11–1 C H A P T E R 1 1 Leading Organizational Members Jon L. Pierce & Donald G. Gardner with...

11–11–11

C H A P T E R 1 1

Leading Organizational Members

Jon L. Pierce &Donald G. Gardnerwith Randall B. Dunham

Management

OrganizationalBehavior

PowerPoint Presentationby Charlie Cook

An Integrated Perspective

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western

Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 11–11–22

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

1.1. Discuss the nature of leadership and the leadership Discuss the nature of leadership and the leadership process.process.

2.2. Identify and discuss the processes associated with Identify and discuss the processes associated with people coming to the position of leadership.people coming to the position of leadership.

3.3. Describe how leaders influence and move their followers Describe how leaders influence and move their followers to action.to action.

4.4. Compare and contrast the trait, behavioral, and situational Compare and contrast the trait, behavioral, and situational perspectives on leadership.perspectives on leadership.

5.5. Discuss the effect that leader behavior has on follower Discuss the effect that leader behavior has on follower satisfaction and performance.satisfaction and performance.

6.6. Explain transactional, transformational, and charismatic Explain transactional, transformational, and charismatic leadership.leadership.


Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

7.7. Describe the concept “substitute for leadership.” Identify Describe the concept “substitute for leadership.” Identify and discuss two substitutes.and discuss two substitutes.

8.8. Comment on the impact that different approaches and Comment on the impact that different approaches and styles of leadership have on the follower in terms of styles of leadership have on the follower in terms of motivation, attitudes, and behavior.motivation, attitudes, and behavior.


The Nature of LeadershipThe Nature of Leadership

• LeadershipLeadership A social (interpersonal) influence between two or more A social (interpersonal) influence between two or more

persons who depend on each other to attain certain persons who depend on each other to attain certain mutual goals in a group situation.mutual goals in a group situation.

• Leader versus managerLeader versus manager Leadership and management are not interchangeable.Leadership and management are not interchangeable. Leadership is the accepted use of organizationally-Leadership is the accepted use of organizationally-

derived and/or personal power to influence and derived and/or personal power to influence and motivate subordinates.motivate subordinates.

Management is process-oriented (planning, organizing, Management is process-oriented (planning, organizing, directing, and controlling) supervisory behavior.directing, and controlling) supervisory behavior.


The LeadershipThe LeadershipProcessProcess

TheLeadership

Process

Consequences(e.g., Suspicion,

Trust, Dislike,

Affection)

Context Followers

Leader

FIGURE 11FIGURE 11–1–1


The Leadership Process (cont’d)The Leadership Process (cont’d)

• Leadership is a function of an interaction Leadership is a function of an interaction between the leader, the follower, and the between the leader, the follower, and the situation.situation. L = ƒ [(Person)(Follower)(Situation)]L = ƒ [(Person)(Follower)(Situation)]

• Leader-member exchange (LMX) theoryLeader-member exchange (LMX) theory Leadership consists of stable dyadic relationships Leadership consists of stable dyadic relationships

linking a leader with a follower.linking a leader with a follower. In-group followers have high In-group followers have high

quality LMX relationships.quality LMX relationships. Out-group followers have low Out-group followers have low

quality LMX relationships.quality LMX relationships.


Formal and Informal LeadersFormal and Informal Leaders

• Formal leaderFormal leader An individual who is recognized by those outside the An individual who is recognized by those outside the

group as the official leader of the group.group as the official leader of the group. One who is appointed or sanctioned by anOne who is appointed or sanctioned by an

organization to the role of leadership.organization to the role of leadership.

• Informal leaderInformal leader An individual whom members of An individual whom members of

the group acknowledge as their leader.the group acknowledge as their leader. One who may or may not be sanctioned One who may or may not be sanctioned

as a leader by those outside the as a leader by those outside the organization.organization.


Leader EmergenceLeader Emergence

• Designated leaderDesignated leader The person placed in the formal leadership position by The person placed in the formal leadership position by

forces outside the group.forces outside the group.

• Emergent leaderEmergent leader The person who becomes a group’s leader by virtue of The person who becomes a group’s leader by virtue of

processes and dynamics internal to the group.processes and dynamics internal to the group. Possess or control critical and/or scarce resources Possess or control critical and/or scarce resources

needed by the organization.needed by the organization. Have the configuration of knowledge, skills, abilities Have the configuration of knowledge, skills, abilities

matching the requirements of the current situation.matching the requirements of the current situation. Have attained influential status through contributions Have attained influential status through contributions

(idiosyncrasy credits).(idiosyncrasy credits).


