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The Sport Psychologist, 1987, 1, 350-358

Fact File Age: 66 Current Position: Head coach men's swim team, Indiana University. Coaching Achievements: Head coach, United States Men's Olympic Swim- ming Teams, 1964 and 1976. Coached six NCAA team championships and 23 Big Ten championships; his swimmers at one time or another held world records in every single swimming event. Books Written: His book Science of Swimming has been translated into over 20 languages; Swimming Manual pub- lished in 11 languages; R e Complete Book of Swimming. Research Works: The first person to publish an article on the use of interval training in swimming, 1948. The first to publish on the use of hypoxic training in swimming, 1974. Greatest Thrill in Coaching: Coach- ing the 1976 Men's Olympic Swim Team where USA swimmers won 12 of 13 gold medals and 70% of all the medals in the swimming competition; swimming the English Channel (1979) at age 58-at that time the oldest person to swim the Channel.

James "Doc" Counsilman, coach and scientist, demonstrates proper technique. (Photo courtesy of Indiana University Sports Information Office.)

E&orYs Note: There are many sources of sport psychological knowledge including laboratory data, systematic field observations, experience, and introspection. As Martens (1987a) has noted, each source of knowledge has both strengths and weaknesses. How- ever, all can play a role in contributing to the knowledge base of applied sport psychology. One source of knowledge that has not been utilized extensively in the past is the personal experience of coaches, athletes, and sport psychologists. TSP hopes to remedy this by publishing interviews with outstanding individuals directly involved in practicing or using applied sport psychology.

Coaching Psychology: The Case of James "Doc" Counsilman

Jay Kimiecik and Daniel Gould University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

James "Doc" Counsilman is affectionately known as the dean of American swim coaches. Over his 42-year career he has achieved enormous success, having coached age group, high school, collegiate, and international caliber swimmers and having stayed involved in the sport himself.

Doc Counsilman is best known for his scientific approach to coaching. More than any other individual, he is responsible for the advancements in swimming via the application of scientific principles. He is a renowned international lecturer, having been invited to speak in over 20 countries throughout the world.

Through his extensive experience as a coach, athlete, and scientist, Doc Counsilman has had the opportunity to practice applied sport psychology firsthand. It was our purpose to tap his experiential knowledge base. Additionally, we wanted to discuss Counsilrnan's opinions and experiences in light of current applied sport psychology research and practice.

Coach Counsilman was interviewed by Jay Kirniecik at the Pan American Sports Medicine Congress XI I held at Indiana University in Bloomington. His openness and willingness to freely discuss aspects of his coaching psychology was greatly appreciated.

TSP-Counsilman Interview The Sport Psychologist (TSP): How important are the mental aspects in swimming ?

Counsilman: Psychological factors such as confidence and motivation are naturally important. Most of the swimmers at the elite level are very equal from a physiological standpoint, so the swimmer who has it together mentally in the big meets is going to outperform the other competitors. TSP: What kind of an approach do you take to the psychology of coaching?

Counsilman: I take two approaches. The first I call shotgun psychology where you treat everyone on the team in the same way. Sometimes this method works fine. Before a big meet, I'll give the whole team the old-fashioned pep talk. I don't agree with sport psychologists who say that before a game or match

About the Authors: Jay Kimiecik and Daniel Gould are with the Department of Kinesiology, University of Illinois, 906 S. Goodwin, Urbana, IL 61801.

352 Kimiecik and Gould

a pep talk helps some athletes and hurts others. Your athletes expect you to fire them up. So I do give a group pep talk.

The individual approach is the other psychology of coaching method that I use. For example, after I give a pep talk I'll talk with each swimmer individually to discuss last-minute strategy or to relax the nervous ones. Coaches need to use the shotgun psychology at times and the individual approach at others. But I would say that 75% of the team members respond to the shotgun approach, the rah, rah, team spirit stuff. TSP: Several studies have found that coaches are not very good at evaluating the anxiety level of their athletes. Do you think that most coaches can pick out the other 25 %, the ones who don't respond well to group pep talks ?

