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THE NOTION OF HIERARCHY:THE PARCHIN KARI PROGRAMME AT THE TAJ MAHAL

Tha lia Kennedy

Archn et-IJAR, Interna tiona l Journa l of Architec tural Research

Co p yright 2007 Archn et -IJAR, Vo lume 1 - Issue 1 - Ma rch 2007 - (105-121)

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AbstractThis pa pe r explores the n otio n of hierarc hy inarchitectural design and decoration with specificreferenc e to the Taj Maha l com plex in Agra, da tingto 1632 onwa rds. As one of the ac knowled ge darchitectural masterpieces of the world, addressingthe c onc ep ts that lie behind the d esign of the TajMaha l allows an understand ing of that ac hievementbe yond its immed iate visual imp ac t. Muc h resea rchhas been carried out on various aspects of thisMughal tomb complex and it is not the intentionof this paper to reproduce material that is expertlyc ove red elsewhe re. The pa pe r instea d foc uses onthe no tion of hierarc hy that informs the d esign of theinlaid dec orative p rogramme in the zone immed iatelysurround ing the tom b s of the d ec ea sed . This zone o fdecoration was particularly highlighted by Mughalcommentators for its opulence and accomplishedcraftsmanship and remains today a highlight forvisitors to t he m a usoleum . The p ap er ad d resses threema in issues: the d ec orative tec hnique a nd its c ontextand symbolism; a description of the gemstone andornamental stone programme with a focus on motif,mate rial a nd loc ation; and the relationship betw eenthat programme and the concept of hierarchicalorganisation in its enhancement of the visual andspa tial effec ts.

KeywordsHiera rchy; Ta j Maha l; Mug ha l; a rc hitec ture

IntroductionHierarchical organisation is often employed inarchitecture to emphasise particular spacesa nd forms. The arc hitec ture of the Islamicworld is no exception (Hillenbrand, 1984:138a nd 1994:14-15). Mo re pa rticula rly, the no tionof hierarchy was employed in the sphere ofMug ha l architec tural de sign in South Asia.Ebba Koch discusses the importance ofhierarc hy at the Taj Ma hal (be gun 1632) a tAgra in her recent monograph and paper onthe to mb (Koc h, 2005:137-147 a nd 2006:91; seea lso sec tions relat ing to t he c entra l ma usoleumin Co x & Kenne d y, 2000). The tom b wa sconstructed to house the body of the Mughalem pe ror Shah Jaha ns favo ured que en,Mumtaz Mahal, following her death in 1631(Beg ley & Desa i, 1989:xix). Sha h Ja ha n wa shimself late r buried next to her (Beg ley & Desa i,1989:141-160). In disc ussing the a rchite c tureof the tomb, Ebba Koch highlights hierarchyas the most dominant of one of a number of

theoretica l princ iples that informe d the de sign

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and ap pea ranc e of the c omp lex (Koc h, 2006:91). More spe c ific ally, the ca rved ma rble

dados on the surfaces of the mausoleum arede sc ribed as a prog ressive e lab oration of p lantfo rms to wa rds the interior (Koc h, 2006:159). It isthe intention o f this p a p er first to d isc uss in de ta ila simila r id ea of p rog ression a nd hiera rc hy in theinlaid d ec orative prog ram me a t the Taj Maha l;and sec ond to e stab lish wha t c omb ination ofdevices are employed to create this sense ofhierarchy in the inlaid p rog ram me , a fea ture forwhich the ma usoleum is fam ed .

Parchin kari (lit. inlay- or driven-in work)(Beg ley & Desa i, 1991:79 and Koc h, 2005:145) isa te c hnique in which ge mstone s or orname ntalstones are inlaid into sockets carved out ofa parent stone to form a pattern or motif (seeAnd rew s, 1995:267-270 fo r further d isc ussion). Itcorresponds to the Italian decorative methodof commesso di pietre dure (lit. composition

of hard stones) and was influenced by thepresence of Italian craftsmen at the Mughalc ourt (Koc h, 2006:91).

Gemstones are defined as minerals that arerare, bea utiful, hard and ca pa ble of be ing c utor p olishe d (Rut lan d , 1974:8). The ir ha rdness isme asured ac c ording to Mohs sc ale o f hardness,which gives them a ranking of between oneand ten, with diamonds receiving the highesteva lua tion (Russell, 2001:4). The visua l bea utyof g em stone s is ofte n linked to their tra nspa rentor tra nsluce nt q ua lities. Ha rd stone s tha t areattractive and rare but lack the transparencynormally associated with gemstones are onoccasion referred to as ornamental stonesa nd includ e sto nes suc h a s jad e (Rutland , 1974:8). In Mugha l Ind ia, pa rc hin kari wa s perfectedby craftsmen specifically trained to execute

this technique, known as parachinkar s (Koch,2006:91).

At the time of construction, the less whiteadhesive that could be identified betweeneach of the stones, the better the quality ofwo rkma nship w a s c onsidered to b e (Koc h, 2006:92). From o b servat ion of the inlaid de c orat ionat the Taj Maha l c om plex, it be c om es c lea rthat the te c hnic al c raftsma nship of the highe stquality, as well as the most costly materials, isreserved for the area immediately surroundingthe cenotaphs, for the gaps between stonesa re a lmost invisible (Beg ley & Desa i, 1989:84).