Leadership as an Exercise of Leadership as an Exercise of InfluenceInfluence• Sources and types of powerSources and types of power

Reward power—the leader’s control of rewards and Reward power—the leader’s control of rewards and outcomes for subordinates.outcomes for subordinates.

Coercive power—the leader’s ability to punish or Coercive power—the leader’s ability to punish or withhold rewards from subordinates.withhold rewards from subordinates.

Referent power—leader influence derived from the Referent power—leader influence derived from the desire of subordinates to associate with the leader.desire of subordinates to associate with the leader.

Expert power—leader influence based on the leader’s Expert power—leader influence based on the leader’s personal knowledge and its usefulness to the group. personal knowledge and its usefulness to the group.

Legitimate power—leader power granted by those who Legitimate power—leader power granted by those who believe the leader has the “right” to influence them.believe the leader has the “right” to influence them.


The Leader-Follower Power The Leader-Follower Power RelationshipRelationship

Follower Compliance• Alienation & resistance

• Calculative compliance

• Identification

• Internalization

Group Effectiveness• Follower satisfaction

• Follower motivation

• Follower performance

LeaderInfluence/Power Tactic

(e.g., Use of Rationality)

—commitment


Effective leadership is more likely to occur when the Effective leadership is more likely to occur when the leader’s influence flows out of rationality, expertise, leader’s influence flows out of rationality, expertise, moralistic appeal, and/or referent power.moralistic appeal, and/or referent power.

Effective leadership is more likely to occur when the Effective leadership is more likely to occur when the leader’s influence flows out of rationality, expertise, leader’s influence flows out of rationality, expertise, moralistic appeal, and/or referent power.moralistic appeal, and/or referent power.


Influence-based Leadership StylesInfluence-based Leadership Styles

• Theory X and Theory Y leadersTheory X and Theory Y leaders Theory X leadersTheory X leaders

Assume workers dislike work and are incapable of Assume workers dislike work and are incapable of self-direction and self-control.self-direction and self-control.

Use a highly controlling leadership style.Use a highly controlling leadership style. Theory Y leadersTheory Y leaders

Assume workers enjoy work Assume workers enjoy work and are capable of self-direction and are capable of self-direction and self-control.and self-control.

Use an involvement-oriented Use an involvement-oriented approach to leadership.approach to leadership.


Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Leadership Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Leadership ContinuumContinuum

Manager

makes

decision and

announces it.

Autocratic–

leader is

dominant

in making

decisions.

Free-Rein–

followers are

free to choose,

leader becomes

passive.

Manager

“sells”

decision.

Manager

presents

ideas and

invites

questions.

Manager

presents

tentative

decision

subject to

change.

Manager

presents

problem, gets

suggestions,

makes decision.

Manager

defines

limits,

asks group

to make

decision.

Manager

permits

subordinates

to function

within limits

defined by

superior.

Use of Authorityby the Manager Area of Freedom

for Subordinates

Boss-Centered Leadership

Participation

Subordinate-Centered Leadership

Low High

FIGURE 11FIGURE 11–3–3Source: Modified from R. Tannenbaum and W. H. Schmidt. May–June 1971. How to choose a leadership pattern. Harvard Business Review, 167.


Directive and Permissive Leadership Directive and Permissive Leadership StylesStyles• Leadership Behavior and the Uses of PowerLeadership Behavior and the Uses of Power

Low

Low

HighHigh

Amount ofLeaderDirection

Amount of Employee Participation in Decision Making

Leader Decision-Making Power: High

Leader Directing Power: High

DirectiveAutocrat

1

Leader Decision-Making Power: Low

Leader Directing Power: High

DirectiveDemocrat

3

Leader Decision-Making Power: High

Leader Directing Power: Low

PermissiveAutocrat

2

Leader Decision-Making Power: Low

Leader Directing Power: Low

PermissiveDemocrat

4

FIGURE 11FIGURE 11–4–4Source: Modified from J. P. Muczyk and B. C. Reimann. 1987. The case for directive leadership. Academy of Management Executive, 1:304.


The Trait Approach to LeadershipThe Trait Approach to Leadership

• Great man theory of leadershipGreat man theory of leadership The belief that some people are born to be leaders and The belief that some people are born to be leaders and

others are not.others are not.

• Leadership trait researchLeadership trait research Physiological, demographic, Physiological, demographic,

personality, intellective, personality, intellective, task-related, and social task-related, and social characteristics of characteristics of effective leaders.effective leaders.

““The right stuff”?The right stuff”?