Counsilman: I don't know the sample of coaches that were studied, but from my experience most coaches are very knowledgeable of their athletes' feel- ings and mental states. If one of my boys is anxious before a meet, I know it. TSP: What's your opinion on using various psychological tests to evaluate your athletes ?

Counsilman: I'm not against them but they shouldn't be done too frequently or taken too seriously. I would always trust my own judgment before any evalua- tive test. It does give you some standard information on all your athletes and I think athletes enjoy taking them. They learn a little about themselves. They make you think. TSP: You have obviously observed many ways of motivating your swimmers. What do you think is the single biggest mistake coaches make when trying to motivate athletes ?

Counsilman: The worst thing they can do is try to motivate through fear and anxiety. Sometimes you have to be tough on kids, but if you constantly motivate through fear and anxiety, you'll lose them. You'll particularly lose the kid who can't take that kind of treatment and there are quite a few of them: They quit swimming. The stereotype of the tough, hard-nosed coach is one that really hurts athletics. New coaches think that's the way they're supposed to coach even if they don't like it. Just treat kids with dignity and respect, and you've got half of the motivation battle won. TSP: Speaking of motivation, is sport psychology far behind physiology and bio- mechanics, as some individuals have suggested?

Counsilman: I don't think so. Coaches do prepare their athletes mentally. Some of the best psychologists are coaches. Most coaches are so good at motivating, it's almost frightening what they get their kids to do. The field may be behind the others as far as being accepted by coaches and athletes. TSP: Many athletes bum out, yet you have stayed motivated as a swimmer all your life. You've swam the English Channel. What keeps you motivated?

Counsilman: A simple law: We tend to repeat a pleasant experience and avoid an unpleasant experience. Swimming has always been a pleasant experience for me. People who coached me when I was a young athlete let me experiment in my own way. They never pushed me to do better, to go that extra yard, not the way parents and coaches handle young swimmers today. They make swimming an unpleasant and stressful experience for many kids.

The Case of "Doc" Counsilman 353

I want kids to enjoy swimming as much as I do. You have to motivate kids, but coaches should let kids find their own way, find out what they can get out of swimming on their own. When kids are pushed too hard by coaches and parents, they bum out.

I used to coach age group swimming, and because I was enthusiastic and patient with the kids they loved it. They had a pleasant experience. Coaches need to forget about the win and concentrate on fulfilling the needs of the kids, giving them more pleasant experiences that will keep them in swimming for a lifetime. TSP: How do you build self-confidence in your swimmers?

Counsilman: The best way is to make sure your swimmers know they are prepared physiologically. If my swimmers know they have trained as hard as they can and believe in the training program, they can't help but feel confident before a meet or race.

I also try to stick to simple behavioral principles. I use a lot of positive and negative reinforcement when it's appropriate. I know I use positive reinforcement most often. I think coaches underestimate its behavioral powers. For example, one Olympic champion I coached couldn't take much negative reinforcement because in the early going he did not have that much self-confidence. When I had to get on him about his poor training habits, I would start with a positive state- ment like, "With all this tremendous talent you have, you're just throwing it away by not training hard enough." Any coach should always start with a positive state- ment, because you never ever want to humiliate a kid or strip away his or her dignity. TSP: Are the things that a sport psychologist can ofer such as goal setting and mental imagery useful to coaches?

Counsilman: I wouldn't turn them down, but coaches and athletes should be cautious about claims that skills like mental imagery and goal setting are going to make them winners. I think sport psychology does have much to offer, but I think it's being blown a little out of proportion by overzealous professionals looking to make a name. Coaches have been using psychological skills for years.

TSP: Then do you think sport psychologists are claiming too much? Counsilman: They have to because it's so new to the public and they are

fighting to be accepted. But really, coaches have been motivating athletes very commendably for a long time. TSP: What is your general impression of sport psychology consultants?