The c ost o f suc h a n a ttrac tive fo rm ofdecoration was high, unsurprising given thena ture of the ma terials used . Pete r Mund y, a nEnglish traveller to the Mughal court in 1632,wrote o f the p rojec t: The b uildinge is be gunand goes on with excessive labour and cost,

prosecuted with extraordinary diligence, Goldand silver esteemed common Mettall, andMarble but as ordinarie stones (Alexander,1987:191). How eve r, altho ugh the use of thechosen stones is by no means frugal, the useof the most costly of gemstones emeralds,rubies, diamonds and so on was avoided,again containing the cost of the project tosom e de gree . A useful co mp a rison is p rovid edb y a n ob servat ion b y Ta vernier. He rec ount sthat, when adapting the Fort at Agra to hisow n pu rp oses, Sha h Jaha n ha d w ished toc ove r a ga llery with a trellis of rubies a ndem eralds which wo uld rep resent, a fter nature,grapes green and commencing to becomered ; but this de sign, whic h ma de a great noisethroughout the world, required more wealththan he ha d b een a ble to furnish, and rema insunfinished (Ta vernier, 1925:89). Perha p s the

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decision to exclude the most valuable stonesthe Taj ea rly on in the p rojec t Sha h Jaha n

decided against surrounding the tomb witha gold rail encrusted with gems for reasons ofwha t Laho ri de sc ribe s as p rec aution (Beg leyand Desai, 1989:73) shows that the emperorwas contained to some degree by financialconsiderations in his choice of architecturaldecoration.

Gemstones and ornamental stones dominatethe central parchin kari programme of theinterior ma rble surfa c es of th e Taj Ma ha lmausoleum and it is these areas that will formthe foc us of d isc ussion here. Co loured ma rblesare inlaid into w hite m arble a nd red sand stoneexterior surfaces of the mausoleum, mosque,

jawab and south gateway, highlighting theimportance of these buildings over othersin the complex (Koch, 2006:126-131,181-193). How ever, althoug h c oloured ma rblesbring a similar range of colour to the inlaidprogramme, they are not rare or translucentin ap pe arance , as are the stones that a pp ea ron the interior surfa c es of the ma usoleum itself.The foc used use of pa rc hin kari fits we ll with thehierarchical emphasis employed throughoutthe architectural and decorative programmea t the Ta j Mah al c om p lex (Koc h, 2006:104-109). It is in kee p ing with the broa d er use

of materials in the tomb complex: the whitemarble facing into which the gemstones andornamental stones are laid is reserved solely forthe surfa c es of t he m a usoleum itself in co ntrastto red sand stone used on the mo sque , jawab ,southern gateway and other buildings (Koch,2005:140-1).

The use o f ge mston es foc used in the a rea d irec tlyaround the c enotap hs of Mumta z Maha l, and

late r Sha h Jaha n himself, wa s ob served a tthe time of co nstruction. The Mugha l writer

Salih co mm ents tha t: All ove r the interior andexterior of the mausoleum, especially on theplatform containing the illumined cenotaph,carvers of rare workmanship, with delicatec raftsma nship, ha ve inlaid a variety o f c olouredstone s a nd p rec ious ge ms the jewe ls of w hosedesc ription ca nnot be c ontained in the ocea nof spee ch. And c omp ared to its be autifulexecution, which possesses infinite degrees ofbeauty, the masterpieces of Azrang and thepicture galleries of China and Europe haveno substance or reality, and appear like merereflections on water (Begley and Desai,1991:79). The poe t Ka lim also co mm entson the use of gemstones and the quality ofc raftsma nship: They ha ve inlaid ston e flow ersin marble,/Which surpass reality in color if notin fra g ra nc e./ Those red a nd ye llow flowe rs tha tdispel the hearts grief,/In reality are carneliana nd a mb er. (Beg ley & Desai, 1989:83).

The g em ston es a nd ornam enta l ston es usedfor the inlaid decoration of the mausoleuminterior spa c es are used to c rea te c alligrap hic ,flora l a nd a bstrac t geo me tric d esigns. Thesedesigns are combined to create a coherentvisua l effec t, althoug h flora l mo tifs are the mo stprevalent by comparison with the calligraphic

a nd a b strac t motifs. This c om b ination of mo tifis common to much Islamic architecture andis en tirely in kee p ing w ith Islam ic stric ture th a tteaches against the use of figural imagery ina religious c ontext. In the Mugha l c onte xt,Ebba Koch also highlights the association thatalso developed between royal authority andthe spe c ific use o f floral dec orative mo tif as anexpression of imp eria l p rop a ga nd a (Koc h, 2005:147). In relat ion to ma usoleum a rchitec ture, it

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is fitting that the deceased should be buriedsurrounded with images of flowers that makesymbolic reference to the gardens of Eden,and calligraphic inscriptions that make directreference to Paradise, reward for the faithfulin the a fte rlife (Beg ley & Desa i, 1989:235-6, 239,241).

The use of parchin kari in Sha h Jaha niarchitecture is often reserved for the walls ofarchitectural spaces associated specificallywith the figure o f the e mp eror or his imm ed iate

fa mily. The ma usoleum a t the Taj co mp lex isone exam p le. Simila r exam ples include themarble imperial platform in the Diwan-i Am atAgra Fort, the throne platform and backdropin the Diwan-i Am in the Lal Qila at Delhi; theDiwan-i Khas at Agra Fort and at Delhi; andfinally the p rivate residen tial c ha mb ers of Sha hJaha n a t Ag ra Fort whic h ove rlooks the Ta jMa ha l itself (Koc h, 1991). Parchin kari therefore

serves as an echo of the royal presence,a royal trademark used in specific areas ofa utho rity in imp eria l a rc hitec ture. The parchin kari of the mausoleum also serves to highlightspaces and features, most notably the uppercenotaphs themselves, that were the focus ofvarious rites carried out as part of devotionalacts of spirituality focused on the cenotaphsthe mselves (Koc h, 2006:229).

