-Domini: 113112

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AUTHOR Sue, Stanley; Chin, Robert:TITLE - The National Asian Aserican.Psychology Training

Conference. f

SPOBS AGENCY National'Inst. of Mental Health (DHEV), Rockville,Md.

PUB Bit! 1 Aug 16GRANT d11111110-01NOTE 34p.

IDES PRICE 31-$0.3 HC -$2.06 Plus Postage..DESCRIPTORS - *Asian Americans; *Conference.leports; *Mental Health

Prograsi;Psychological Services; sraycholcgists;*Psychology; Training Objectives; *TrainingTechniques

ABSTRACT ,

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The major goal of the National Asian-IsericanPsychology Training Conference was to bring together concernedlsianAmerican scholars, practitioners, administrators, community leaders,and students to examine, discuss, and provide recommendations for the

- training of Asian American psyChologists. Three kinds cf productsemerged from the conference: the accountsof personal experiences4-Ravel. training programs, and other issues that participantspresented; frameworks-and paradigne used to analyze the issues andproblems; and substantive recommendations generated by.the group .

interactions. Cultural and linguistic differences of Asian Americansvisa via the larger society, their impact on mental health problems,the means of resolving these problems, and the training of AsianAierican psychologists for coping with these differences werediscussed. Recommendations were made with ,regard to the typekdfpsychologists that are needed, the training programs whichspecifically. deal with working with Asian Americans, and the advocacyOf particular training .prograss..The appendix inclides a paper usedas stimulus foi discussion of,specific concerns at the conference.Topics related to the training of 'Asian American psychologists werecovered in i,.a paper. (Author/Ap)

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COCOUNAt

U I DEPARTMENT Of HEALTH, MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BYEDUCATION WELFARE

THIS DOCUMENT WAS BEEN REPRO.+'1 5(4

TO REPRODUCE THIS

144TIONALINSTITUTE OFEDUCATION

;DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM

I THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN.ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED 00 NOT NECESSARILY REPRE-SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

TO IHE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCT

INFORMAillON CENTER (ERIC) jiltrUSERS OF THE ERIC SYSTEM.-

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ate.

The NationalAsian American

Pych9logy'.Training

Conferencees.

-eport of the Conference held July 29-August 1; 1976

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in Long Beach, California

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The NationalAsian American

PsychologyTraining

Conference

Prepared by:

Stanley Sue, University of Washington

Robert Chin, BVon University

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table of Contents

Background of Conference . . 4

Conference Planning . 4

Goals

Format gnd Agenda

Selection of Participants

Conference Site

k

Ccinference Activities and Proceedings

Process

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Content 7

)ndividual Accgj_nts 7

Issues 8

Goals'of the Conference 8

Product's 9

.Frameworks of Analysis and Disc6ssidn 9

Substantive Recommendations for the4 Training of Asiari.American Psychologists . . . r 9

Types of PsychokgistsNeeded 41 10

Training TO,

Other Recommendations . ..... . . . 11

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Reflections , 12

Appendix : The Training of AsianAmerican Psychologists . . . . . 13

Appendix B: List of Parlicipants 36

Acknowledgements,

This Conference was supported by Grant no

MH14447'-01 from theto

Institute orMentalHealth. We would like to exp?ess our appreciation to

..Dr. Stanley Schneider, Chief of the PjyphologyTraining Branch, of NIMH, for his help and atkb,urage-rfient While fee'dback on our earlier draft of thls Con-ference Report was solibited from ill Conference par-ticipants:we are,,vesponsible for the contents and in-terpretations, ..

Stanley SueRobert Chin

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Backgroundof Conference

In 1972, the Association of Asian American Psycholo-gists (AMP) was founded As with other ethnic or-

f-ganizations in psychology such as the Assockation ofBlack Psychologists and Psychologists for La Reza, itwas concerned that the interests and psychologicalWell-being of Asians (e g Chinese, Japanese,°Ko-lean, Pilipinos, Samoans, and Vietnamese) in theUnited States and of Pacific Island Americans werenot being served Verniers of AAAf? attempted todraw attention to Asian Americans' by documentingthe status of Asian Amencians,,by suggesting more

...adequate research strategies and theories` by exam-ining current mental health service delivery systems,by rebommending more responsive mental healthservices, and by working within the professionalmental health disciplines and the social-politicalarenas

It was against this background of concern thatprompted initial discussion of a conference, AAAPheld a meeting at the 1974 American PsychologicalAstociatiorr Convention in New Orleans Althoughmuch of the discussion during the meeting focusedupon AAAP, several issuesihad much- greater gener,ality (1) How could psychology and psychologists bemore responsive to Asian Americans" (2) Were psy-chological research and theories applicable to AsianAmericans? (3) Were there enoildli psychologists toprovide the kinds of services needed in Asian Amer-ican communities? (4) How could training programsbe more relevant to Asian, American students? (5)What were the mental health needs of Asian Ameri-cans? At the invitation of Dr, Robert Chin (now Presi-dent of MAP), Dr Stanley Schneider, Chief of thePsychblogy Training Branch of NIMH, also attendedthe meeting Noting that much of AAAP's concernswere related to training (i e , to the training of AsianAmerican psychologists and to the toles that weredesirable in the communities), Dr. Schneider sug-gested that a conference grant proposal could beSubmitted to NIMH in order to focus on training

With the advice of Robert Chin an Advisory Dowdmembefrof AAAP, Stanley Sue dec ed to write andsubmit a conference grant proposal. Several AAAPNewsletters contained requests for suggestions and-comments from members, and many AAAP members,did proved p suggestions and offers of assistance Dis-cussions bout ,the conference were also initiated atthe MAP meetings of the American PsychologicalAssociation Convention in Chicago during 1975 andthe Western PsychologiCal Association Convention inLos Angeles .during 1976 At the Chicago meeting at-tended by about, SO persons, a decision was made toallow the conference organizers some degree offreedom in making decisions about the structure and

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nature of the conference Stanley Sue solicited theadvice of others and carried out the plans and details

. .df mounting and conducting the Conference as well asformed the intellectual format of the issues.

Throughout this period 'of time, Patrick Okura, Ekecu-tive Assistant to the Director of NIMH and an MAPAdvisory Board member, provided invaluable encour-agement and stiggestions on the proposal. In April,1976, unofficial word was received that the proposal

. ,had been approved for tunding by NIMH Dr. Stanley,Schneider from NIMH showed deep appreciation andu erstanding of the'issues'in facilitating the work ofA AP, its members, and the place of a Jraining con-ference. His support, stimulation, and insights werecrucial tOthe thinking of the planners 4nd partici-pants.pants.

Conference Planning

Goals

Why have a conference? What could be achieved atsuch a conference? It was the intention of those or-ganizing the conference to bring together concerntetrAsian American scholars, practitioners, administra-tors, community leaders, students,' etc. to examine,discuss, and provide" recommendations for, thetraining of Asian American psychologists. It washoped that the cdnferehce would grenerate specificsuggestions for realistic chJhges in psychologytraining programs to respond to 'Asian Americanneeds' Initially, the goal was to write a monograph orreport of the conference to send to training programs,students, professional organizations, mental healthagencies, interested community individuals, etc. Themonograph would inform readers of Asian Americanconcerns and offer recommendations for responsivetraining programs. A secondary, but nevertheless,important fOnction on the conference was to acquaintparticipants with the perspectives and viewpoints ofothers. For Asian American psychologists, there havebeen really no opportunities,to meet each other andto systematically develop commuoication networks,collaborative efforts, and exchange of ideas that arevital in any attempts to serve particular communities.Having meetings at psychology conventions oftendraw too few participants due to the small populationof Asian American psychologists. The conference,then, would allow interactions between individualswith similar interests but with little familiarity of eachother.

Format and Agenda

What could be meaningfully accomplished by 45 brso participants at a three day conference? With so ,

many important issues facing Asian American psy-chologists and communities, the conference ould

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move in several different directions As a means of,presenting issues, stimulating thoughts and ideas,and of generating recommendations, Stanley Sue andRobert Chin wrote a preconference papert entitled"Itre Training of Asian American Psychologists" (seedAppendix A). The paper was distributed to Confer-ence participants about a month before the confer-ence date. it was not intended to restrict issues, todefine directions for training, or to be representativeof Asian American views Rather, the paper was to actas a.stimulus for discussion and as a source whichdocumented specific concerns, Several major areaswere covered in the paper.

.1, The number .of Asian American psychologists- andan estimate of the supply of psychologists servingAsian Athericans.

2. The mental health 'needs of Asian Americans andthe resources available to handle these needs

3. Justification 'of special efforts to recruit and trainAsian American psychologists

4 The kinds of new roles that could be adopted byAsian American psychologists and various trainingmodels discussed at the Austin and Vail Conferences

5. The kind of product (researcher, professional,community advocate, etc ) that would be desirable

6. The type of tFaining needed to, develop the product

7...Recommendations for realistic changes in trainingprograms-

In addition to the preconference paper, participantswere asked to distribute to others brief reports of theirexperiences, wOrk,d or plans that would, have somerelevance fqr the training of Asian Aniericanirs'y'Ctiol-.lists,

In terms of an agenda, plans were made todhave briefintroductory presentations, introduction of partici-pants,' and group sessions. The group sessionsformed the major bulk of the three days Participant ,

were `divided into small groups to iiscugs specificissues and concerns.-Each group would then reporton its partictilar activities and recommendations totpe entire group Althaugh issues and topics for thesmall groups were .pecifiedin advance, the ultimate.decision for group aclivitiesiwould be left to the par.-ticipants.

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Selection of Participants

The most difficult task was in the selection of partici-pantk Because of budgetary considerations and thedesire t6 keep the number of participants smallenough for intensive face-to-face interactions, it wasimpossible to invite many well,, qualified persons..Many individuals, tespondirua to. ,announcernents of-the COnference in the AAAP.Newsletters, wrote to in-

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dicate their interest in the' Conference, only a fewcould be invited. Rirthermore, the diversity of AsianAmerican groups, interests, and backgrounds meantthat representation of all, interests was simply imps:sable The concept of Asian American covers groupssuch as Chinese,"Japanese, Koreins, Pilipinos, Se-moans, and Vietnathese (tosname a few) Some deci-sion had to be made in the experiences and roles ofparticipants University faculty, graduate students,community liaders, practitioners, consumers, ,admin-istrators, etc. Fihally, Asian Americans differed in age,geographic location, overseas background, bilingualfacility, sex, value orientations, experience with Asian'.Americans etc. Based upon their experiences andpotential contribution to the Conference, subjectivejudgments were Made and about 40 individuals wereinvited to participate. As discussed later, the selectionof partiCipants proved to be a major point of criticismfrom some participants. Appendix B provides a. list ofthe participants.

Conference Site

The Conference was held at California State Univer-sity, Long Beach. Dr. Albert H. Yee, an AAAP Advi-sory Board member and Dean of Graduate Studiesand Research at the University, had offered AAAP fulluse of his Cenfer%s'...conference facilities and madearrangements for cafeteria Meals, dormitory or .hotelrooms, transportation. duplicating services, etc., at asubstantrat financial saving.The use of the Universityfacilities allowed the Cohference to be held on theWest Coast (where a high proportion of Asian Ameri-cans reside),at a reduced'cost with the generous as:-sistance of Dr. Yee,and his Center.