Counsilman: I don't want to get sport psychologists mad at me, but frankly, I think an athlete or coach can get more out of reading books by Dale Carnegie and Maxwell Maltz than they wiU from any sport psychologist. I still think coaching psychology is a fairly simple and straightforward task. You need to get along with your athletes and be realistic about what they and you can do.

Most coaches follow this simple principle, but I have known some that don't and they are the ones who destroy athletes. For example, I know a high school coach who took over a swim team for the first time and was really gung ho and enthusiastic. In the beginning the swimmers on the team loved the guy. He told them they were going to break all kinds of records and really built up the swimmers' expectations. He set all these unrealistic goals for his kids and even though


some of their times improved, the bubble burst and they were depressed when they didn't achieve their goals.

A good coach sets goals with his athletes, but realizes that they aren't ground in stone. You have to be flexible and realistic and avoid setting goals that are incompatible with your athletes' ability. TSP: What kind of goal-setting system do you use for the University of Indiana swimmers ?

Counsihn: We have tried all kinds of goal setting systems . . . notebooks, journals, you name it. The difficulty with those systems is that they are a lot of work for the swimmers and I think sometimes they can almost take the fun out of swimming. And to tell you the truth, I haven't seen much of a difference in performance when we use an elaborate goal-setting system and when we just sit down on a bench, talk over each athlete's goals, and not worry about writing them down. I think that writing down goals can be overemphasized by the coach. Goal setting can be very formal or informal-and both can work. TSP: Can you give an example of the kinds of goals you set with your swimmers when you do set goals?

Counsilman: It's an individual thing. A coach has to know his swimmers. For some kids performance goals are fine. But for a team oriented kid who lacks aggression, focusing only on his own performance is a big mistake. TSP: Why is that?

Counsilman: Because that kid did not join the swim team solely because he wants to be a great swimmer. Maybe he will be. But the point is, this athlete has other needs that need to be met by me. Performance goals won't cut it. He wants to win for the team. For this athlete we will set some other kinds of goals. Goals are an individual proposition, and the coach's job is to choose the kinds of goals that will get his swimmers to perform their best. For example, I recently had a kid who was a Johnny Weismuller in practice but in meets he always choked. TSP: How did you get this swimmer to peqonn to his potential in the meets?

Counsilman: I hate to say it, but I lied to him. When he would swim in practice I would tell him that he did a 1:03 when he really did a 1:01 in a 100-meter practice race. Then I would say, "If you want to go fast in meets you have to go fast in practice, work a little harder." The kid would say, "But hey, I'm the guy who goes fast in practice and slow in meets." And I would say something like, "BS, you're just being lazy today, get to work." Then in the meets he clocks the same time he did in practice, but in the meet, of course, they post the real time. Now he thinks that he swam faster in the meet than he did in practice, which boosts his self-confidence and makes him a better swimmer. Now, I wouldn't advise coaches to use this kind of mental strategy and I don't use it very often. But this swimmer was a special case and I was getting desperate.

Of course the point of all of this is that the psychology of coaching is attempt- ing to change behavior patterns of athletes. And most coaches do it very well without ever having taken a course in sport psychology. TSP: What can sport psychology do to help coaches coach better?

Counsilman: It can help with making coaches be more aware of how to set up a good practice environment. What is the best practice environment for athletes, both mentally and physically? No one really knows. What are the best


ways for a coach to reinforce and change an athlete's behavior? No one really knows. Sport psychologists and all applied researchers need to get more involved with the coaches and athletes at the practice session before these kinds of psychological questions are answered. TSP: What do you suggest, then, to bridge the gap that obviously exists between the researchers and the coaches in applying scientific principles to sport training?