Description of the ProgrammeThe d esc rip tion o f the pa rc hin kari programmeat the Taj Ma hal is limited here to the d ec orationon the mausoleum itself as the main focus ofthe co mp lex. Ebb a Koc hs de sc ription of theprogramme (Koch, 2006:163-177) and theJean -Louis Nou s imag es (Oka d a , 1993) a re thema in sou rce s of refe renc e - a s written d isc ussion

and description, and photographic record- together with independent observation.Gemstones and ornamental stones are usedto decorate the white marble surfaces of themausoleum and are focused on the followingareas: the lower inner walls of the cardinalpishtaq s; the lower walls of the cardinalchambers that lie beyond these pishtaq s;the lower walls of the central tomb chamber;the surfaces of the octagonal marble screeninside the chamber; on the upper cenotaphsof Mum ta z Ma hal and Shah Jaha n; and finally

on the c enota phs of the dec eased in the cryptbelow the ce ntral cham ber.

The first g em stone inla y a p p ea rs on the innersurfaces of the four cardinal pishtaq s of thema usoleum . The lowe r wa lls of the rec essioncreated by these arched structures aredec orated with da do pane ls. Within ea chof these panels are depictions of flowering

plants carefully relief-carved in white marble.These long p a nels, which stretc h a long t helower part of each wall, are framed witha border of parchin kari decoration. Alongeach side of these borders run outlines inb lac k slate and yellow ma rb le. Within thisoutline is a continuous pattern of stylised floralmotifs organised within a black and colouredma rb le curvilinea r fra me wo rk tha t resem b le theb orde rs of Mug ha l flow er b ed s (Koc h, 2006:137and Volwahsen, 1970:95).

This trellis fra me wo rk ca n b e d ivid ed intointerlinked subsections of lobed cartouchesea c h dom inate d b y two floral forms. The first,of which there are four in ea c h c artouc he, is abloom of d ark green-flec ked jaspe r; the ce ntralpeta l of the three on ea ch b loom has be enelong a ted . Blac k ma rble c urvilinea r links tha t

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join the lobes together have been terminatedusing tw o furthe r flow ers in g reen jasper. The

second type of bloom is of red and yellowflecked jasper with agate, and has five wavedpe tals of a pp roxima tely equa l leng th; there a retwo of these in ea c h c artouc he. Neither ofthe se m otifs a re rea d ily rec og nisab le - they a refloral approximations that have no identifyingbo tanica l fea tures. At the corners of theda do s, the sam e b loo ms are arrang ed around afive-lob ed ca rtouche that nea tly navigates theright angle without breaking the visual effect.The stone s used for this exte rior d ec ora tion a repredominantly opaque, with little lustre, butbo ld c olour effec ts.

Parchin kari is also used in the four chambersb eyo nd t hese e xterior rec essed a rc hes, crea tinga sense of continuity between the outer areasand inner de c orative sc heme . Here it alsofra me s d a d o p a nels of flow ering p lants in relief-

c arved wh ite ma rble. The co ntinuous inla idpattern is similar to that of the pishtaq walls,with two minor differenc es. First, the prob lemof negotiating the corners is handled using amore complex six-lobed shape with four jasperand two c arnelian b loom s arrang ed in a b lac kma rble fra me wo rk. The sec ond a lteration is inthe five-petalled carnelian flowers themselves;the petals are separately arranged, with thec entral peta l sta nding up right a nd the subsidiaryfour falling d ow n to e ither side , ab and oning thewa ved impression of tho se o utside a nd show inga greate r sense o f individua l bota nic al fea turesin the d esign of th e m ot ifs.

Gem stone de c oration is used in these c ardinalareas, but not on the walls of the recessedcorner arches or interior chambers, wheredecoration is confined to coloured marbles of

blac k, yellow a nd w hite a rrang ed in geo met ricp a tte rns (Koc h, 2006: 176 and Co x & Kenne d y,

2000). This c a reful p lac ing of the ge msto nedecoration emphasises the cardinal axes ofthe building, at whose meeting lie the uppercenotaph, and beneath in the crypt the lowertomb, of Mumtaz Mahal (Fig. 1).

A similar type of pa rc hin kari is used a ga in on theborders of the relief marble dado panels thatextend around the walls and recessed nichesof the c entral c ham be r of the ma usoleum. Thisuse of parchin kari running around the dadosof the interior cha mb er, in c onjunction with thec arved ma rble flow ers, creates a b and of floralima ge ry a round the c enota phs (for a d isc ussionof the imperial significance of this use of floralima gery see Koc h, 2005:147). This c rea te sa sense of concentric decorative emphasisaround the central area of the tomb chamber(Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Diagram Showing Hierarchica l Zones of Cardinal a ndConcentric Zones of Parchin Kari Decoration of the M ausoleum (not to scale).