Conference Activities, and Proceedings

The Conference was formally convened on July 29,T976. After opening addresses by Albert Yee, StanleySue, and Robert Chin, participants were encouraged\tto become acquainted with each other. Seve I issueswere immediately raised by a few participant and toreflect& these activities during the conference, it maybe wise to cover two areas: process and content. Pro=

,cesS refers to the way activities occurred (i.e., Neissue of how events happened) while content is con-cerned with the substantive outcome .(i.e , the issue ofwhat happened or the products that emerged). Forconvenience, this distinction between process andcontent is maintained

Process

As mentioned earlier, approximately 45 persons pticipated at 'the Conference-Alearly all of the parti /-pants were psychologists or psychology students,Although a high proportion of the participants werefrom the West Coast;there was a cross-section of thenation Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Filipino, and V t-

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name attended Most participants were associatedWith.co 1i@ges an universities although practitioners,researchers, and administrators were also present

The procedure for setting off the process was to haveparticipants-cluster around signs posted around theroom to meet others,of similar views and to expresssimilarities and differentes among the participants., .

The diversity and differing onentatior, of participants.meant several things First, some time had to be spentin getting acquainted with one another. Many partici-pants were4aware of the work of others but had nevermet face to face Second, many different viewpointsand ,perspectives were expressed. It was difficult tofind any unanimity on some issues, and many individ-uals felt that they representep different constituencieswith different needs, priorities, and interests Finally,

.some participants raised some strong objectionsThey felt that (1) to many academicians were repre-sented, (2) participants should have included othermental health workers (i e., non-psychologists), and(3) Asian American communities should have hadgreater input in the selection Of participants. A fewindi*iduals, Who were not at the Conference, hadwritten letters to protest these three points. One par-ticipant strongly related his belief that there was agrowing trend toward elitism as reflected in the largenumber of academicians at the Conference, the lacka community involvement in the approval of whateverrecommendations that would be made, and the needto challenge traditional theories, approaches, andmethods in psychology. Stanley Sue explained that inmany ways the selection process could not be de:fended and that difficult decisions had to be made. Heindicated that AAAP had tipcitied to allow autonomyfor the organizers of the Conference to initiate itsplans for the Conference. m addition, While the needsof, Asian Americans' required interdisciplinary ap-proaches, the Conference was sponsored by the Psy-chology Training Branch of NIMH and the primarygoal was to'affect changes, in college and universitygraduate psycholot programs. A great deal ofcussion and debate revolved around these three is-sues.' Although there was no resolption possible, allparticpanjs became quite sensitized to the three con-cerns and generally agreed that more communityinput shbuld be sought since the Conference was rel-evant to the needs and resources of Asian Americancommunities. There was also agreement that th4 Con-ference should proceed as planned, despite somefeelings of dissatisfaction.

During the entire Conference, participants had to_grapple with ptrong mixed emotions and conflictsThese conflicts arose over several issues

First, with the large number of university faculty anduniversity-related individuals at the Conference, some

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participants felt that the interests of nonacademicianswould not be remPsented. Individuals in serviceagencies and those working in Asian American com-munities indicated that academicians had historicallyignored the interests of community individuals, con-diicted research that had no applied, value, and ex-,ploited subjects in their research AN participantswanted to better integrate the work of,acadsernictansand community mental health workers but in at-

,iempting to move toward an integration, differentgroups had to engage in self- examinations, strugglesto understand others, and direct' confrontation. Theunderlying issue might 'be well expressed as (1) theidentification of 'personal and institutional changesneeded to have psychology serve the people moreand (2) the input 'and control over these changeswhich should be by the Communities and their repre-sentatives and not solely by universities ortven serv-ice agencies.' Second, many participants realizedthat training issues were vitally important and yet felta high 'degree of uncertainty. They were being askedto examine directions for the training of Asian Amer-ican psychologists with no precedents on which tobase their views, and with unclear channels by whichthe influence is to.be wielded. Indeed, most of themfelt that current training programs were not respond-ing,to Asian Americans, yet they had themselves beentrained in such programs. Some were angry thatgreater attention had not been paid to Asian Ameri-cans and now they had to start from scratch" inmaking recommendation's. Third, he issue arose overthe audiences to which the Conference would be ad-dressed. Some participants felt that the audienceshould be Asian Ameiicans; others wanted to com-municate with psychologists, training programs, anti_funding stzurces; still others felt that the message ofthe Conference should be directed to 'as many auCli-ences as possible. The controversy over the audienceaddressed arose since the Conference could conceiv-ably serve one-audience and not another. FOr exam-ple, to secure funds or to influence training programs,it might be better to make Stroncl recommendationswith little dissension. On the otheanct, the aPpear-ance of unanimity would violate the reality of AsianAmerican Communities which show diverse view-points and concerns. One could then have a situationin which short term interests (i.e', 'making strong rec-orratiendations and possibly seeing ohanges intraining programs) arerealized aj the expense of longterm goals (e.g., action on thd regornmendations thatate premature or are later substituted by better rec-ommendations). The general decision was to conveyto all audieres the issues confronting the Confer,ence, and the, struggle and learning experience that4padicipantS were myolved in Finally, the issues in-volving Asian American psychologists include thoseof psychology as a whole. Thus the Conference Wasaddressing issues that bedevil psychOlogasa pro-fession.

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ContentThree kinds of products emerged from the Confer-ence. The first was the accounts of personal experi-ences, of novel training programs, and of other issues

that participants presented The second was theframeworks and paradigms used to analyze the issuesand problems The third was the substantive recommendatidns generated by the group interactions

Individual Accounts

All participants were asked to prepare brief state-ments 'of their activities and concerns. These state-ments were intended to (14 inform participants ofeach other's concerns and activities, .(2) stimulateideas that mightbe.used for making recommenda-tions on the training of Asian American psychologists,and (3) better understand experiences that AsianAmericans have and the potential problems encoun-tered in training. A few selected statements are sum-marized as follows.

1. One school psychologist felt that graduate pro-grams have been administerecrand taught by instruc-tors who are too far removed from the realities ofminority group communities, particularly Asian Amer-ican ones. This was evident in her field supervisionof students who are enrolled in university field wotkcourses As field supervisor, there was little contactwith the instructor of the ,course -framing, tlen,_syela be a coordinated and involVed process for allc2. A graduate student obs'erved that there are very fewpracticurry field placements 'for Asian American stu-dents. He'suggested that special field training sites oragencies for Asian AmenRans wanting to work withtheir own communities t* Zieyeloped and that na-tional guidelines for such specialized agencies bedeveloped.

3. One practitioner raised a series of interesting andimportant issues He felt that more Asian Americanstudents had to be recruited to meet the 'needs ofAsian Americans. Further; there was a substantiallack of Asian. American faculty who could, attract, in-spire, and train Asian American psychologists intoroles' of researcher, practitioner, or communityworker. Students should receive training that is basicto their roles as psydhologists but also that is, uniqueto roleS as Asian American psychologists' In view ofthe 'paucity of Asian Atnerican instructors and fieldsupervisors and the relatively smallnumbers of AsianAmerican population centers, it may be Wise to or-ganize oAe or two mental health training Centers forAsian Arncridans. The clinical practitioner may haveto devel0 bilingual facility because of the larger

, numbers of nontEnglish speaking Asians in thiS

country. Furthermore, training to work with oneAsian(e.g Chinese) group may not be applicable toworking with another (e.g Korean).

4 A faculty member, who taught undergraduates wasdisappointed to see only a few courses offered byCalifornia universities on psychology and AsianAmericans He was concerned with the lack of psy-chologists in Asian American programs and the disor-ganized state of research materials He suggestedthat an informotion and resource pool be organizedand that a speaker's pool be created, perhaps byAAAP, to better reach students .

5 One university administratorrelated some personalexperiences of how his career choice in psychologywas influenced by limited job opportunities for "orien-tals" during the 1940's. Initially skeptical over ethnicorganizations, he has now become jnvolved inAAAPsince it is addressing itself 'to sole relevant prob-lems.

6 Another university faculty described her activities'totrain interpersonal skills needed in psychotherapy orcounseling. Combining didactic and experiential as-pects, the course uses GAIT (Group Assessment ofInterpersonal Traits). and/the "bicultural contextual-izer" model of clinicel training for culturally relatedcounseling The unique gs well as the common issuesin interpersonal skills for minority and white students

are examined in the model.

7. One faculty member felt that one important issuefaced by all students is due process in student evalu-ations. He'exptained how his clinical psychology pro-gram hAd made some major progress to ensure fairplay in evaluations.

.8. Several graduate students indicated that in order toreduce feelings of isolation (because of the smallnumber of Asian American psychology students), theyorganized the-Coalition for Asian Mental Health in theSouthern California area. The, Coalition is an autono-mous, student initiated and directed grpup. While itsmembers currently consift of. psychology graduate'students attending .Los Angeles area colleges anduniversities, they have been interested in diversifying

, and. strengthening its meMbership and have encour-aged participation of interested indrvid als, regard-less of background. The Coalition,has c ated its owncommunication networks and ,has planned severalprojects, including an Mien American mental health

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symposium.

9. Dr. Stanley Schneider discussed the nature of psy-chology training programs in NIMH and their rele-

vance for minority groups in general and Asian Ameri-cans in particular.

10. Dr Dalmas Taylor explained the APA Minority Fel-lowship. Program funded jointly by NIMH and APA.The Fellowship Program Is designed to enhance mi-nority participation in psychology by increasing thesupply of,doctorally trained psychologists whote in-terests lie in the area of racier and ethnib minority is-sues. This is accomplished by providing fellowships

for deserving graduate students; In ditiOn, the Mir'hority Fellowship Program develops information andspecific techniques that could be employed by tint-versities to attract andigetatn minority students, in-forms undergraduates on .opportunities 'for graduateeducation and, employment, and evaluates the effec-tiveness of graduate educatiorf in relation'to minori-ties.

These are but a few examples of the concerns, inter-ests, and experiences that the participants retated-toeach other. They were disCussed throughout the Con-.ference.

The bulk-of the Conference activities revolved aroundthp small group 'sessions and the recommendationsaccepted by the entire groub of participants becauseparticipants wanted to have input into the .goals of theConference, the small group sessions were devotedto (1)' defining what kinds of products should emergefrom the Conference and (2) the substantive recom-mendations for the training of Asian Americans psy-chologists The first task of the small group sessioninvolved the specification of issues, goals, trod-ucts.for the Conference Because of th iversity ofideas expressed, only a listing of issues, goals, andproducts are provided

Isues

1. What are the ,relationships between communitymental health facilities, the various communities, andthe universities in the training of psychblogists9

2. What is the process involved in linking communityinput to training issues9

3. How can training be cfluenced by a greater under-standing of the diversit and commonalities of AsianAmerican communities'?

4. What is meant by the term "community9"

5. is there a distinction between training for AsianAmerican. psychologists and training to serve AsianAmericans?