Counsilman: Researchers are in a difficult situation. Most of them are in academia and have to comply with what the academic people consider to be good research. Most of the academics expect experimental research to be done, where a researcher gives a treatment of some kind to one group and then compares the results of the treatment group with a nontreatment group. These kinds of studies just aren't very helpful to coaches. The kind of research that would be most helpful to coaches-descriptive research-is not being done at all in the United States. The Soviets do descriptive research all the time. Their sport scientists do very few experimental studies. They are out in the field with the coaches and athletes, working together compiling notes and getting a firsthand look at training. Then they develop concepts that coaches can incorporate into practice sessions. TSP: Any final comments?

Counsilman: Coaches should never forget that coaching psychology is not only concerned with getting athletes to perform better but also with how to meet their needs as people. They need love and affection, recognition, a sense of belong- ing. If I can fulfill those needs then I am doing my job, regardless of my win-loss record.

Analysis and Integration As evidenced by this interview, personal experience is a viable and valid form of sport psychology knowledge. Experiential knowledge is not the cure for all the challenges facing applied sport psychology, however. To be effectively used, this source of knowledge must be integrated and analyzed with other ways of knowing.

Analyzing and integrating Coach Counsilrnan's experiential knowledge with applied sport psychology research and professional practice recommendations can do three things. First, it further validates specific coaching psychology principles espoused by many sport psychologists. Second, it questions some current practices and research findings in the area. Finally, it provides sport psychologists with valuable ideas on how to better facilitate applied sport psychology research and practice.

Validating Existing Sport Psychology Research and Practice

A clear theme reflected throughout Coach Counsilrnan's comments is the need for coaches to individualize their treatment of athletes. This principle applies whether one is goal setting, helping fulfill athletes' needs, or employing arousal management strategies (e.g., pep talks, relaxation). It is also consistent with the recommendations made by many practicing sport psychologists (Martens, 1987b; Orlick, 1986; Williams, 1986).


Counsilman also clearly feels that a positive, contingent approach to motivation is best to use with athletes, supporting much of the current coaching behavior and behavior modification research (e.g., Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, 1979). In addi- tion, Counsilrnan's comments on long-term motivation emphasize the need to allow athletes to control their own destiny, to perceive personal control over their athletic participation and performance by "letting them find their own way." This empha- sis on internal control is consistent with recommendations by those sport psychologists studying intrinsic motivation (Halliwell, 1978; Vallerand, Gauvin, & Halliwell, 1986).

Counsilman's recommendations for developing confidence are also consistent with previous research findings (Bandura, 1977; Feltz & Weiss, 1982). In particular, it was suggested that physical conditioning and positive feedback be used to enhance confidence. Moreover, consistent with observations by Mahoney (1979), it was also suggested that false performance feedback can be used to facilitate confidence, although both Mahoney (1979) and Counsilman warn that this technique should be employed sparingly and cautiously. Finally, it was indicated that in goal setting one must have realistic, flexible, and individual goals. This supports recommendations made by those writing in the area of goal setting for athletes (Gould, 1986; Locke & Latham, 1985).

Questioning Current Sport Psychology Research and Practice

Not all of Coach Counsilman's observations were consistent with current sport psychology research and recommendations for practice. For example, although recognizing the need to individualize and relax athletes, he strongly favored the role of group motivational pep talks. This contradicts recommendations made by many sport psychologists (e.g., Gould, 1983; Landers & Boutcher, 1986; Martens, Christina, Harvey, & Sharkey, 1981) who contend that pep t a b should not be employed by coaches. It is possible that as sport psychologists we have overreacted to the problems pep talks cause with high-anxious athletes and need to reevaluate and study possible beneficial effects, especially if used in the manner described by Coach Counsilman.

Counsilrnan also questioned the general finding that coaches are inaccurate predictors of athletes' anxiety levels prior to competition. It is interesting to note that in a recent study of experienced collegiate cross-country coaches, Hanson and Gould (1987) found that only 25 % of the 28 coaches sampled made accurate predictions of their athletes' state and trait anxiety levels, although all the coaches were confident that they would be good judges of their athletes' anxiety. Hence, this finding may need to be disseminated to coaches. Additionally, further research is needed to determine why some coaches are accurate judges of athletes' anxiety levels and others are not.