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The g em sto nes used in this a rea o f theparchin kari scheme include onyx, lapis lazuli,

carnelian, jasper and red and yellow marbles,and represent an increase in the variety ofstone and colour employed from the outera reas of the m a usoleum . There a re also som edifferences in design that mark a progressionin the parchin kari programme hierarchy fromthe o ute r zone s. The b a sic structure of thetrellis framework here is heart-shaped with twoextende d lines c urving o ut of the ba se to eitherside (Fig. 2). This sha p e is turned on its side , andplac ed first fac ing o ne w ay, and then inversedalternately, to create an ongoing geometricpa ttern around which to p lac e the floral motifs.Each heart-shaped section has a central five-petalled bloom of onyx and yellow marble,resemb ling a highly stylised iris. The c urvedlines are both terminated with a two-part leafwith serra ted e d ge s in jasp er. At the mee tingpoints of each pair of heart-shapes are twothree-petalled carnelian flowers, and at theme eting p oints of the two c urved lines are twofour-petalled flowers in agate and lapis lazulitha t resem b le fuc hsias.

Like their outer zone counterparts, none ofthese floral motifs, given their abstract nature,are ide ntifiab le a s a pa rtic ular va riety o f flow er.However, they do mark a progression from

those on the outer surfaces on the tomb; therange of stones used is more varied and thed esigns a re of a grow ing level of sop histica tion:not only does each bloom incorporate agreat er numbe r of typ es of stone , the atte ntionto d eta il is g rea ter, as d isp layed b y the serra teded ge s of the foliag e m otifs and the increa singc om plexity of the shap es of the pe tals.

The ne xt zone of d ec oration ma rksa concentric progression in the decorativehierarchy. It begins with the opulently-carvedeight-sided marble screen that surrounds the

two cenotaphs in the centre of the upperc ha mb er (Fig. 3). The p rog ression is exp ressedin a num b er of wa ys. First, the d ep iction offlowers is far more elaborate, concentratedeither on individual flowering plants growingfrom mounds of earth or stones, or on carefullydepicted individual blooms hanging fromcomplex, often multicoloured arabesqueframew orks (Figs. 4, 5). The se flowers sho w

both observation and horticultural knowledgein their depiction, although liberty is taken withtheir precise features, which are often stylisedand ma nipulated in order to a chieve a hyper-real sense of beauty that makes their identitiesless c lear. Ma ny of the sa me flow ers iden tified ,inc lud ing irises, tu lips a nd na rcissi (Koc h, 2006:158) are also represented in the marble reliefcarvings on the walls of the mausoleum,indicating a clear sense of coherence in the

Figure 2: Parchin Kari , Outer Wall of Ce ntral Cha mb er,Photo: Rupinder Khullar, 2000.

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overall design of the decorative programme.Sec ond ly, the num b er of ge mstone s used

for each bloom increases dramatically forinstance, the carnelian lotus-type flowers haveover sixty pieces in a single bloom (Fig. 4).Third ly, the qu a lity a nd rarity of t he g em ston esused also increa ses to g ive a g rea ter imp ressionof expense a nd o pulence.

The surfa c es of b oth fa c es of ea c h side o f thesc reen, including tho se of tw o high do orways tothe north and south, are decorated with floralde signs. With the excep tion of the north and

south faces, each side of the screen is madeof up of three marble jalis, each about oneme tre wid e, with solid ma rble b orde rs. Alongthe borders of the screens are series of blackma rble c artouc hes around w hic h the d esigns offlow ering p lants are entwined . Eac h ca rtouc hemeasures 30cm in length and 11.6cm in width.These c artouc hes are joined with blac k andred ma rble links. Three c a rto uc hes run alongthe top of ea c h screen, totalling nine on ea chhorizontal border of the eight-sided screen.In each of these cartouches are arrangedflowering plants and foliage, draped elegantlyaround their blac k fram ew orks. On the outerface, these plants are individual fully floweringlotuses, also identified as chrysanthemum(Koc h, 2006:171) (Figs. 4 and 6), ca refully pic kedout in va rious sha d es of o rang e c a rnelian; threetulip bud s are symme trica lly a rrang ed on either

Figure 3: Interior Cha mb er, Photo: Rupinder Khullar 2000.

Figu re 4: Parc hin Kari , Outer Fac e o f Ma rble Screen,Photo: Rupinder Khullar 2000.

Figure 5: Uppe r Rail of Ma rble Sc reen,Photo: Rupinder Khullar 2000.

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flank of the ce ntral bloom (Fig. 7). On the innerface of the screen, there are seven heads on

ea c h c artouc he o f flow ers resem bling a varietyof tube rose, picked out in ca rnelian a nd w hat isp ossibly red ga rnet.

Two vertica l b orde rs tha t sep ara te the threescreens in each side have four cartouches on

ea c h fac e (Koc h, 2006: 172). On the outerfac e, these a re a do rned with upright flowe ringplants, alternating between lilies of tigers eye,carnelian, and lapis lazuli and what seem tobe delicate fuchsia flowers in tigers eye andonyx. On the inner fac e of these p ane ls arefour cartouches filled with alternate bloomsresem b ling na rcissi and fuc hsias (Koc h, 2006:172). The p eta ls a nd c ent ral flute of the na rcissi-type bloom and the extended flowers of thosethat resemble fuchsias and hang downwardsfrom their stems are made of carnelian, jasperand o nyx. On the north and south fac es ofthe screen, the middle jali is replaced bya doorway that extends upwards from theseborders a further three cartouches to reachove r tw o m etres in heigh t. Whilst the sp a nd relsover these arched entrances are decoratedwith arabesque designs, with a waved yellowstone d esign stretc hing a c ross the ir entirety o nbo th face s of eac h doo rwa y, the rema inder ofthe b orde r d esigns are the sa me a s tho se o f thema rb le pa nels to e ither side.