6. What is the ideal Asian American psychologist?

7. Can the obstacles to training such psychologists beidentified'?

8. Are there currently any Asian American psychologytraining programs that could serve is models?

9. To what extent does political pssure govern ordictate the training of Asian American psychologists?-

10. Can policies and legislation relevant to training be'ctentified and influenced?

1. How can the Association of Asian American Psy-c ologists use greater influence in the development ofm ntai health services for Asian Americans9

12 Wkit. is the impact of foreign tiOrn psychologists? N.

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`Goals of theConference

1 Help strengthen the Associatior3 of Asian AmericanPsychologists' (AAAP) and develop political effective-ness

2. Develop recommendations for organizing AAAPinto a mbre productive organization for integratingand conceptualizing Asian American issues...

3. Creation Of a stronger working relationship be-tween AAAP and other arganiations such -ate -theAmerican Psychological Associatiort,

4. Develop network and linkage with other iiierrialhealth disciplibes an interdisciplinary appitoaches toservice delivery.

5. Make recommendations for community involvementin training. .

6 .Establish a Vehicle for obtaining linkage to otherminority/ethnic groups via AAAP task forces.

7 Develop continuity of, the Conference group withcommunity participation via AAAP.

8. Coordinate greater involvement With other appro--prate Asian American mental health/social service.organizations.

9. Develop viable models of training bearing in mindthe questions of "training for what kinds of roles andin what settings with what target groups '7"

10. Establish standards for training.

11. Consider the development of Asian Americanpsychologytraining centers.

12. Identify possible funding sources for training,

13. Focus on the Sue and Chin' preconference paperand some of its ideas and recommendations.

14. Examine issues of- recruitment, curriculum, enroll-;ment, internship or practicum experiences, licensingand staffing of training programs.

16. Define the r9le of community w):)rkers to con-sumers regarding training.

'16. Identify means of affecting change in institutionalpolicies with respect to service delivery.

17 Develop ideological ,frameworks to build greaterunity among Asian American psychologists and pre-sent policy Statements with respect to current trendswithin training programs (e.g. affirmative actionj.

18. Enhance recognition of Asian Americans as aminority group among academicians and others.

19. Develop criteria for measuring training outcdme.

20. Engage in research that helps tojdentify effectiveskills and methods that meet the needs of AsianAmericans.

21. Engage in research that identifies Asian Americanneeds

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Products

1 Write Conference rIport-that will idently problems/

and issues and recommendations for dealing withthem.

2 A report of the life experiences of some Conferenceparticipants with respect to training-and career.devel-opment.

3 Guidelines for community involvement, for changesrn existing training programs, and for the role of psy-chology..

4 A report of the issues, process, plan of action, andrecOmmendations" of the Conference.

5 A report to include issues raised by the San Fran-cisco Bay Area letters

6 An accurate mailing list of Asian Amer.idan psy-chologists, aresource center that could collect copiesof training model descriptions, and a coordinatingcommittee for future activities In training issues

As can be seen in thi long and diverse topics cov-ered in defining Issues, goals, and products, partici-pants did raise so many issues that it was impossibleto deal with more than a handful in depth. Immedi-,ately after the small group sessions on these topics,

_group recommendations were presented, disCussed,and advocated.

Frameworks of Analysis and Discussion

An important part of .the Conference for the'partici-lents and their discussion was the prOplem of sham%filmeworks of analysit used explicitly and implicitly.The identification °tissues, goals, products,and rec-ommendatlions by individuals was within the con-texdai_s_g.n of some assumed framework. The iden-tification of these frameworks was done from time to4.-- in the discustions In this section, we shall iso-late some of these, and at times go beyond what wasactually said or recorded to report the informal dis-custions and to infer that which was operating fromwhat was said .It should be noted that major atteption was id totraining for service to the broadly de ined entelhealth issues affecting.Asian American munttiesand personh Identifying and judging the neededie-search and evaluation research topics and trainirVorthese topics were seers appropriate for a later con-ference.'

The dominant framework of analysts in the Confer-ence's discussions assumed cultural and linguisticdifferences in Asian Athericans Os a vis the largersociety, in mental health problems, in the means ofresolving these problenils, and in the training of AsianAmerican psychologists for coping with these differ-ences. At times, there was the heuristic assumption of

a 'general Asian American psychology and/or of var-ious separate Asian 'American cultural communitiesThe reactions of the dominant Caucasian culture orsocio - economic class are' rooted in racism (partieu-larly institutional racism), prejudice, and dtscrimina:tion Economic issues arid class-political issues werealso identified For some- conferees, these factors'were seen as primary causes, while for others, thesewere seen as contributory factors.

Early sensitization, recruitment, selection, anddraining programs for psychologists and Asian Amer-ican psychologists were the confronting realitiesaround which the specific issues were clustered.Analysis of the institutional' forces in universities,agencies:funding sources, and training centers wereconsidered to be subservient to the analysis of avec-tions desired by the Asian American psychologists.

Other frameworks employed fromtime timie andfrom person to person, both formally, and informally,were advbcacy organization of Asian American psy-chologists, the political setting of mental health is-sues, the organizational-administrative contexts of thetotal system in the United States including the federal,state, local governmental units and the recipientagencies, the collaborative nature of team and multi-disciplinary and multi-professionak relations of psy-'chology, psychiatry, social work,'nursing, economics,etc., with Asian and Asian American studies or cam7puses; andithe emergence and development of indig-enous community leaderships and power systems.

Substantive Recommendations for the Trainingof Asian American Psydgologists

To fully appreciate the substantive 'recominendationsapproved by Conference participants, it is necessaryto reiterate the concerns and problems that manyAsian American psychologists have. (A)fuller discus-Sion of these concerns and problems appear in Ap-pendix A.) First, there is a shortage of psychologists

. who serve Asian Americans. Many/ Asian psycholo-gists' are tforeign born and' return to their countriesafter receiving their doctorates in. the United States.Many Asian American psychologists are in careerfields that are not service oriented or if' they are in

'service oriented fields, these psychologists may havelittle contact with Asian Americns Furthermore, thesurvey by Padilla, Wagner, & Boxley (1973) indicatedthat Asian American- faculty totalled only seven indoctoral clinical programs (see Appendix A). Thusthere is not only a shortage of service oriented psy-chologists for Asian Americans but alsc7 of academicpsychologists who could act as role models and ad-vocates for Asian Americans. .

Concern with the ,number of Asian American psychol-ogists vrOuld not be great unless it could be demon-

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§trated that there is a high need for psychologicalservices. Most researchers and practitioners agreethat mental health needs have been underestimated.Asian Americans experience racism, society's failureto facilitate the deveTopment of culturally differentgroups, and the rapidity and turbulence of socialchange. These factors undoubtedly affect psycholog-ical well being. Furthermore, existing mental healthservices are often unresponsive to Asian, AmerrcansThe lack of bilingual therapists, the culture-and class-limited orientation of therapists, and the structure ofthe delivery system discourage utilization of theseservices.

There is definitely a need to train more psychologiststo work with Asian Americans in a culturally respon-

..sive manner. In addition, researchers are needed whounderstand the cultural background of their groupsand who can develop sensitive measuring instru-

. ments, methodologies, and theories. All of these

points !suggest special recruitment and training pro-cedures. The following ire the recommendationsadvocated tl the Conference

Types of Psychologists Needed

Without 'directly.specifying a narrow range of suffi-cient skills that psychologists should hpve workin'with Asian Americans, the ConferM6e did .recom-mend important or necessary skills

'1) Psychologists should be sensitive to cultural'differ-,enCes of, and among, Asian American groups Notonly do Asian Americans differ from other Americansbut they also exhibit differences according to the paf-ticqlar Asian American group being considered

\'2) Psychologists engaged in psychotherapy or inter-,vention with one Asian American group ipust realizethat materials and strategies used with that group may,be inappropriate for other Asian American groups

3) Psychologists and psYchOlogy students should crit-ically examine the applicability- of traditional modelsof psychotherapy and'intervention with Asian Ameri-cans. There must be continued exploration into alter-native models for use with Asian Americans-. Trainingprograms should ,facilitate this examination and ex-ploration in students

4) Particularly for- native-born Asian Americans, em-phasib should be placed upon acquiring orstrengthening 'their primary Asian languages: ManyAsian Amefican mental health workers conduct psy-chotherapy or attempt other working relationships inEnglish, despite the fact that the clientele may beprimarily versed in an Asian, language rather thanEnglish. Psychotherapy, as a verbal Modality, neces-

, 'sanly requires that the participants involved (e.g.client and therapist) share fairly common' or con-gruent cultural valUes and social class backgrounds,and,the therapeutic process is facilitated by sharing a

common language where participants can be under-stood as unambiguously as possible Without lan-guage commonality, idiosyncratic, and cultural nd-ances and values cannot be adequately understood.In effect, conveyance of meaning is compromisedSuch situations are often seen in relationships be-tween an Asian speaking client and a therapist who isa native-born,Asian American or is a Caucasian.,Inaddition, the 'Thatch between client and therapist insocial class, culture, personality, and the psychohitoncal experiences is important.

5) To meet the needs of Asian Americans, it is impor-tant to hive a wide range of skills and competenciesrather than to s'mply have more Asian American ther-apists invoy e d in individual psychotherapy. Teamingshould include exposure to different areas within psy-chology. (e.g., clinical, social, community, develop-mental) as well as interdisciplinary fields. ,

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Training

There wasgenergagreement that current psychologytraining programi provide no' training specific toworking with Asian Americans. While many minoritygroup psychologists at the-Vail Qonference expresseddissatisfactiOn with training, it should be noted thatwhenever programs devote some aspect of trainingrelevant to minority groups, the focus is invariablyupon non-Asian American ethnic groups. The general

.feeling was that opportunities to receive training inacademic experienies (e g. curriculum), and fieldexperiences (e.g. internships, trameeshipsi or clerk-ships) were vital in order to fulfill roles as Asian Amer-ican professionals, researchers, and teachers. Theissue was over the mechanicsof training. How could'Asian American training opportunities be increasedconsidering the fact that the Asian American popula-tion is small tompared to those of Blacks and theSpanish speaking/surnamed individuals? That is, iftraining opportunities are inadequate for other mi-nority groups, then this would especially be true in thecase of Asian Americans Who comprise a small popu-lation

Three levels (not mutually exclusive) of trainirfg couldbe examined The first is the wide range of skills andcompetencies basic to that of a psychologist. betpending 'upon the type of psychoiciOst, the skills andcompetencies are in psychological knowledge, teach-ing, research, interpersonal or clinical and communityareas, etc. The second level involves exposurezandexperience in minority group ffairs. Cross-culturalinfluencesysocietat racism, o ession and exploita-tion, contributions of vano s ethnic groups, etc.would be relevant tp this second level. The third level,and the one that was given the most attention at theConference, was concerned with training opportuni-ties in Asian Amencan' communities While not

yang the importance the basic skills as a psychol-

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ogist and experience in general minority group affairs,the Conference participants felt that the third levelneeded the most examination A series of recommen-dattins were made to increase training 'opportunitiesin Asian American communities

6) It would not be realistic to expect all graduatetraining o to offer direct experiences withAsian Americans` However, opportunities for studentsshould be available. One or more training centers fdrthOse Committed to working in Asian American com-munities should be established _The center would belocated in an area with a fairly large Asian Americanpopulation and would allow psychology students fromthroughout the nation to gaffe experience in workingwith Asian Americans A week long plvningsessionof,"doers" and "conceptualizers" should be called inorder to form a center and to develop, guidelines forits program of training. Several considerations areimportant First, studentsare selected for training inthe center only after they have ,committed themselvesto working in a career ,with Asian Americans. Such

