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BAKERYSugarThe scientific name for sugar is sucrose-or'saccharose'which consists ofa molecule of glucose combined with a molecule of fructose. A few

thousand years ago sugar was already being used in Asia in the form ofcane syrup, whereas in Europe honey and fruit were the only form ofsweetening. Sugar is/known assaccharose to the Greeks,saccharum to theRomans,sukkarto the Arabs,zucchero in Venice,sucre in France, arucarin Spain,zuckerin Germany andsugarin England. Sugar was instrumentalin the development of confectionery and patisserie, but is also used toseason meats and savoury dishes. France was the first sugar producers in

Europe and it remains the largest producer among the Eastern EuropeanCountries, second in the world forbeet sugar after Russia.Manufacturing

Sugar is mainly refined from beet or cane and consists of extracting thesucrose by successively eliminating the other constituent parts of the plant.The root of the beet is sliced and soaked in warm water to remove the

juice. The juice is then treated with milk of lime and carbon dioxide. It isthen filtered off to give a clear juice. Sugarcane is shredded, crushed andsprayed with hot water. The juice is then heated, treated with lime and then

filtered.

Both clarified cane and beet juices are then concentrated by evaporation

underreduced pressure until crystallisation is induced. The concentrated

crystallised mass is then transferred into mixers where crystal growthcontinues. The crystalline raw sugar is then separated from the remainingsyrup by centrifugation.Not all of the sugar may have been extracted fromthe juice at this stage so the remaining liquor may be recycled. When it is

no longer economically practical to extract any more sugar the remainingliquor is called molasses.Syrups

Simple syrup is a solution of equal weights of sugar and water. Dessertsyrup is flavoured simple syrup used to moisten and flavour some cakes.Flavourings may be extracts such as vanilla or liqueurs such as kirsch or

rum. Add flavourings after the syrup has cooled because flavours maybe

lost if added to the hot syrup. Syrups may also be flavoured byboiling

them with lemon or orange rind. . .

Some syrups such as maple syrup and palm syrup occur naturally,butgolden syrup is a by-product of sugar refining which undergoes its own

refining process. It is used. in making cookies,brandy snaps, and flapjacksand is used in the brewing industry. Corn syrup is produced from sweetcorn and can be light or dark. Molasses and black treacle are dark andviscous with a strong distinctive flavour. Molasses is natural syrup drained

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from sugar cane. Black treacle is a refined molasses like sugarsyrup. They

are used in making gingerbread, rich fruit cakes, etc.

Types of Sugars

1) Refined Sugar or Refined Extra White Sugar

It is made from beet or cane, containing at least 99.7 % sucrose, lessthan 0.06% moisture and less than 0.04% invert sugar. It has the highest.purity and may be sold as granulated, castor(superfine), grain or lumpsugars.

2) WhiteSugarIt contains at least 99.7% sucrose. It is sold in the same forms as

refined sugar.3) Brown Sugar

It is unrefined or raw cane sugar' containing 85-99.5% sucrose and otherimpurities. Marketed in granulated, lump or cube form, itpossesses a

distinctive flavour. There are various types - the very dark moist soft

molasses sugar and muscovado. Some commercial brown sugarshowever, are refined white sugar with caramel or molasses added tocolour and flavour them.

Various Types of Commercial Sugars1) Granulated Sugar

Produced directly from crystallisation of the syrup, it forms fairly

coarse crystals. It is the most common variety forgeneral use.2) Caster (Superfine) Sugar

This can be made from crushed and sieved granulated sugar,but can bealso boiled to a small crystal size. It is used in desserts, pastries, cakes, Sweet dishes as well as

sweetening dairy products, drinks.

pancakes, etc.3) Lump Sugar

This is obtained by moulding moistened granulated sugar when hot,

then drying it in order to fuse the crystals together.4) Sugar Loaf

Sugar moulded into a cone shape, with the base wrapped in blue paper.

It is mainly manufactures to export to Arab countries.5) Icing (Confectioner's) Sugar

Granulated sugar milled very finely to a powder, mixed with 3% starch

to prevent it from caking. It is used for dusting decorating or icing

cakes and buns and is included in many types of confectionery.

6) Liquid Sugar(Sugar Syrup)It is a sugarsolution prepared by dissolving white sugar in water. It is acolourless or golden solution of cane sugar containing at least 62%

dissolved solids of which not more than 3% consists of invert sugar.7) Invert Sugar

Sugar obtained by the action of acids and an enzyme (invertase) on

sucrose. It is used by professional pastry cooks and industries (brewing,

confectionery) in the form oiLnvert sugar solution. Invert sugar stays

smooth and resists crystallising.

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8) Preserving Sugar

These are large crystals designed for jam making because of its

solubility without scum.9) Special Jam Sugar

This is special gelling sugar containing castor sugar, natural pectin and

citric or tartaric acid.10) Vanilla Sugar

It is nothing but castor sugar to which at least 10% natural extract or

essence of vanilla has been added.