While Coach Counsilman indicated that realistic, flexible, and individual- specific goals must be employed with athletes, he questions the need for formal written goals. This contradicts the recommendations of some of the practical litera- ture on goal setting with athletes (Gould, 1986). This discrepancy supports the need to conduct goal-setting field research with athletes to determine if formal goal-setting procedures are needed in order to facilitate performance.


Facilitating Applied Sport Psychology Research and Practice

Coach Counsilman offers some excellent advice for facilitating applied sport psychology research and practice in his interview. In particular, he emphasizes that while sport psychologists must "sell" the field to coaches and athletes, they must not fall into the trap of being overzealous in their claims and expectations. Sirni- larly, he strongly suggests that coaches are sport psychologists in their own right and know a great deal about applied sport psychology. One implication from these comments, then, is that sport psychologists should strongly consider coaches' opinions regarding the field. Moreover, research efforts should be made toward a better understanding of the psychological principles employed by successful coaches.

Finally, the discussion with Coach Counsilman clearly indicates a concern with the practicality of much of the research conducted in the sport sciences in general, and sport psychology in particular. His call for long-term field investiga- tions employing nonexperimental techniques and the need for descriptive research is also consistent with the thinking of some sport psychologists (e.g, Martens, 1987a). Hence, those of us interested in conducting meaningful applied sport psychology research should consider these recommendations before automatically adopting traditional laboratory techniques for field research.

References Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psycho-

logical Review, 84, 191-215. Feltz, D.L, & Weiss, M.R. (1982). Developing self-efficacy through sport. Journal of

Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 53(2), 24-26, 36. Gould, D. (1983). Helping wrestlers cope with stress. Mid-American Wrestler, 1(2), 24-27. Gould, D. (1986). Goal setting for peak performance. In J.M. Williams (Ed.), Applied

sport psychology: Personal growth to peak pe$onnance (pp. 133-148). Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.

Halliwell, W. (1978). Intrinsic motivation in sport. In W.F. Straub (Ed.), Sport psychology: An analysis of athlete behavior (pp. 68-73). Ithaca, NY: Mouvement.

Hanson, T., & Gould, D. (1987). Factors affecting the ability of coaches to estimate their athletes ' trait and state anxiety levels. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology. Newport Beach, CA.

Landers, D.M., & Boutcher, S.H. (1986). Arousal-performance relationships. In J.M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak pe$ormance (pp. 163-184). Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.

Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (1985). The application of goal setting to sports. Journal of Sport Psychology, 7 , 205-222.

Mahoney, M.J. (1979). Cognitive skills and athletic performance. In P.C. Kendall & S.D. Hollon a s . ) , Cognitive-behavioral intervention; Theory, research and procedures (pp. 423-443). New York: Academic Press.

Martens, R. (1987a). Science, knowledge, and sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 1, 29-55.

Martens, R. (1987b). Coaches guide to sportpsychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Martens, R., Christina, R.W., Harvey, J.S., & Sharkey, B.J. (1981). Coaching young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Orlick, T. (1986). Psyching for sport: Mental maining for athletes. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press.

Smith, R.E., SmoU, F.L., & Curtis, B. (1979). Coach effectiveness training: A cognitive- behavioral approach to enhancing relationship skills in youth sport coaches. Jouml of Sport Psychology, 1 , 59-75.

Vallerand, R.J., Gauvin, L.I., & HalliweU, W.R. (1986). Negative effects of competition on children's intrinsic motivation. Jouml of Social Psychology, 126(5), 649-657.

Williams, J.M. (Ed.). (1986). Applied sportpsychology: Personal growth to peakperfor- mance. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.

Manuscript submitted: August 15, 1987 Revision received: September 16, 1987

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