, training may occur during the summer so that stu-dents can have their university or college's regular.program. Staff for the center would be selected on thebasis of expertise in meeting the designated curricula

that? include concepts specific to Asian Americans.The training 4..guld help develop intellectual 'andscholarly growth and clinical, community, and inter-diSciplinary skills in roles of teacher, researcher,practitioner, community organizer, etc

7), An Asian American psychology training °enter-should provide an interdisciplinary holistic approachin areas Such as law, clinical and social psychology,psychiatry, social work, non-professional parspec-

Alves, folk healin%methods, etc Bilingual arid bicul-tural training for trainee and trainers (e.g certain staffwho show deficiences in some areas),-is vital Currentas well as hiitorioal perspectives on the' developmentand maintenance of-Mien American communities andgroups should be irrcluded as a means Of under-standing The context of social, psychological, tiro-nomic, and political probletns of Asian Americans: Itwas noted that training centers primarily for AsianAmerican social workers have ?)peen established 'in,California The possibili* of collaborating or of inte-grating we these established centers was raisedalthough no specific recommendations were mada_onthis issue , , p8) More Asian American students should be encour-aged into Asian,Amencan training programs in orderto facilitate their awareness of Asian - American con-cerns and to work in a relevant supportive, intellec-tual, and-experiential climate toward the conceptual -'zatibn of an "Asian American 'psychology While

psycholopts 1d net have clear notions of what"Asian Am6rtcan psychology" is, many feel thatWestern views, of human behavior, Motions, cogni-'

lion, and treatment are culture-boun rather than

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universal and that an .opportunity to articulate antWdevelcip other peftectives shod be available.- .

Other recommen ning included the ad-vocacy of pa ulaf training aspec .

9) If educational institutions are to respond to AsianAmerican undergraduate students, curriculum onAsian Amendans should be made more available

"'Asian #merican students often find the courses excit-ing,ing, relevant to heir concerns, and facilitative of theirpersonal adjutme'rif Non-Asian Arnerica'n studentsWho take these courses frequently expresS haw bene-ficial they are.

10) If eduCational institutions are to respond to grad-uate students, -Asian American curriculum must sup-plement

eplement traditional programs*in gsycholoby pro-viding an ethnic perspective. r11.) For clinical psychology students, sensitivity tocultural differences and cross-cultural therapy may beenhanced by depicting to students culturally aware-and sensitive versus culturally unaware and insensi-tive therapists Models of clinical training based onthis assessment and distinction need to be developedand utilized. It is vital to understand the culturalvalues, of the client and theicultural context of the

. problem. ' s e.

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12) In order to facilitate the, collection and diskmina-,hon to training programs of resource materials, infor-mation on communithvojects; research activities-, . ,,

and conceptual models on_Astan Anendans, the As-sociation of Asian American -Psychologists shouldfoster an inforrrtation bank. .

r , r13) It is.important to build into graduate or profes-sional training some mechanism for enhancing AsianAmerican psychologists' sensitivity to awareness oftheir - impact on mainstream society. The issue here is.how to sensitize, train, or interest those Asian Amer-ican psychologists not working with Asian Americansto assume roleirthat will also have a beneficial. impacton Asian Americans. ..

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Other- Recommendations .

A series of other diverse recommendations were ad-vocated by the Conference.

14) A "feeder" system should be .devised 'in whichstudents who have ini,erests in and awareness ofAsian American issuen be directed into TeleVartt.training programs.

15) Funding programs for graduate training "mustdemonstrate local community coordination and use ofcommunity resources.

16) Funding sources for training, services, research,.etc external and/or in addition to NIMH funds must bedeveloped.

'17) Research must be pursued in examining which

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psychotherapeutic approaches and techniques areeffective and ineffective for Asian Am:enails and whysuch apRcOaches have these effects (i.e.; process andoutcane resealph).

18).-A cross-national study on the consequences ofEnglish language facility among some immigrantsand even second and third generation Asians shoUldbe conducted. The specific focus would be upon theconsequences of immigrancy and of particular back-grounds. The documentation of such experiencesshould be a means of sensitizing mental health train-ees. It is important to train bilingual skills in trainees,and English skills in iminigi'ants and their respectivespouses.

19) Group therapy techniques may be, developed bymodifying traditional therapy models through informa-

'tion from community folks and community workers.

20) Post doctoral training, or continuing educatiOnprograms must be provided In order to develoryspe-cial competencies for work in particular Asian Amer-ican communities and particular areas of concentra-tion.

21).Adequate guidelines of competence for Asian andnon, -Asian psychologists to delivery ,services, treat-ment, etc , to Asian Americans must be developed.These guidelines wouft1 be in the areas of training(e.g. curriculum and practicum experiences), accredi-tation, and licensing of psychologists Asian Amer-

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ican as well as other minority psychologists should'have input into these frireeareas.

Reflections

There Were no attempts to prioritize the recommenda-tions which were seen as initial steps in examiningthe ,training of Asian American psychologists. Aftermaking the recommendations, 'participants stressed-the fact that, Asian American needs and concernshave been ignored so long that it was agonizing toengage in the horrendoug task of making'recommen-dations for the,training of Asian American psycholo-gists. From this perspective, the recommendationswere incomplete, somewhat disocganized, and notclearly thought through. Therefore, feelings of frustra-tion and dissalisfaction ran high. Participants had anunsettling sense ofoncompleteness and of unfinishedbusiness On the

3.other hand, there was a genuine

sense of excitement at the Conference. Participantsformed meaningful relationships, developed commu-nication networks, and were forced to engage in self-examination and critique of their perspectives in.crela-tion to Asian American issues-, and psychologytraining. Nearly all of the participants felt that the

' Conference was meaningful but that an 'immenseamount of work, financier support, involvement of theAsian American communities, and changes in currentprograms were necessary.

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Appendix A:

The Training of Asian American Psychologists

Stanley SueUniversity of Washington

andRobert Chin

Boston University

This Asian American Psychology Training Conferencemarks the first time that a group of concerned psy-choldgists, psychology students, and other relatedproieSsionals have the opportunity to discuss, criti-cally examine, and develop effective strategies for thetraining of psychologists interested in practice andresearch with Asian Americans. The field of clinical orcommunity psychology has had conferences to de-velop training models (such as the/Boulder Confer-ence of 1949, the Swampscott Conference of 1965,

the Vail Conference of 1974, the Austin Conference of1975, etc.) The relationship and relevance of thesetraining models for Asian American psychologists areuncrear. At least, they provide the ground from whichthere is differentiated the -figure of Asian Americantraining models and the strategies of accomplishingthe desired future. Indeed, the Vail Conference inch:cated the dissatisfaction of minority groups with thetraditional direction of training. What is clear is that asAsian, Americans we have little precedence from)(vhich to base our efforts at this Conference. We aregathering some examples of programs and activitiesin training other minorities so as to have a body ofconcrete materials for analysis and evaluation. Morewill be collected by the end of the Conference.

The purpose of this preconference paper must bestated from the very outset. It is not intended to re-strict issues, to define directions for training,,or to berepresentative of Asian American views. These are

. matters, that can be explored by Conference partici-pants. Nevertheless, we offer this preconferencepaper as a means to (1) present issues and examples(2Y stimulate other thoughts an ideas, and (3) gen-erate further Substantive recoMmendations for re-sponsive changes in psychology training programs. Afinal report with recommendatiOns will be preparedafter the Conference. The ideas expressed representour on assessment of issues and, we have providedonly a brief glimpse of the complex issues. This papershould be viewed ase "stimulus" rather than a "re-sponse." We acknowledge the unevenness of our

analysis and the incompleteness of the recommenda--Thons It iSour belief that the outcome of this Confer-

ence should be considered as a first but importantstep' in focusing the training -of Asian American psy-chologists. We also recognize the importance sineventually developing training models that encom-pass different disciplines such, as psychiatry, socialwork, etc. However, it seems wise to "clear up" ourown profession befqre coming up with an integrativeeffort

An Overview

ThiS paper examines a_series of related and importantquestions:

$

1. How many Asian American psychologists arethere?

2. What are the needs and resources of Asian Ameri-cans that would dictate an increase in the number,. and ,special training of Asian American psychologists?Will there be jobs available for these psychologists?

3. If more Asian Ameiican psychologists are needeed,hovraan recruitment and support of students betated?

4. What kinds of skills are needed to be effective,Asian American psychologists?

5. What kinds of general training models should andan be applied to Asian American psychologists as

e ective researchers and practitioners?

6, Plow can we affpct realistic', changes i9 currenttraining programs to respond to Asian Americans?

7. What kinds of recommendations can we generate?

Each of these questions are extremely complex 4ndcan be further subdivided into-many Other issues andconcerns. In most cases, we simply lack enough datawith which to provide much mdre than speculationand value judgments. There is some knowledge ofcurrent training programs and a ,grdwing body of

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A reVised.version of a paper presented at the National Asian Arn,tiffcin PsychologyTraining Conference, July 29-August 1, 1976, Long Beach, California. This Gaper as

well as the Conference was supported by Grant no. MH14447-01 from the PsychologyTraining Branch, Division of Manpower and Training, National Institute of Mental Health

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knowledge on Asian Americans. The task is to inte-grate both into responsive programs of training. Fi-nally, it should be Wed that we have not addressedourselves to the important matter of diversity amongAsian American groups. This issue ought to be quiteprominent throughout this paper.

Any analysis of training programs to serve AsianAmerican communities and persons strikes at radical,i.e., root issues, psychology: .Clinical vs. 'communitypsychology; individual therapy vs. group or commu-nity treatment; therapy vs re- education; illness vs. fit-ness definitions of mental health;, insight vs. behav-ioral therapy; medical models vs whatever-elsemodels; consultation vs. direct service; interven-tion- interruption- diversionary vs* fundamental socio-economic- cultural change programs; individual vs

psychological press of social factors; individual dif-ferences of personality vs situational-conditional, per-sonal change vs. social change, victim vs. oppressoranalysis, generic dynamics vs. problems approaches(aging, identity, alcoholism, drug abuse, unemploy-ment, delinquency, etc.); basic vs. applied theory ofintervention and planned change, research vs. evalu-ation research; and psychology vs. Asian Americanpsychology (or any group and minority group) Thelisting o'f these issues, and there are others, is. in-tended to acknowledge the possible divisiveness ofthese questions at the Conference. Can we find suffi-cient.common grounds for our recommendations?

While Asian American psychology has not yet provento be a special "field," there are noticeable differ-ences from psychology as a whole which affectsuccessful delivery of helpful services and usableresearch fc Asian American communities and individ-uals. Much of the current work, over and beyond rhe-toric, is in demonstrating (the widely accepted as-sumptions, and thus dismissed as insignificafit for aseparate psychology) Asian and Asian American cul-Aural differences. These differences are variationswhich increase or decrease the relative degree ofimportance of fhe impact of such variables as familystructure, shame and guilt, affect expression and in-terPetaonal relations, oedipal and authority relations,and aggression and hostility management. Also, -wecan locate differences in access to services, treat-ment modes, anxiety symptoms, distress signals, andpreferred models of coping. The factUal demonstra-tion of these Asian and Asian Amenban cultural differ-ences while important and necessary is not sufficientfor establishing or claiming a separate field of AsianAMeritan psychology. More qualitative difference andtheoretical models are needed. The research andtheory, the American Studies approachstudying theenvironmental setting for Asian Americans, the impactof racism and the structure of American society asdeterminants of mental ti,ealth, and the modes of im-proving, do intersect and interact with the Asian and

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cultural differences approach. Perhaps in these inter-actions, we do have the possibility of forging a fieldcalled Asian American psychology in programs and inconceptual theory. This task is still in front of us.