Leadership Trait Research (cont’d)Leadership Trait Research (cont’d)

• Core characteristics of leaders (Locke)Core characteristics of leaders (Locke) Drive—high level of effort and desire for achievementDrive—high level of effort and desire for achievement Leadership motivation—intense desire to lead othersLeadership motivation—intense desire to lead others Honesty and integrity—commitment to the truthHonesty and integrity—commitment to the truth Self-confidence—assurance in self, ideas, and abilitySelf-confidence—assurance in self, ideas, and ability Cognitive ability—conceptually skilled and possessing Cognitive ability—conceptually skilled and possessing

good judgmentgood judgment Knowledge of business—high degree of understanding Knowledge of business—high degree of understanding

about the company, industry, and technical mattersabout the company, industry, and technical matters Other traits—charisma, creativity/originality, and Other traits—charisma, creativity/originality, and

flexibility/adaptivenessflexibility/adaptiveness


The Trait Approach to Leadership The Trait Approach to Leadership (cont’d)(cont’d)• Other leader traitsOther leader traits

Sex and gender roleSex and gender role Males (or persons with masculine Males (or persons with masculine

characteristics) emerge as leaders characteristics) emerge as leaders more frequently than females.more frequently than females.

Men are more likely to be task-oriented Men are more likely to be task-oriented and to adopt autocratic/directive leadership styles.and to adopt autocratic/directive leadership styles.

Women tend to be more interpersonal Women tend to be more interpersonal and relationship-oriented, and toand relationship-oriented, and to

use a democratic/participative use a democratic/participative leadership style.leadership style.


Behavioral Approaches to Behavioral Approaches to LeadershipLeadership• The Ohio State studies identified two major The Ohio State studies identified two major

sets of leader behaviors:sets of leader behaviors: Consideration—a “relationship-oriented” leader Consideration—a “relationship-oriented” leader

behavior that is supportive, friendly, and focused on behavior that is supportive, friendly, and focused on personal needs and interpersonal relationships.personal needs and interpersonal relationships.

Initiating structure—a “task-oriented” leader behavior Initiating structure—a “task-oriented” leader behavior that is focused on goal attainment, organizing and that is focused on goal attainment, organizing and scheduling work, solving problems, and maintaining scheduling work, solving problems, and maintaining work processes.work processes.


Behavioral Approaches to Behavioral Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)Leadership (cont’d)

• The University of Michigan studies identified The University of Michigan studies identified the behavioral characteristics of effective the behavioral characteristics of effective leaders:leaders: Job-centered behaviors— supervisory activities such as Job-centered behaviors— supervisory activities such as

planning, scheduling, and coordinating work activities. planning, scheduling, and coordinating work activities. Employee member-centered behaviors—consideration Employee member-centered behaviors—consideration

and support for organizational members.and support for organizational members.


Blake andBlake andMouton’s Mouton’s ManagerialManagerialGridGrid®®


1,9Accommodating(Yield and Comply)I support results that establish and reinforce harmony. I generate enthusiasm by focusing on positive and pleasing aspects of work.

9,9Sound(Contribute and Commit)I support team action in a way that invites involvement and commitment. I explore all facts and alternative views to reach a shared understanding of the best solution.

1,1Indifferent (Evade and Elude)I distance myself from taking active responsibility for results to avoid getting entangled in problems. If forced, I take a passive or supportive position.

5,5Status Quo (Balance and Compromise)I endorse results that are popular but caution against taking unnecessary risk. I test my opinions with others involved to assure ongoing acceptability.

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Concern for Production

High

Low

Low High

Co

nce

rn f

or

Pe

op

le

Source: Adapted from R. McKee and B. Carlson. 1999. The Power to Change, p.16. Copyright © 1999 by Grid International, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the owners.

9,1Controlling(Direct and Dominate)I expect results and take control by clearly stating a course of action. I enforce rules that sustain high results and do not permit deviation.


Situational (Contingency) Situational (Contingency) Approaches to LeadershipApproaches to Leadership

• Contingency theory of leadershipContingency theory of leadership Different leadership styles are effective as a function of Different leadership styles are effective as a function of

the favorableness of the leadership situation.the favorableness of the leadership situation. Creating a match of leadership style and situation:Creating a match of leadership style and situation:

Assessing the leader’s disposition toward others by Assessing the leader’s disposition toward others by using their least preferred co-worker (LPC) score.using their least preferred co-worker (LPC) score.

Assessing situational favorablenessAssessing situational favorableness


Situational (Contingency) Situational (Contingency) Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)

• Contingency theory of leadership (cont’d)Contingency theory of leadership (cont’d) Least preferred co-worker (LPC) scoreLeast preferred co-worker (LPC) score

High LPC scores = relationship-oriented leaders.High LPC scores = relationship-oriented leaders. Low LPC scores = task-oriented leaders.Low LPC scores = task-oriented leaders.