Cooking with Temperatures

The cooking of sugar should be carried out progressively, in a heavy-based

pan made of un-tinned copper or stainless steel that must be absolutelyclean and without traces of grease. Cooking begins over low heat until thesugar is dissolved. The heat is then increased and the sugar is constantly

watched as the different stages of cooking, which correspond to speci ali seduses, follow very closely to each other. When a cooking stage is reached,the pan must be removed quickly from the heat. A few drops of cold watercan be added to lower the temperature of the syrup. The degree of cookingis measured manually with a sugar (candy) thermometer which can read

temperatures upto 20QoC (4000P)The Different Stages of CookingSugar

1) Coated (100C, 212F)Absolutely translucent syrup about to come to boil. When a skimmer isdipped in it and withdrawn, the syrup coats its surface. It is used forfruits in syr~p.

2) Small Thread or Small Gloss (101C, 214 OF)Professional chefs test the consistency of this sugar by plunging thefingers first in cold water and then quickly in the syrup. On parting thefingers carefully, short threads will form about 2-3mm wide, whichbreak easily. It is used for almond paste.

3) Large ThreadorLarge Gloss (102-103'oC, 215-217F)The thread obtainedbetween the fingers is now stronger and aboutO.5cm wide. This syrup is used in recipes requiringsugar syrup and forbutter creams, icings and frostings.

4) Small Pearl (103-105 DC, 217-221 OF)A few minutes after the large thread stage round bubbles form on thesurface of the syrup. When a little is collected on a spoon and taken

between the fingers, it forms a wide solid thread. It is used injams andtorrone (a type of nougat).

5) Large Pearl or Souffle (107-109 C, 224-228 OF)The thread of sugar between the fingers may reach a width of 2cm.When one blows on the skimmer after plunging it in the syrup,bubblesare formed on the other side. It is used in jams, sugarcoated fruits,g laces and icings.

6) Small or Soft Ball(116-118 DC, 241-214 OF)When a little syrup is removed with a spoon and plunged into abowl of

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colds water, it will roll into a soft ball. If one blows on the skimmerdipped into the syrup,bubbles break loose and blow away. It is used injams and jellies, soft caramels, nougats and Italian meringue.

7) Large or Hard Ball (121-124C, 250-255 OF)After several boilings, the previous operation is repeated and a harderball is obtained. If one blows through the skimmer, snowy flakes are

formed. It is used in jams, sugar decorations, Italian meringue, fondantand caramels.

8) Light,Small or Soft Crack(129-135 DC, 265-275 OF)A drop of syrup in cold water hardens immediately and will crack andstick to the teeth when chewed. It is used mainly for toffee.

9) Hard Crack (149-150 DC, 295-300 OF)The drops of syrup in cold water become hard and brittle (like glass),but not sticky. The sugar acquires a pale straw-yellow colourat theedges of the saucepan. It must be watched carefully to avoid turning itinto caramel. It is used for boiled sweets and candies, spun sugardecorations, icings, sugar flowers and candy floss.10)Light Caramel (151-160C, 302-325 OF)

The syrup, which now contains hardly any water,begins to change in 0

barley sugar, then into caramel. Yellow at first, itbecomes golden then

brown. It is used in the caramelisation of creme caramel, sweets, and

nougatine and for flavouring sweet dishes, puddings, cakes and biscuits

(cookies) and icings.

11)Brown or Dark Caramel (blackjack) (161-170 C, 326-338 OF)

When it turns brown, sugar.Ioses its sweetening power. Extra sugar is

added to preparations with abasis of dark caramel. As the last stage of

cooked sugar before carbonisation (sugar burns and smokes at 190C,

375P), brown caramel is mainly used for colouring sauces, cakes and

stocks.

Fashtonin g Sugar In addition, there are several methods of fashioning sugar for making

confectionery and decorating pastries and cakes. These types of sugarare

- used to construct centre/display pieces or pieces montee s. Flowers,

ribbons, shells, baskets, etc. can all be fashioned out of sugar.

1) Spun Sugar (sucre file or angels'hair)Sugar is cooked to nearly 155C, the pan is taken off the heat and left

to cool for 1-2 minutes. Two forks are dipped into the syrup and then

flicked quicklybackand forth above a greased rolling pin. The threadsobtained are then collected and used to decorate cakes or make a veil or

nest. The strands should be used within an hour or they will melt.

2) Poured Sugar (sucre coule)Sugar is cooked to cracking point,possibly coloured and then moulded

into cups, pompoms, littlebells and other decorative shapes.

3) Fashioned,Drawn or Pulled SugarSugar is cooked so that it loses its transparency. Colourings are added

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at 140C and the syrup is heated to 155C. It is then cooled, poured

onto a greased marble slab or othercold surface and kneaded, pulled or

moulded into flowers, candies, etc. with a satin finish. These should be

stored in an airtight container.

4) Rock Sugar(sucre rocher)It is cooked to nearly 125C, emulsified with royal icing and then used

to give a rocky effect. It keeps well when exposed to air.

5) BrownnSugarSugar is cooked to nearly 145-150C, which may be coloured and blown

like glass.