We take the position that the Conference does nothave to "solve" or "argue" the Issues of the state ofthe field of psychology arid Asian American psychol-ogy, to justify the purpose and to reach responsibleoutcomes in the Conference. We propose to .acceptthe view that thereeis a possible field or discipline ofAsian American psychology foigeuristic purposes ofthe Conference.

A full scale justification for attention-do Asian Amer-ican persons and communities by psychologists mustinclude these points. (For' brevity, we list thesewithout a full pregentation.)

1. The population of Asian Americans and Asians inAmerica will increase even though at present it is re-latively small in number because of racist federal lawsof immigration (naturalization rights were' onlygranted after-World War It; entrance to U.S. was byrace not by country). In the near future, the largestproportion of all immigrants added to U.S. populationwill be Asian. Koreans, Chinese, Pilipino mainlanders,Samoans, Thais, Pakistanis, Indians, Vietnamese, andimmigrants from other Asian 'countries will each in-crease dramatically in number. The Japanese Amer-ican population will increase slightly.

2. The Asian Americans and Asian immigrants willcontinue to be a sharply differentiated bi-modal distri-bution One mode is a highly visible professionalgroup which is deemed "successful" and a muchlarger group on the other end of the distribution whichis deemed to be unsuccessful. The visibility of thelatter group will increase in social and personal path-ology, statistics, and urban problems.

3. The visibility of Asian America'ris will be due tophysical-biological features, names, and occupationalsegregation (e.g., 30% of all Chinese Americans aredependent upon the Chinese restaurant bdsiness, it isestimated).

4. Racism and racist attitudes towards -Asian Ameri- A.cans are present and can become more virulent undertensions of job scarcity, inner city competitions, andinternational hostilities.

5. There is a vitality and community strength in theAsian American communities. These communities arebased on a core territory with a widely dispersedgroup geographically but forming a community.(Chinatown is- a place as an equivalent to a countyseat providing cohesion, Unique commercial andcommunity services, and a strong psychological func-tion:)

6. Asian cultures have been relatively intact for longperiods. Culturally based modes of relating to mental

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illness, psychosomatic disorders, and modes of clas-sifying, categorizing, and Managing the "ill" havemuch to contribute to the limited family of approachesin the western tradition. Successful folk culture has

c had its own ways of categorizing, diagnosing, andtreating many of the same range of problems nowencountered . by the professionals For example,health and mental health, body-mind problems, food,nutriment, and drugs are conceptualized in differentways and the internal modes of "treatment" poseuseful questions to tackle.

7. Foresight and prudence demands we prepare toavoid problems that are beginning and will increase.Social science and interdisciplinary fields must play asignificant part in the future to mitigate, indeed, pre-vent, the trends before they become unmanageablesocial problems

8. Melting pot ideologieeof America are being erodedby many forces The culture, language, and personalidentity of Asian Americans in America is one of thebattlegtounds for developing pluralism and multi-cul-turalism in America

9. The full development of the potential contributionsof Asian American individuals, their culture, ways, oflife, and world view to American-ciyilization and itsways of life and value systems need fostehng andthe assistance of the best of social science knowl-edge and practice. The psychologists" contributionsare not restricted to social and psychological modelsof "trouble," Releasing and facilitating the' actualiz-

tile contributions are also part of the role of the Psy-ologist in relation to Ale* Americans.

Number of Asian American Psychologists

. ,How many Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Pilipino, etc .psychologists are there? What proportions are servingin academic or professional carees? Ho many areserving AsianiAmericans? How many Asi are for-eign citizens who return to their countries fter re-ceiving an advanced psychology degree/ Are there,Asians who obtained degrees in other countries butwho are residing in the United States? We simplycannot provide clear answers to these questionsData are' lacking, for the most part, methodologicalproblems exist in the available .data,,and available'results appear contradictory. Interestingly, the Car-negie Council (1975) has indicated that among doc-torate degrees, awarded in all fields in 1973, Asianancestry individuals accounted for 61 % of all minoritygroup recipients. However, among these Asian indi-viduals, only 13% were American citizens! AsianAmericans accounted for 1.1% of all Ph.D.'s awardedin the total population. If these statistics are appli-cable to psychology and if noncitizens leav' thiscountry after receiving their doctorate, thn the I s of

Asian psychologists as a resource is subitantial 'We

have setected'four major areas of research with whichto assess the issue of the present numbers of Asi,an

American psychologists.

The AAP Survey

When the Association1.of Asian American Psycholo-

gists (AAAP) was formed, two psychology graduatestudents, Davis Ja and ROd Kazama, undertook theimmense task of surveying the 1970 APA Directory forAsian American i, surnames. By visually identifyingAsian "sounding" names, it was hoped that a roughestimate' could be obtained. Such a procedure ob-viously has weaknesses. Atypical sounding Asiannames would be overlooked; non-Chinese, -Japa-nese, and -Korean Asian groups such as Pilipinos,Samoans, etc., would obe largely excluded (not tomention East Asian groups), ov_ercounting couldoccur particularly with names such as "Lee" and"Young" which could be Chinese or non Asiannames, `psychologists not members of APA (or whowere members but failed to be in the Directory) wouldbe overlooked, and it is unclear whether Asian Ameri-cans have a greater or lower propensity to join APA

than non Asian Americans. However, the vast marC)rity

of Asian American psychologists are probablyChinese and Japanese. In any event, Ja and Kazamaidentified about 170 names judged to be Chinese,Japanese, Korean, or other Asian surnames. This rep-resented about 0.6% of the total APA Directoryship. if.we examine the proportion of Chinese, Japanese, andKoreans in this country as estimated *by the 1970Genius, the figure is 0.5%. (Thls Census estimate isprobably underestUnated since Asian Americans aregenerally undercounted ih CensuS Statistics and sincethen, a very large immigration of Asians to thiscountry occurred.) It should. also be noted that theback rates for Asian Americans and for Asian Amer-icin Psychologists are so relatively low that errors ofone kind or another could drastically alter the results.

Findings suggested a fairly equal representation ofAsian American psychologists in APA.

lnchrect Analyses

For many years, Asian Americans have speculatedthat,they are Jinder-represented in the social scienceswhich include psychology. One Method of examiningthis statement is to look at the interest patterns andcareer choices of Asian American college students.One study focused on male Chinese and Japanese(American bdrn) students at the University of Cali-fornia (Sue & Frank, 1973). Iricontrast to the generalstudent bodY, Chinese and Japanese students weremore likely to show interest patterns and career ma-jors in nonsocial science fields such as engineeringand in the sciences of chemistry, biology, andPhysics. While Choices may seem to-vary with indi-vidual: I ests, family influences, and subculturalVa alues, th role of racism cannot be denied Inability

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to rise- in social science careers, discrimination, andprejudice iii social science fields that require a greatdeal of interpersonal interactions are also factors thatlimit professional choices (Sue & Frank, 1973) Thisagain would imply an underrepresentation of AsianAmericans in. psyChology. Finally; from all indications

DHEW, 1974), Chinese, Japanese, and KoreanAmericans have "a higher proportion of college antiadvanced college graduates thSn the general popUla-tion. If they 'select careers at random, one would ex-pect an overrepresentation of these Asian Americansin psychology. From ,the above data, this does notappear to be the case

APA Estimates

In the February, 1975 APA Monitor, the numbers ofdoctorates for various minority groups in psychologywere estimated The estimates were based upon ipdi-vrduals'receiving 'doctorates in the social sciencesand applying the percentage of social sciences doc-torates in 1973 which were awarded in psychology tominority group ,data To the extent that this methodignored differential interests among minorities andCaucasians in psychology versus rronpsychology so-cial Sciences, the estimates would be inappropriate.Results suggested that "Orientals" represented 4%of all psychology doctorates in 1973! In fact they con-stituted 56% of all doctorates awarded to minoritygroups. On the surface, then, Asian Americans wouldappear to be overrepresented in psychology In 1972,APA (Boneau & Cuca, 1974) sent surveys to its totalmembership of 35,361 and to 10,785 nonAPA mem-bers whO were eligible for APA membership. Thislatter group included individuals from other psycho-logiCal societies and included graduate students. Re-turn-response rates for the two samples were 77%and 74%, respectively. ,"Orientals" and Hawairan-Polynesians constituted 8% of -the members and1.3% Of the nonmembers. These figures would againsuggest that Asian Americans as a group are notunderrepresented. Three other interesting findings

'emerged. (1) About .9% of the members with docto-rates were Asian American, indicating a slight overrep-resentation of doctorates per members,' (2) 77% ofthe doctorate members were Male rather than female

'Asian Americans. (3) The median income of AsianAmerican members appears lower ,than those ofWhite, Black, Native American, Middle Eastern,-EastIndian, and other ethnic psychologists (i.e , the me-dian income for Asian Americans was lower than forany'other group listed!) .

More recently Willis (1976) presented date on theethnicity of graduate students in .100 psychology de-partments with APA accredited clinical programs. Outof 12,053 students, 149 or 1 2% were Asian Amen-cais.while 296 or 2% were foreign students The dis-tinction between Asian American students and foreignstudents is important since a sizeable proportion of

foreign students are probably frkm Asian countries.Surveys that do not separate Asian Americans fromAsian -foreign students would overestimate the pro-portion of Asian American students. (It .is unclearwhether -data from the APA Monitor cited earlier in-cluded Asian foreign students with Asian Americanstudents ) in any case, there-seems to be a slight ov-errepresentationof Asian Americans Asian Arriencanfaculty in these, departments represented .7% of allfaculty.

Survey of Padilla, Wagner, att Boxley (1973)

Padilla and his colleagues surveyed the number offealty and students who were members of minoritygroups in all doctoral clinical psychology programs(94 responded out of 114). Thus the'iurvey was lim-ited to clinical prbgrams awarding doctorates Theinvestigators found that (1) when Chinese (46%),Japanese 40%), and Pilipino (0%) faculty' Werecombined, they constituted 56% (n = 7) of all facultymembers of these programs in contrast to the esti-mated 67% of these, ethnic groups in the U.S. popu-.lation, (2) Chibese (.23 %), Japanese (.27%), and Pil-ipino. (.02%) students totalled .52% (n= 25) of all grad-uate students; and (3) the student figure was'1.25%two years earlier. Disturbing is the fact thai Pilipinoshave no faculty members in these programs and thatthe tot& number of Asian American graduate studentsactually decreased from 1971 to 1973. iff view of theprevious findings regarding the statistical overrepre-sentation of Asian American psychologists from theAPA Monitoi, it seems likely that the vast majority ofAsian or Asian American graduate students do notenter clinical psychology preferring other areas of.psychology. Thes(students comprised only 7% Of theminority students in 1972 and yet the APA Monitorrevealed that 56% Of all doctoral degrees to minoritygroups went to Asian or Asian Americans! Again, thebase rates are so relatively low that errors or slightincreases or decreases in absolute numbers woulddrastically after percentage figures.