At each of the eight angles of the screen arepinnacles and an extended vertical border,with an extra c artouc he. At these c orners, thecraftsmen were obliged to inlay their designs

around the obtuse and acute angles, makingtheir ac hievem ent yet more rem arkab le. Theouter angles of the corners are ornamentedwith five inlaid cartouches, with alternatetuberose motifs of garnet, carnelian and

jasper, and fuchsias or honeysuckle of agate,carnelian, lapis lazuli and jasper (Koch, 2006:172). The inner a ng les a re a d orned w ithvibrant red carnelian poppies with elaboratelyde signed serrate d-ed ge d leaves of jaspe r and

Figure 6: Lotus or Chrysan them um Flowe r from Upp erHorizontal Jali Border on the Oute r Fac e o f the Ma rble

Sc reen.

Figu re 7-B.: Exam p les of Parchin Kari Floral Mo tifs on Ma rbleSc reen.

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what is perhaps a green quartz or feldspar(Koc h, 2006:172).

Betw ee n the upp ermo st sec tions of these c ornerpillars, a pierced frieze runs around the topof the screens, decorated with asymmetricald ep ictions of individ ua l flowe ring pla nts. Thereare two types of plant alternated around theentire screen on the outer face, both madepred om inantly of a da rker brow nish c arnelian,ag at e a nd jaspe r, are identifiab le a s tulips andlotuses (Fig. 5) (Koc h, 2006:172). The inn er fac eof the frieze is decorated uniformly with plantsshowing three heads of five- and six-petalledflowe rs with two sma ll b ud s b elow . They a remade of jasper with petals of rich carnelianorange, the richly coloured, simply shapedpetals similar to the blooms of a champatree, a member of the magnolia family,which has been identified by David Lentz asbeing amongst those planted by the Mughal

emperors in their gardens (Moynihan, 1999: 49).They a lso resem b le the Mug ha l artist M a nsursdepiction of the Western Asiatic tulip (Welch,1985: 220). Given the p resenc e of tulip ima ge selsewhere in the mausoleums decoration, thiswould seem a more likely identification of thisbloom.

There a re four sta nd a rd typ es of lea f used tode pict the fo liage o f these p lants: a folde d leafwith a single central vein and smooth edges;a longer, waved leaf with a single vein andstraight edges; a serrated edged leaf; anda three lob ed lea f with pointed e nds. Theseare made from jaspers, and green stonesresem b ling feldsp a r or green q ua rtz, all of w hichoc c ur na tura lly in Ind ia (Rutla nd , 1974). They areused in equal quantity throughout the screende c oration in a stylised wa y not in keep ing with

the true fea tures of the plants de pic ted . It isof interest tha t a serrate d ed ge lea f, know n asthe sa z leaf, a lso a p p ea rs in muc h Iznik wa re o fthe sixteenth- and seventeeth-century, whichin turn has its origins in Chinese blue and whitec eram ics (Porter, 1995: 104). The use of the setypes of leaf is continued in the decoration ofthe two cenotaphs that lie within the confinesof the m arble sc reen.

The final and ultimate zone of d ec orationappears on the cenotaph of Mumtaz Mahalthat lies at the centre of both the decorativea nd arc hitec tural sc hem e (Fig. 1). Tha t ofthe emperor was added later, but it retainsthe stylistic themes of that of his queen, andso maintains a sense of visual continuity (Fig.3). The c eno ta p h of Sha h Ja ha n is a fewcentimetres larger in each direction so that itdominates that of Mumtaz Mahal despite itsless p rominent p osition. There are two simila r

c enot ap hs in the crypt be low . Eac h of the fourcenotaphs comprises three distinct sectionsfrom base to top: the rectangular marbleb a se, three sup p orting tiers, and the up p ermo strectangular marble box (Fig. 3) (Koch, 2006:167-171).

The c enota ph of Mum taz Ma hal is de c oratedwith a combination of calligraphic and floralmotif set into a framework of decorativec a rtouc hes a nd d esigns. Flora l d esignsdecorate the marble base, and supportingtiers and sides of the marble box itself, withc alligrap hy c overing the upp er fac e. Loo kingfirst at the base, an alternating series of twotype s of flow ering p lants sand wiche d b etw eentwo decorative borders runs around the baseof Mumtaz Maha ls ce notap h. One of thep lants is p urposefully a symm etrica l, with flow ers

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at various stages of bloom depicted within asingle image; the plants are carefully createdusing p redo mina ntly jasp ers of all hues, ma inlygreen and yellow, combined with carefullyc hosen, thickly strea ked ag ate s and feldspa r orgree n qua rtz. The ima ge s resem ble the c oloursand design of the lily on the outer frieze of themarble screen, a plant known in northern Indiaat the time, and frequently depicted in Mughalma nusc rip ts (Crow e e t a l., 1972: 194-5).

The sec ond kind o f plan t is mo re c ont rolled,with strict symmetry observed in its ratherconstrained depiction that contrasts well withits exube ra nt c ount erpa rts. The five-p eta lledflowers are of jasper, feldspar or green quartzand carnelian, and, given their similarity ofc olour and peta l shap e to those a round them ,migh t b e lilies a s we ll. Below these runs a b orde rof stylised floral patterning, whilst above areclosed floral buds in carnelian, either alone or

in groups of three, which hang from a simplege om etric fram ew ork. The uppe r fac e of thebase is decorated with an elaborate marbleframework from which all kinds of flowersand bud s em ana te. The two va rieties are anarcissus-type flower and a variety with four,rather square-shaped petals on each bloom,pe rhap s a po pp y or anem one. This symme trica lde sign is enc ased within two bo rde rs of w ave d

p a tte rns inco rp orat ing single jasp er lea ves withc arnelian and ag ate tulip-like flowers.