Situational favorablenessSituational favorableness Favorable situations allow leaders more control/ Favorable situations allow leaders more control/

influence over the group process.influence over the group process.– Leader member relations, task structure, leader position Leader member relations, task structure, leader position

powerpower


Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leader-Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leader-Situation MatchesSituation Matches

Performance

Favorable

Good

PoorModerate Unfavorable

Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor

High High Low Low High High Low Low

Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak

Leader-MemberRelations

Task Structure

LeaderPosition Power

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Task Motivated Relationship Motivated

FIGURE 11FIGURE 11–6–6Source: Adapted from F. E. Fiedler and M. M. Chemers. 1974. Leadership and effective management. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.


Situational (Contingency) Situational (Contingency) Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)

• Path-Goal theoryPath-Goal theory Leadership is path- and goal-oriented.Leadership is path- and goal-oriented.

Effective leaders provide organizational members with Effective leaders provide organizational members with a path to a valued goal.a path to a valued goal.

Different leadership styles are effective as a function Different leadership styles are effective as a function of the task confronting the group.of the task confronting the group.


The Path-Goal Leadership ModelThe Path-Goal Leadership Model

Subordinate OutcomesMotivation

Satisfaction

Performance

Leader BehaviorSupportive

Directive

Participative

Achievement-Oriented

Situational ForcesWork Environment

Subordinate Characteristics

Combineto Influence



Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leader BehaviorLeader Behavior

Leader Behavior Influenced

Substitute or Neutralizer Supportive Leadership

Instrumental Leadership

A. Subordinate Characteristics: 1. Experience, ability, training Substitute

2. “Professional” orientation Substitute Substitute

3. Indifference toward reward offered by organization

Neutralizer Neutralizer

B. Task Characteristics: 1. Structured, routine, unambiguous task Substitute

2. Feedback provided by task Substitute

3. Intrinsically satisfying task Substitute

Source: Leadership in organizations by G. A. Yuki. Copyright © 1981. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. TABLE 11TABLE 11–1a–1a


Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leader Behavior (cont’d)Leader Behavior (cont’d)

Leader Behavior Influenced

Substitute or Neutralizer Supportive Leadership

Instrumental Leadership

C. Organization Characteristics: 1. Cohesive work group Substitute Substitute

2. Low position power (leader lacks control over organizational rewards)


3. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, areas of responsibility)

Substitute

4. Inflexibility (rigid, unyielding rules and procedures)

Neutralizer

5. Leader located apart from subordinates with only limited communication possible


Source: Leadership in organizations by G. A. Yuki. Copyright © 1981. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. TABLE 11TABLE 11–1b–1b


Transformational, Visionary, and Transformational, Visionary, and Charismatic LeadershipCharismatic Leadership

• Transformational leaderTransformational leader A leader who moves and changes things “in a big way” A leader who moves and changes things “in a big way”

by inspiring others to perform the extraordinary.by inspiring others to perform the extraordinary. Charisma, individualized consideration, iCharisma, individualized consideration, intellectual ntellectual

stimulation, inspirational motivationstimulation, inspirational motivation

• Visionary leaderVisionary leader An individual who is capable of An individual who is capable of

influencing others through an influencing others through an emotional and/or intellectual emotional and/or intellectual attraction to the leader’s dream attraction to the leader’s dream for that which “can be.”for that which “can be.”


Transformational, Visionary, and Transformational, Visionary, and Charismatic Leadership (cont’d)Charismatic Leadership (cont’d)

• Charismatic leadershipCharismatic leadership Charisma—a special personal magnetic charm or Charisma—a special personal magnetic charm or

appeal that arouses loyalty and enthusiasm in a leader-appeal that arouses loyalty and enthusiasm in a leader-follower relationship.follower relationship.

Charismatic leader—a person who Charismatic leader—a person who possess legitimate power that arises possess legitimate power that arises from “exceptional sanctity, heroism, from “exceptional sanctity, heroism, or exemplary character.”or exemplary character.”


Leadership Needs in the 21st Leadership Needs in the 21st CenturyCentury• The magnitude of change will demand:The magnitude of change will demand:

More leadershipMore leadership Newer forms of leadershipNewer forms of leadership

• Tomorrow’s leadersTomorrow’s leaders Strategic opportunistsStrategic opportunists Global/cultural/diversityGlobal/cultural/diversity

awarenessawareness Decentralized managersDecentralized managers Interpersonally competentInterpersonally competent Builders of organizational Builders of organizational

communitiescommunities

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