In view of the conflicting data, methodological differ-ences, conceptual difficulties, and lack of better'research designs, it is imposSible to draw firm confu-sions abotit the number of Asian American psycholo-gists. Year-to-yea'r fluctuations, inclusion or exclusionof Asian foreign students, sampling techniques, andconsideration of whether data are based upon psy-chology or subareas of psychology (e.g., clinical)hinder the development of a clearer picture. In addi-tion, the crucial question of how many Asian Amer-ican psychologists are serving otheriAsian Americansis unknown (la) We recommend that better efforts beundertaken. by APA and by psychology training pro-grams to estimate the sex, precise ethnicity (Chinese,Pilipino, Samoan, etc.), citizenship status, interest,and career choices of Asian and Asian American psy-

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chologists. (Recommendations are identified for con-venience by numbers. No priority is implied by theorder of numbering.) We feel that there_is a shortageof psychologists.whdserve Asian Americans and rec-ommend that training programs act affirmatively torecruit Asian American students who want to serve

,Asian Americans Just as medical Schools that ,at-tempt to affirmatively recruit individuals who canrender health care in rural areas or as psychologyprograms that recruit Blacks, Hispanic groups, or Na-tive Americans for work with their groups, these ef-forts must also be made with Asian Americans. Rec-ognition of Asian American needs has been slow incoming

(2a) We recommend admission requirements shouldbe flexible enough to allow the entrance at AsianAmerican_ students who have atypical backgroundfrom other students. If these students 'show highpotential and interest in serving Asian Americans, spe-cial recruitment efforts should be made Heavy reli-ance on Graduate Record Examinations scores, espe ;,bially on the verbal portion, may be a poor indicator of

, future performance and success. This does not meantthat poorly qualified students`who are likely to fail beindiscriminately admitted. Such a procedure wouldnot be in the interest of Asian Americans or the ISSy-chology progralms involved. Rather, the means toidentify high potential students mUstte developed

(2b) Special efforts must be mad in the case of fe-males and non-Chinese and -Japa ese Americans. Inaddition, there are only a few Asi n American facultymembers. This means that Asian i mencan studentshave little contact with faculty mo els that they cari.identify with ethnically. A

(2c) Afore Asian American bsychdlOgists experiencedin Asian American affairs need to be recruited as fac-ulty and as internship supervisors. We must eliminatediscrimination o the psychology profession in orderto attract more Asian American students. Few.facultylresearchers, field supervisors, service deliverers, andstudents preparing for thete roles are found in clinicaland community psychology which are the areas withinpsychology that are the most concerned with re-search and practice in the service of mental health.The shortage also becomes 61eater when the needsof Asian Americans are examined There is an upperlimit of the number of people to be trained beCause ofthe future lob shortage No precise data are available.Yet, as in education, the professidns and other fields,competition for scarce lobs must not be a barrier tothe entrance of thoSe qualified to render serviceuniquely. In, acknowledging the -reality Of supply andjobs available, we,must spread the responsibility toothers to work as mental health agents, or whatever isa better term for these roles.

(2d) We recommend a program of training for persons.to act as "mental health agents,"counselors, advis-

4

ors, and community taaclers located in key areas.Asian persons in other branches of psychology, insocial sciences, and in natural sciences such as fac-ulty members, teachers, researchers, student counse-lors, community leaders, and, caretakers should 'haveprograms of traming`in Asian American mental healthconcepts and techniques. These could derive fromprograms working to create relevant new styles ofAsian American mental health approaches. Thetraining for these "mental health, agents" Should beundertaken by a team olpsycholOgists trainedas,train-ers of adults We intend to go bey0pd the programspresently labeled para-rofession Wal rbles. We seethespecial training of trainers.

(2e) We recom nd, adaptations of training programsfor psycholo s to become trainers. Special trainingprograms o ht to be organized by a team of AsianAmericans representing different orientations and,backgrounds Applied behavioral scientists should beinvolved in these activities. The NTL Institute, variousother organizations, and individuals have had suc-cessful experience in training people of specific eth-nic, cultural, or community baickgrounds to- evolve

.their own style and competency while seleCtivelyusing and modifying applied behavioral science.

(2f) We recommend special grants be made availablefor travel to obtain overseas training* and experiencefor Asian American psychologists and trainees. Sincemany of the clients of the future will be immigrants,some re-education and re-training of osychologista,whose experience may be sparse or out of date, areessential.

(2g) We recommend special effort at language devel-opment be part of the .training of the psychologistsand others. Research on language forms of help andof the cultural phrases and help seeking, rather thanSimply the English phrases translated into the nativelanguage, is needed, Literacy for high risk AsianAmerican populations caritiot be assumed.

t \(2h) Ir; view of the fact that there are many AsianAmerican psychologists and psychology studentswho are not serving other Asian Arhericans or who arenot in The mental health ,areas of psychology, oppor-tunities should be available to these persons to redi-rect their skills and expertise. That is, we must findthe means of drawing the interests and talents of psy-chologists and Students to work with -Asian Ameri-cans. This may be accomplished by helping theseindividuals to become aware of Asian Americanneeds (i.e., consciousness raising), to publicize theactivities of the Association of Asian American Psy-chologists so that interested persons can develop amore ethnic profession& identity, to ask thdse per-sons to consult on Asian American research or thera-peutic intervention in order to utilize their skills and tofacilitate interest in Asian American concerns, or toinviteMem to seminars or workshops on Asian Ameri-cans.

j7 a

18

Asian American Needs and Resources

Two areas are identified for discussion: Mental healthneeds and Asian American contributions to Americancivilizgtion andlways of life. The "need" for AsianAmerican mental health training programs can beexamined by (1) looking at the mental health prob-lems encountered by Asian Americans, (2) the kindsof intellectual, professional, and community resources

)available to meet this need, and (3) the forces inAmerican society which project a future or continuing

/ need for psychologists. The demonstration of highneed, few resources and future needs would be com-pelling evidence for the necessity of training Asian'American psychologists to work in their own comrliulnities on mental health problems and facilitation ofcontributions to American ways of life

There Is a need also to develop programs for psy-chologists to work to foster and facilitate the contribu-tions of Asian American person& groups, and corn-munities to American civilization, ways of lite, andvalue orientation The need is demonstrable by ex-trapolation of the present contribUtions to science andknowledge More serious is the loss of contributionsto philosophy and ways of life. Innovative programscan be created as models for other groups and theirlatent contributions New roles for psychologists canbe developed in facilitating others to contribute toAmerican ways of life, new life styles and values

Discernible Mental Health Problems

It is disturbing to note that many Americans still be-lieve that Asian Americans experience few mental,health problems, despite evidence to the contrary asindicated by practitioners and researchers (Berk &Hirata, 1973, Cordova, 1973; Kim, 1973; Kitano, 1969,Kuramoto, 1971; Morales, 1974, Sue, Sue,. & Sue,1975; Watanabe, 1973, Yee, 1975). We are not goingto attempt to "prove" that many Asian Americansexperience significant,soc.ioemotional distress. Sucha task is ridiculous. We shall begin With the assump-tion that, as in all groups, Asian Americans exhibit

_psychological problems and have mental healthneeds. The real task is to specify the kinds of prob-lems that arise and the conditions that create andmaintain stress. By focusing on the mental healthproblems encountered by Asian Americans, we arenot implying a deficit model of functioning. There isno strong evidence that Asian Americans as a con-glomerate g'rour.are any more or less disturbed thanother groups. Asian Americans experience genera-tional differences, marital conflicts, life changes, etcas any other groups. HOwevere certain conditionsplace Asian Americans and various Asian Americansubgroups at risk. These conditions in the absence ofadequate resources probably lower positive mentalhealth and increase mental disorders.

What are these conditions? We have identified threemajor stressors which are related to each otter. Thefirst is racism (i.e., prejudice, discrifriination and insti-

tional racism) with its consequences on survival,elf-esteem, feelings of alienation, powerlessness,

. The second stressor comes from the failure ofs ciety to facilitate the development of culturally dif-ferent groups in America. The former process is moreinsidious, the latter occurs any time culturally differentgroups are forced to interact. With respect to racism,it is beyond the scope of this paper to provide anadequate discussion of its short and long. range,immediate, and indirect effects. The practitioners andresearchers 'cited earlier in this section on mentalhealth problems have documented racism and its ef.fects on mental health. The failure to facilitate thedevelopment of culturally different groups wouldimply that there is a direct relationship between cul-tural diversity and stress. Thus among Awn Ameri-cans, recent immigrants and those vitlokitfe stylesare the most dissimilar (e.g. Asian f.1.nericahs li4ing inisolated ethnic communities suctt as Chinatowns orsaving limited access to power) Wbuld be under the',most stress. The solution to these problems would be(1) elimination, of racism and (2) the acceptance andrespect of culturally diverse groups. The third majorstressor is the rapidity and turbulence of socialchange, common to all groups in contemporary so-ciety but with special. significance for Asian Amen-cans. Upheavals in cultural and political values, revo-lutions in swill patterns and mores, redefinitions ofWork and occtipations are occurring within a per-sons's life time in the society as a whole. Socialchange as a stressor will not diminish but wilt in-'crease at an even higher rate in the future.

How do these stress s influence \psychologicaldistress? For two mat reasons this question is diffi-cult to answer. First, there is a paucity of empiricalresearch and theory' bn the kinds of psychologicaldisorders and social pathologies among Asian Ameri-cans. Second, the development of reliable and valid'indices of personality characteristics, social psychol-ogical situations, and psychological disorders amongAsian Americans are major problems. Good crosscultural measures or culturally specific -tests, wherenorms have' been constructed, are lacking.. Thisproblem is further complicated by the proliferation,ofpsychological theories of behavior and. behavipraldynamics that may be inaccurately appliedto Asian'Americans Several Asian Americans (Kagiwada,1973; Sue & Sue, 1972) have pointed to these prob-lems. With these limitations in mind, we Can summa-rize the available findings into three groups dealingwith psychological well-being: (1) personality re:searctb (2) psychological aspects of social situations;(3) mental tlisCirder studies. A number of researchershave indicated that various Asian American groups(mainly Chinese and Japanese). experience value

18

19

r.

r.

conflicts and more anxiety, loneline , passivity, andconformance than*Caucasian stud is (Ayabe, 1973,Fong & PeSkin, 1969; Meredith Meredith, 1966,Fenz & Arkoff, 1962; Sue & Fra k, 1973). Many ofthese studies hive been conducte in Hawaii so that

the generality of findings is not est blithed Further-more, these studies' have come under attack for beingbased' upon simple assimilation or Culture conflictmodels or for employing personality measures thathave limited cross- cultural validity (Kagiwada, 1973;Sue, 1977; Takagi, 1973) Research in the psycholog-ical aspects of refugeeism, management of authoritycrises, leadership and community dynamics, identityformation, and bio-lingUalism have been only partiallyresearched in relation to mental health.