The low est o f the sup p orting tiers a b ove ha s a t itssouth end an e pitaph to the d ec ea sed, givingthe w ords of a prayer of ang els interced ing w ithAllah for the soul of the deceased (Koch, 2006:171). The rem a ining three sides a re ornam ent edwith w a ve p a tte rns of floral mo tifs. The v a st a rrayof gemstones used here includes red carnelian

and yellow carnelian or amber, jasper, stonesresembling feldspar or green quartz, onyx,op aq ue ma rbles and ag ate s. The four sid esand top o f the rec tangular ma rble box abo veare c overed with elab orately inlaid c alligrap hicpassages surrounded by floral borders (Fig. 9).The p a ssa g es a re taken from t he Q ura n (Koc h,2006:171). They ma ke refe renc e to th e rewa rdsin Parad ise a nd the g arde ns of Ede n tha t a wa itthe faithful and penitent believer (Begley &Desa i, 1989:235). These p assa ges a re plac edon the p ivota l fea ture of the ma usoleum. Theyare executed in black stone similar to that ofthe rema inde r of the m ausoleum, but here thediminutive size demanded far greater skill in itsexec ution . As elsew here, the sc rip t is org a nisedinto rec tang ular pa nels of te xt.

The c enota ph o f Shah Jahan w as ad ded tothe mausoleum after that of his wife that itwas not originally intended as his last resting

place is evident in the asymmetrical locationof his cenotaph in an otherwise symmetricalplan (Fig. 3 and Begley & Desai, 1989:141-160).However, the decoration of the cenotaph is inkeeping with the remainder of the decorativescheme and follows a similar pattern oforga nisation with a few cha nges ma de to themo tifs. As with his wifes c enota ph, a b and ofindividual flowering plants in mounds placedwithin decorative borders runs around theside s of the b ase. How ever, here eac h of thetwo type s of a lternating p lants is plac ed withinits own decorative frame of multi-colouredma rbles. The fra me s the mselve s, which imita tearchitectural forms, are made from agates,c a rnelian, ja sp er, onyx and m a rb les. The tw oplants chosen for depiction resemble lilies andcrown imperials (Koch, 2006:171), shown inonyx, c a rnelian and jaspe r. The c rown impe ria l-

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type blooms are of particular interest; on thelow er ste ms a re four flow ers fully in blo om , whilstabove are six delicate buds waiting to open,showing two different stages of the varietysdevelopment displayed on a single plant.A border running around the top of the basefrom which hang yellow and orange bloomsof carnelian, or perhaps amber, and opaquegree n sto nes.

The up pe r fac e o f the b ase show s an elab orategeometrical framework within which both fully

bloomed tulip-type flowers and their buds areintertwined amongst the curvaceous patterns.The g em s used are d om inate d by c arnelianand jaspe r, with the flowers and bud s extendingfrom opaque black and red marble stems.Other stylised flowers and buds made primarilyof carnelian form part of the framework itselfand link the de signs tog ether in a c oherent a ndgra c eful wa y. The slope d sides of the upp er

part of the cenotaph, like that of MumtazMahal, are decorated with an extraordinaryd isp lay of g em ston es. Here, the three t iers a readorned with highly stylised blooms hangingfrom curvilinear border patterns.

The sides of the b ox ab ove show a lterna tingplants within individual architectural framesthat ec ho those on the ba se. How ever, herethe plants dep ic ted are p erhaps tulips in yellowc arnelian, or pe rhap s am be r, and rich po pp iesin vibrant red c a rnelian. Pop p ies a re id entifiedas flowers of suffering and death, which maybe the intended association given the tombset ting he re (Koc h, 2006:171). The va st arrayof gemstones used here, together with thecarnelians for the flowers already mentioned,include onyx, agates, feldspar or greenquartz, jasper, lapis lazuli and other opaque

ornamental stones.

The up pe r fac e of Shah Jaha ns c enot ap h,surmounted by the traditional pen box, isdominated, unlike that of Mumtaz Mahal,entirely by floral depictions, both individualp lant s a nd floral m ot ifs (Fig. 8) (Koc h, 2006:222).At the head of the cenotaph is a circular floralmo tif within a sq ua re. At its c entre is an o rang ecarnelian flower with sixteen petals and a richblue and orang e centre. Rad iating out fromhere are eight further blooms four trumpeted

fuchsia-type flowers in rich yellow carnelianalternated with four five-petalled orangec a rnelian flow ers. The fluted flow ers ha ve tw owaved but symmetrical leaves on either side,whilst th e o the rs only ha ve sma ll leave s a t the irb a ses. This motif is surround ed b y a ring o f sixty-four round gems, including alternating greenstones, perhaps beryls, and orange carnelians.Outside this there a re a further sixty-four wa ved

ja sp ers tha t resem b le the rays of the sun (Koc h,2006:171).

The rec tang ular p ane l that c om prises theremainder of the cenotaphs upper surfacec ont a ins a n inlaid p en b ox with further curvilinearpatterns around which floral depictions arearrang ed . Cornuco pia motifs also app ea r asp a rt of the de c oration (Koc h, 2006:171). At thefoot is de pic ted in a w ide variety of ge mstonesand colours a fully-flowering tulip-type plant.The p lant spring s from a c luste r of smo ot h-sided leaves at its base, with stems of leavesand carnelian flowers arranged symmetricallya round a c ent ra l sp ine. This mo tif, a lthoug hstill not entirely in keeping with nature, is themost elaborate and naturalistic depiction ofan individua l plant a nywhere in the pa rc hin kari sc heme at the Taj Ma hal.