° Research into mental disorders has mainly demon-strated that the expression of symptoms is related tocultural background (Duff & Arthur, 1967, Katz, Gude-man, & Sanborn, 11969, Kitano, 1969) and that AsianAmericans underutilize formal mental health services(Brown, Stein, Huang, & Harris, 1973, Kitano, 1969,Sue & McKinney, 1978). However, in the latter re-search, the investigators have suggested that the lowutilization rates are probably due to factors such asthe unresponsiveness of services rather than to lowrates of mental disprders. Hinkle (1974), studied themental and medical, status of a group or immigrantChinese who experienced major social change, socialdislocations, and disruption of important interper-sonal relationships. Compared to a group of Ameri-cans, the Chinese immigrants had a greater frequencxof disease. The work of Lum (1974) and of Sue,ner, Je, Margullis, and Lew (1975) indicaAsian Americans may perceive and define ental ill-ness in ways different frbm Caucasians. This impliesthat Western forms of treatment may be inappropriateto cultures that differ in values and beliefs. Interest-,.ingly, Sue and Kirk (1975) found that while AsianAmericans underutilized the Student Health Psychi-atric Service at the University of California, Berkeley,they tended tb overutilize the Counseling Servicecompared to Caucasian students. Chinese Americanfemales were particularly overrepresented for coun-seling (during the four-year period of the study, overhalf of these females utilized psychiatric or coun-seling services). The researchers speculate that despite low use of psychiatric services. Asian Americanstudents do not have lower rates of disturbance,'rather, they may merely seek other resources such asthe Counseling Service which does not carry thestrong stigma of the Psychiatric Service.

9-that

It is clear at more basic knowledge of Asia*ri Amer-.ican mental health problems is necessary. In addition,a growing disaffection4as- occurred between re-searchers and "subjects." Many Asian Americans feelexploited by researchers, see no applied value fromresearch, and want more control of research on Asian

A

Americans Thus two questions have been repeatedlyasked of researchers, particularly of those in the areaof mental health. Is the research relevant and valid forAsian 4mericans9 What is the purpose ofresearch9..

6In view of the points discussed,ytwould like to makethe following recommendations.

(3a) The relationship for Asian Americans betweenfactors such as racism, cultural diversity, socialchange, and psychological well bbing must be con-ceptualized more intensively. We need research onthe etiological chain leading to direct and indirectconsequences and the coping mechanism used byAsian Americans.

(3b) 43etter and novel research instruments, strate-gies,. and theories have to be developed Asian Amer-icans need to draw upon their own experietldes andobservations to gener'ale hypotheses apd theOries.

(3c) In research, various Asian American groups mustbe separated and focus should be planed upon groupdifferences as well as similarities. Considerable Ind,-vidual differences exist even among particular Asian'groups. While we are appalled at the Paucity of re-.search for all Asian Americans, mental health re-search on Pilipinot,Kloreans, Vietnamese, etc. (non-Chinese and Japanese) is particularly deficient.

(4a ) We feel that applied and pure research are im-portant. Thereal concern should be over the quality of,research and its relevance for Asian Americans.

(4b) There must be better collaborative efforts be-tween fesearcher practitioners, and consumers soas to reduce antagonism and to increase the potentialValue of research.

(4c) Specific research emphasis should be placedupon needs )assessment, family interactions, andcommunity organization and community dynamics,forseparate Asian American groups. The contribution ofpsychologists in the areas of soda', personality, de-velopmental, etc. ;hould also be stressed. -

(4d) Periodic summer conferences or institutesshould be held to pursue the theoretical formulatidn6helpful for.further research and for use by instructors.Students should be funded equivalent to summer sti-pends for such work.

It is appare4 front' our discUsSion of. mental healthproblems that (1) Asian Americans have significantmental health needs, (2) not Much is known about thespecific psychological status of Asian Americans, and(3) there is a vital need for competent research spe-cialists in Asian American communities.

Resources to Promote Mental Health4

For minority groups, there are twb major categories ofresources intended to promote mental health. Thefirst includes the le-livery of federal, state,' and local

.6. 19

p 20

t

mental Health services. The second resource comesfroM withili the ethnic or Asian group.

When one examines the" delivery of mental health'care; it is apparent that these resources are made:quate. Asian -Americans have been found to under:utilize such services (Brown, Stein, Huang, & Harris,1973; UCLA Asian` Health Team, 1975; Sue & Mc-Kinne,Y, 1975) and to quickly terminate services aftercontact (Sue & McKtnney1975, Yamamoto, James, &Palley, 1969). Padilla, Ruiz, & Alvarez (1975) haveargued that minority groups seeking mental healthservices (1) are frequently isolated, geographiCallyfrom such services, (2) are unable to -find dilingualtherapists, (3) ,encounter culturally bound therapists,and (4) -encounter social-class bound therapists.These factors also appear true,foi ',man Americans.in addition, feelitigs of shame, fear(f public Isnowl-edgof utilizing mental health services, different bey-

,liefrIsnd ,norms about abnormal behaviosts, etc. con-tribute to reluctance in using services ,Thus for many

C

,t

4

Asian Americans, federal, state, and local mentalhealth services are hot resources at all.

We know that Asian Americansd'iave develoPediamilyand !community' resources to promote mental healthand to deal wilh mental diSorders. Very little empiricalreseaich has been conducted to reveal these re-'sources. -Much of our knowledge of these _resourcescomes from the -experiences and observations ofAsian Americans in their particular group. Many Asian,

.Americans use herbalists, respected elders, or otherthird party person§ to-mediate co lids or ti?i offer as-sistance to persons experienciit emotional probllems. For .example, Chin .(1 976 points out thatChinese often utilize these "inter lanes" ratherthan professional mental health agerifs. As indicatedin Table 1, the rojes assumed` by the intermediariesmay be diametrically opposed to those assumed bythe mental health agent. Similarly, Asian Americansmay receive medication, acupuncture, advrce fromfamily members, etc. as forms of treatment,

4

20 21

N

A

(a member of a traditional culture)

1. Expects (B) to participate to exchange rela-tionship.

2.xpects (B) to be high stafus, with commu-nications and influential linkage with (0).

,

3. Expects (8) to be an advocate

4. Has a preferred solution for (C),to follow,

5. Expects to plead or test opportunities orlimits with (C) to .gain own way.

6. ,Expects to change in circumstances andconditions from (C). I

TABLE 1-

-B

'(a traditional ihtermedn)

I

1. Expects (A) To pay cibarticipate in an ex-:/ change relationship

-2 Has a body of experience in dealing withA's,relations to (C). ,

O

3. Expects to be an ad;iocate for (A).

4. Expects to give limited and acceptable ad-vice to (A) or within A's preferred solution

e5. Proclaims some ability to influence (C) byshaping A's appeal or by direct influence

'cliannels. t6. Increases As expectations(C).

7. Exocts,_(C) to be exploitative ancl self inter- 7. Flelteorces iew of (C). . 7. Expects (C) to b' benev6lent. Experiencesested. mistrust of (C).

of.change from

Profess ionalized D

(a social service worker, or member of a bu-reaucratic organization)

1. Expects (A) to be a client, or "case," paid,for by (C). Experiences embarrassment over -exchange relationship.

2. Has self - definition of expert in knowledge.Experiences doubts over competency.

3. Has self-defthition of neutrality as a tech-nical representative of (C). Ambivalence, re-sistance and conflict over (A's) -expectation ofadvocate role.

4. Expects honest data from diagnosis to leadto a prescription possibly different from thepreferred solution of (A) and which is "for thegood of the client."

5. Expects rules and regulations of to befollowed in form-

ft

6. Expects realism from (A) of (C)'s ability to`change circumstance. .

r

Wore: c = environmental systems including other family members, treatment groups, the, burttaucrecy, etc. From Chin (1976).

.22

(5a) Since Asian American groups may utilize thesealternative resources, it is important to Understandand assist these agents as well as to explore the pos--Sibility of changing professional roles into more cul-turally responsive ones.

Thus far in our discussion of rhOUrces, we have fo-cused mainly upon treatment resources. Is it possiblelo formulate prevention strategies?Generally, preven-tion has been 'divided into primary (i.e., reducing theincidence of disorders by removing the etiologicalfactor or by increasing first-line resources), sec-ondary (i.e., reducing the se y and prevalence of

,.. gi§arders by improving treat methods and envi-ronmental support systems , and tertiary (i.e , mini-

41lizing the impact of a:disorder through rehabilita-tion). Obviously, primary prevention would have thegreatest impact. If prejudice, discrimination, and non-acceptance of different cultural value's are one of themajor stress factors, then efforts to eliminate thesestressors would be cruciat-(e.g. the creation of theOffice of 'Asian American Affairs). Furthermore, weneed to find the potential roles that family, church,associations, and the community can play in preven-

' tion. With'respect to secondary prevention, we haveindicated that traditional mental-health Services arenot responding to the needs of Asian Ameri ns. Ourrecommendations are that.

(5b) Since traditional men I health services are notresponding to Asian Am ricans, these services needto be change ch anges can include the em-ployment or training practitioners who are bilingual,able tp work within the cultural life style of AsianAmericans, and flexible in dealing with clients fromdifferent social classes

(5c) Explore alternative delivery systems within AsianAmerican communineS. An Asian American Coun-seling and Referral Service was created in Seattle toserve Asian Americans. Similar facilities have beendeveloped in the San Francisca Bay area, Los Ange-les, New York, and Boston

(5d) Practitioners in -Asian /merican communitiesmust develop famtilzycitty with the life style, need, andattitudes of the s they are serving. Practicumtraining in such communities would be necessary.

(5e) Crucial to good training is the supervisor. AsianAmerican supervisor are often in less secure lob po-sitions and are seen to be limited in competency be-cause of their "foreign' background. They also arevrctims of racism in being assigned to restricted clien-tele or patients. Some supervisors thus become tradi-..tkinal in approach to ensure respectability. Ways must%treated to foster their creativity in supervising train-ees to obtain the most"relevant training.

- We recommeng, th; establishment of a network oftraining supervisors to provide support for creatingand strengthening cross disciplinary patterns of su-

,

pervasion of trainees. Special funding for rfewsletterand for fle to face communications is needed.

(5f) We recommend a Program of small grants to payfOr special expenses of innovative training and super-vision.

.

(6a) In view of need for training in:certain communi-ties, service agencies should also function to providesupervised experience for graduate, students and in-

, terns.

(6b) We must strive to better integrate mental healthresources with those resources in the Asian Americancommunities.

(6c) We recommend the building of national and re-gional networks of psychologists, trainees, and com-munity people to hold conferences on special topics,that are appropriate for Asian groups as 'a whole.Topics limited to one Asian grobfr might better beorganized and studjed.by that group with the supportof the ASiah American psychologists..

(7a) Better prevention techniques1 aimed at elimi-nating stressors and at increasing resources are nec-essary.