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In the crypt below are the two cenotaphs ofthe Emperor and his queen (Begley & Desai,1989:104, fig. 45). These c enot a p hs a re morerestrained and meditative pieces than thec enota phs ab ove. In natural light, they arenot imm ed iate ly visible a s one enters the t om b,and in the gloom of the crypt, they are muchharde r to see tha n those ab ove. The qua lityof the craftsmanship is, however, of the samestand ard a s that o f the c enotap hs ab ove, butthe focus here is on Quranic inscription ratherthan opulent floral displays (Begley & Desai,1989:238-241). It ma y have b ee n co nsideredthat this would have been a more fitting andsober theme for the markers of the actualgraves of the deceased, whilst the cenotaphsupstairs would have provided a display ofsuch wealth and opulence that all who sawthem wo uld be in aw e of the spe c tac le. Theupper cenotaphs are more easily visible bothdue to the g rea ter de gree of ava ilab le na tural

light, and their more spacious and accessiblesurround ings. It co uld the refore be c onc lude dthat the display of wealth evident in the upperc enota phs rathe r than restrained piety o f thosein the crypt was intended as the dominantme ssag e to those w ho visited the to mb .

The b ase of Mum taz Maha ls lower ce nota phbears almost no decoration at all, except fora band of subtle abstract floral decorationtha t runs q uietly a roun d its sides. On to p o fthis relatively plain marble construction sitsthe upp er pa rt of the sarco pha gus. Like thecenotaph above, it has three tiers of slopedside s that rise to the rec tang ular bo x at the top .These a re d ec orated with further sob er ba ndsof floral de c oration o f bloo ms resem b ling t ulip s,irises a nd fuc hsias in a g at e a nd c a rnelian. Thetop of the tomb, as on the upper cenotaph,

is decorated on its four sides and upper face,with bla c k and red Arab ic insc riptions (Beg ley &Desa i, 1989:239, 241). The nine ty-nine na mes ofAllah are w ritten in individua l red ma rble frame sin three lines of sixteen on each of the longsides of the tomb (Begley & Desai, 1989:241).The up pe r fac e ha s blac k marble Qur anicscript organised into rectangular panels, withan ep ita ph a t the foot of the to mb (Koc h, 2006:174).

Sha h Ja ha n s tom b is mo re ela b orat ely

dec orated and , as in the uppe r cha mb er, theem ph a sis here is not o n c a lligrap hy but o n florald ec oration. The sides of b ase are c ove redwith geometric frameworks from which hangindivid ua l floral motifs. The up p er fac e of thebase has a wide, curvilinear wave patternfrom which extend ten-petalled carnelianflowe rs a nd smo ot h-ed ge d leave s. The tieredsloping sides have decorative floral wave

patterns of blooms resembling tulips, irises andfuchsias, as on the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal,but the trea tme nt of the upp er box is different.Although the orga nisation of an ep itap h at thefoot c om bined w ith the fram ew ork of three linesof sixteen cartouches is retained, the ninety-nine na me s of Allah a re replac ed by individua lflowering plants, alternating between tulip-type flowers and poppies in varying shades of

c arnelian. The upp er fac e is also de c oratedwith flora l mo tifs. The m otifs on c eno ta p h in thechamber above are echoed here, where theba sic d esign o f a round floral motif at the he adand rec tangular panel with the p en b ox furtherdo wn is reta ined , but the intric ac y of the d esignis diminished.

These tw o sets of c eno ta p hs ma rk the c entra lphysic al foc us of the tom b co mp lex. The


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upp er ceno tap hs are the d ec orative highlight.This is a c hieved b y a c om b ination of fa c tors:the complexity of motif; the combination ofna turalism a nd stylisa tion in the flora l de p ictionsalong side ac c om plished c alligrap hic pa ssag es;the use o f a wide variety o f orname ntal stone s,gemstones and coloured marbles; the qualityof the craftsmanship; and the decoration ofall available surfaces in a harmonious and

ba lanc ed w ay. It is the co mb ination of thesefeatures that distinguishes the decorationof these cenotaphs from the remainder ofthe inlaid prog ramm e. In the se wa ys, the yrepresent the climax of the parchin kari dec orative sche me. The cenota ph of MumtazMahal, as the original occupant of the tombb efo re the d ea th o f her husb a nd in 1666, is thepivota l foc us.

Figure 8: Upp er Ceno tap h of Shah Jahan, Photo: Rupinder Khullar 2000.


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Conc lusion: The Notion o f HierarchyThe pa rc hin kari de co ration on the m ausoleumis orga nised a c c ording to a ho rizont a l hiera rc hy.The d ec oration is foc used at he ad height orb elow to g ive the g rea test visibility p ossible. Aspart of this horizontal hierarchy, it is organiseda c c ording to tw o further c onc ep ts. First, itis arranged according to the four cardinaldirec tions, thereby c rea ting an axial em pha sis

with the tom b of Mumta z Maha l as the pivotalfea ture (Fig. 1). This em p ha sis is a c hieve d b ylocating the inlaid decoration first around thec arved m arble da do s of the c ardinal rec essedarches that dominate the four faces of thema usoleum e xterior. It is a lso p lac ed in thefour cardinal rooms that lie behind these highrecessions, but noticeably not in the corner

Figure 8: Upp er Cenota ph o f Mumta z Ma hal, Photo: Rupinder Khullar 2000.


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N N E D Y rooms of the eight smaller chambers that

surround the central tomb chamber (CornerChamber section in Cox and Kennedy, 2000a nd Koc h, 2006:229). This hierarc hy ac c ord ingto location creates a strong emphasis on thec ardinal axes of the building.

Sec ond , the pa rc hin kari is orga nised a c c ordingto a series of octagonal concentric zones thatsurround th e c en tral ce no ta p hs (Fig. 1). Thesehiera rchica l zone s a re e xpressed in a num b er ofways, each distinct from the others according

to three fac tors. These fac tors c om p risematerials, technical design and artistic motif.The use o f increa singly rare, colourful a ndvaried stones marks a clear progression fromthe outer reaches of the building to the climaxat the cenotaphs on which the widest varietyof ma terials a re em p loyed . The mo st co lourfuland translucent stones are also reserved ingreat est numb er for this c lima tic area .

The te c hnic al de sign of the flowe rs be c om esmore complex, illustrated in the increasingnum be rs of b oth ston es used to c reat e a singlemotif and elements, comprising petals, leavesand spe c ific b ota nic al features, in ea c h bloomor floral ima ge (Figs. 7). In te rms of a rtistic m ot if,there is an increasing sense of naturalism andobservation in the floral motifs, with the climaxreac hed w ith the ceno tap h of Shah Jahanand the individual plants and complex floralmo tifs d ep icte d on its surfac es. The fra me wo rksin which the floral images are placed alsobecome increasingly complex in the numberand variety of stones used in their executionand in the numbe r of eleme nts inc lude d in theirdesign.

This c om bination o f a n a xial a nd c onc entric

sense of hierarchy appears in both Islamic

and Indian cosmological diagrams reflectingc osmic p roc esses a nd orga nisa tion. Inparticular, astrolabes, instruments designed toexplore the c elestial sph eres a nd ob serve stellarmotions, take this form (Ardalan & Bakhtiar,1973:11, 18, 31). Simila rly, the c om b inat ion ofan emphasis on the cardinal directions withgeometric shapes, in this case the octagon,is familiar from diagrams and mandala s in thevastu shastra s and is linked to spirituality anda strolog ica l the me s (Sutrad ha r et a l., 1997:21;Puri, 1997:25 an d 85).

Som e sense o f vertica l hierarc hy is c rea ted inthe c ontrast in dec oration b etwee n the upp erand low er c enota phs. The d ec oration thatappears on the upper cenotaphs is far morec om p lex and visua lly impressive tha t the sub tlerec hoes on the ceno tap hs be low . The doub le-skinned bulbo us do me and finial tha t surmo untthe building create in architectural form thetop of this vertical axis, with the solar motif atthe apex of the dome interior creating theinlaid a pe x of the ve rtic al de c orative hierarchy.Aga in, the upp er cenota ph o f Mumtaz Maha l isthe foc us of t his vertica l orga nisa tion.

Understanding how the notion of hierarchy ismanifest in the decorative and architecturalprogramme, here specifically the parchin kari sc hem e, at the Ta j Ma ha l first enha nc es

understanding of the over-riding conceptsthat dictated the eventual appearance ofthe c om p lex. The pa rc hin kari tec hnique usedby todays craftsmen who continue to workboth in Agra and beyond have also retainedtheir knowledge of the p rac tica l methods andma terials. Inlaid de c orat ive wo rk is c urrentlybe ing c arried out o n the Rad hasvam i Sam dhi,a Hindu temple faced in marble within Agra

itself (begun 1904), although lack of funds


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of dec oration is em ployed . How ever, withoutan understanding of this basic concept ofhiera rchy a nd how it is ma nifest in the m a teria ls,technical design and artistic motifs of theMughal parchin kari schemes, the continueduse o f this te c hniq ue is limite d . (Tha nks he re toTom Fraser a t th e Prince s Sc hool o f Trad itiona lArts in London for his very helpful commentsand discussion of this point.).

The parchin kari decorative scheme, and the

underlying notion of hierarchy that dictatesits overall design, relates seamlessly to thedecorative and architectural programmeof the Ta j Ma ha l c om p lex a s a who le. Therelationship between the tombs architectureand its decoration has been carefullymanipulated so that neither dominates, butinstead complements, the other to create asymb iotic b alanc e. The hierarc hy of dec orative

form, not only within the parchin kari scheme,but in the broader decorative programme, isc om bined with a sensitive exec ution of m otifs,which a re restrained and given plenty of spa c eto breathe, enha ncing the a rchitectural formsand spa ce around which they seem to wea ve.It is this sense of unity between architectureand decoration, of which the parchin kari ofthe Taj Ma hal is an integ ral p art, which c rea tesan effect of visual opulence hard to equalanyw here in the wo rld.

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Andrews, P. A. Parcin-Kari in C. E. Bosworth et al.(Ed s.). (1995) Enc yc lop a ed ia o f Islam , Vol. VIII, NewEd ition, Brill: Leid en , p p . 267-270.

Ardalan, N. & L. Bakhtiar (1973). The Sense of Unity ,University o f Chic a go Press, Chic a go, IL, USA.

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Acknowledgement

The a utho r would like to tha nk Professor Rob ertHillenb rand a nd Dr Giles Tillotson fo r their ad vice an dthoug hts while d evelop ing this pa pe r.

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