Summary

It may seem that we have strayed a bit from trainingissues. However, in order to discuss training models,we have found it necessa y examine the questio,"Training fprwhat?" mod=analyzing'training m-el . let usIsummarize the eas presented thus far.F' at; there is a shuriage of sian Americans whglgre

the area of clinical psychology. We also feel thatonly a small proportion of Asian American psychologists devote their services tq other Asian Americans.Therefore, students interested in this area should berecruited. Second, outside of the mental health needsof Asian Americans, very little is known about AsianAmerican communities, family interaction patterns,personality characteristics, deviant behavior, etc. Abody of knowledge (knowledge base) must be devel-oped En order to serve tically for students. Inview of the dissatisf with traditional, measures ofpersonality and w culturally biased theories of be-havior, we need to train astute observers, sophisti-cated and novel research strategists, and personswho understand their group and who dO not exploitthis group. Third, we need to know much more about(1) chantg traditional, mental health agencies intoculturally sponsiv systems, and (2) resources thatalready exist in Asian American communities. AsianAmerican psychologists must then have intimateknowledge of traditional services and more culturally-used resources and develop the ability to implementthis knowledge in prevention and treatment Modes.

Contributions to Ways of Life

The psychological strengths, the ways of life, and

22 24

admiration for both high culture and folk' culture ofAsians by members of other cultures as well -as byAsians need to be reinforced and adapted as contri-butions to American -civilization. At present, the cul-tural values and the Asian American individuals hold-ing these Asian values are viewed as alien and exoticPsychologists can contribute to the future integrationinto American culture through' research on these pro-cessei of incorporation of Asian and Asian American

.

value systems and through developing facilitatorssuch as consultants and trainers Social psycholo-gists, community psychologists, developmental psy-chologists, gerontologists, and personality psycholo-gists can be trained to 'develop this role Their rolesmust be conceptualized in /the humanistic approachto psychology and have as their audience not only theAsian Americans but'also the American population ingeneral. Since the need and resources are yet to bereseatthed,.training programs must be developed Inorder to develop these innovative programs, planning-grants for expeurnental programs must be obtained.Planned change is possible for selected American

, and Asian American target groups such as youthhumanists, and those developing strategies for thefuture.

(7b) We recommend planning be undertaken to develon research and practices for developing theseroles of psychologists Funding for planning of pilotprograms must be obtained

Training Models

Various issues and models of training have been pro-posed in the areas of clinical and community psy-chology. We would like to review some of these is-sues and models.

Austin Confeience.

The Austin Conferen e on Community PsychologyTraining in.1975 raise seven training parameters thathave relevance for o discussion. -

1) The Ideology; Va e Base, and Social Ethics of theModel)What valu lie'behind the activities that theperson graduatin from the model is supposed tocarry out? Are ey human service oriented, social'change oriented, service delivery oriented, etc.?

2) Goals and Objectives of the Model. What are thepeople being trained to do? What kinds of profes-sionats does the model want the trainees to be? Howshould they be 'classified, i.e., road range clinicians,

mental health planners, 4anizational change

agents, social experimenters, community mentalhealth specialists, theoreticians, teacheTa, field

workers?

. 3) Units of Study. Within the training model at whatlevel or levels do we expect the students to operate?

For example, individual, family and group, organiza-tional, community, or societal. In this area we areinterested in the unit ofsstu'dY; will the trainee be ex-pected to work primarily, for example, with organize.tions as opposed to individuals?

4) Knowledge and Research Base Where should themodel get its knowledge now and in the future?*erecognize the need for new knowledge in communitypsychology but where is it to come from For exam-ple, applied social, epidemiology, clinical, environ-

ental., How much knowledge can come through tra-ditional sources in psychology and 'how much pernecessity must come through other disciplines, i.e.,sociology, anthroppjogy, ecology. What are the re-search skills that are going to be needed at variouslevels?Vhdt about field research as opposed to labo-ratory based' research? How are psychologists tomake their entry into the community?

5) Technology and Skills Required. This is perhapsthe most difficult area of all. Given the overloglingfor example, cliniCal programs, how is Skill training tobe taught in community programs and what skills areto be taught? For example, in primarily communitymodels how much diagnostic testing, therapy and uterviewing as contrasted to consultation:evaluation,and organizational developmental approaches?Where are the skills to be acquired? This relates tofield training and in this area can community psy-chology training programs avoid the schism that hasoccurred in clinical programs between 'departmentsand field settings?

6) Content Areas.'Ghien wide areas, what substantivecontent areas does the model deal with and offerercourses in as well as fielt1 experiences? For example,mental health, child dihelopment, criminal justice,advocacy, psychopathblogy, aging, community or-ganization, organizationardeielopment, political. ci-ence, public health.

( 7) Format andOrganization. Where, should such, aprogram be based? In a department, in an interdisci-plinary setting, in a consortium of academiP andtraining resources? Whdt should-be the nature of fieldplacements, internships, practicum and special expe-riences? Should academic course credit be given forthem? WhO should teach theM?

Before disCussing these Seven' points, let us nowexamine the recommendations from the Vail Confer-

ence on Professional Training in Psychology in 1973

(Korman, 1974).. ,

Vail Conference

The Vail Conference was convened in order to dis-cuss issues and directions in the professional trainingOf psychologists The following were major theMes

that arose:1) Basic service orientation was recognized but

V

without abandoning ,pSychological sciencesubstantive and methodological root of antional or training' enterprise

as theedca-

2) The choice OT gaming models-is 'determined by thekinds of s its graduates will need in order td funcwtion effectively the particular roles being chosen byand for them.

3) the attainment-Of certain degrees.(A;, Bachelors,Masters, Ph.6 , or Psy.D.) qualified one to assumeroles commensurate,vided.

4) Professional roles shcietal needs and p3objesumer perspective

the`type of awing pro-

be cOncerned with so-:s, and with assessing con-

5) Admission requirements must bellexible and em-phasize cultural diversity. Programs should provide"truth in packaging" so that prospective applibants ,

are notxmeled

6) Commitment to one specific model of training wasavoided. However, emphasis was placed-oriietar___,-

gration oftraining in multiple contexts With a cle rfield and academic experiences

,7) Field training must be congruent wit the needs ofa range of 'clients in a community, prtecularly With-Asunderserved populations

8) Faculty must provide a convincing *ofessionalr le model

9 Higher level practitioners (i.e doctorates) mustfu non at higher levels including evaluation of ser-vice regrams and new procedures, design of newdelive y systems, development of new conceptualmodels, integration of practice and theory, programdevelopment and administration, and supervision andtraining

As we can see, the Austin and Vail Conferences pre-sented a series of complicated issues having rele---rvance for the raining of Asian American psycholo-gists' Some of t have already been discussed. Arecent report by Nellum end Associates (t975) is also

:relevant to our concerns. The invvgators exarrimedthe training of mental health prof nals (psycholo-gists, psychiatrists, social workers, and husses) toserve minority groups Of these professions, only so-cial work appeared to have an abundance of litera-ture, progrers, and recommendations for training.

,Training suggestions included the following

1) Move from "token" courses on minority content totheir inclusion in the core curriculum.

2) Provide educational experiences that generatesensitivity to and appreciate n of the history, kr ntage,current needs, sire , and resources o1inoritycommunities.

-3)=Help students and faculty understand development

and behavior of the group being studied, -thus ena-bling them to (1) use thiS knowledge to develop skillsin working with minority groups, and (2) developstrategies to modify the effects of political, social, andeconomic forces on rtirrority groups

4) Conceive, design and support new systems of ser-vice end/or implement changes in `e)tisting systemsthat are unresponsive to the special needs of minoris,ties.

5) Provide opportunities for students and faculty towork as co-partners in learning to develop the knowl-edge, understanding, technical competrCe, andmat commitment Joward the development' of latpotentials in communities, and a bettbqUality of life in these communities and ,,the retof-isociety

6) The t urnculum must focus on immediate socialproblems andligeds. It must stifiulate an awarenessof min rity problemseaused by economic, social andedu enema! deprivation.

7) The curriculum must be designed to stimulate thisawareness, not only at a cognitive level bate's° on anaffective levelenabling the students to understandfeelings of helplessness and powerlessness, low self-esteem, poor self-concept and how they contribute tolow motivation, rustrahon, hate, ambivalence, 'andapat , -

8) Each course should contain a consciousnessraising component, a knowledge development com-ponent and a skills component.

9) Crisis resolution treatment must be incorporated,into 'psychotherapeutic techniques as an alternative tothe traditional-5p- hour schedule.

10) Therapeutic tr inin5 must focus More activeroles as opposed to passive, "tal roles:'

11), Therapeutic ing must help mental health pro-bfessionals to evelop approaches mosrin keepingwith the needs of their patients rather than utilizingthose with which they are most comfortable.

12) Minority content must no longer be presented interms of the multiproblem family the delinquent, thenon-contributing, nqn-productivet member(s) of so-ciety. In other words, we rilliststop systematically pre-senting people as proplems or as inherently:worthless ,

and in a similar vein as creators and perpetrators oftheir own misfortunes. Curriculum content must startfocusing on the positive4spects of the (minority) ex-perience rather than or-tits deficiencies.

13) increased a.tterition must be givdn to causes andconsequences of discrimination and 'racism and therole and responsibility of mental health educators andprofessionals to. deal with these'-Obtems, 'especiallyat the policy and'practicelevels.

14) The curriculum must not ignore or downgrade theimportance of working with white groups. Thus, the

24 26

t.

46.

4.

curriculum must include the social psychology ofwhite persons' responses to social and ethnic minori-ties' struggles as well as the social psychology of var-ious minority groiips.

In addition, we have also identified some specificquestions fdr Asian Americans. Is there a sufficient

`knowledge base for Asian AmeriCan psychologycourses? Do enough field placements exist in AsianAmerican communities? Should Asian American psy-cholOgists worts, only with their own Asian group" Howimportant is the ability to speak in an Asian lan-guage? Can programs change so as to facilitatetraining?

We canwit deal with all of these questions* in anydepth. Three major' areas have been selected foranalysis. (1) the product of training, (2) the type oftraining to develop the product, and (3) the methodsby which existing programs can respond to AsianAmericans.'

Product

This topic is concerned with the kind of competenciesand expertise that has to be developed in AsianAmerican psychologists. From the preceding discus-sions, we have suggested that responsive practi-tioners and researchers are needed in Asian Amer-

. ican communities. Are we then advocating that theproduct be a scientist-professional one where stu-dents are trained as researchers and practitioners?Thi's definitely is the prevailing model in Ph.D. clinicalprograms. While the scientist-professional model isphilosophically the most appealing in view of thegreater need for research and service, the real

problem is over the definition,. of "scientist" and"practitioner." If the concept of "scientist" refers tothe developmentrof persons who conduct research onAsian Americans with ethnocentric bias'etj with littleconcern (or Asian Americans and their alight, withlittle or no.implications for application, and with littleattempt to develop culturally relevant and sensitivetheories, research instruments, and research strate-gies, then we would oppose the training model. Whatis needed are basic and applied scientists, who re-ceive training to develop culturah relevant theories,who are concerned about Asian Americans, etc. The"scientist" must also direct efforts not only at thevidual level but also at the family, community, andsocietal levels for these collectives have tremendousinfluence on Asian Americans. The list 'of possibleresearch topics is too long to enumerate. HoweveGspecial emphasis should be placed upon the solutionof major problems experienced by Asian Americans..Finally, "scientists" must work in collaboration withconeumers and community organizations in order toMaximize research benefits. To 'some extent, then,researchers must be able to form consulting relation-ships.

01'1% ;

Just as we have tried to define "scientist," we mustalso specify those "professional: aspects of the

model. It has already been mentioned that traditionalOgychotheraPeutic modes and mental health-care de-livery systems are not responding to Asian Americanneeds. The practitioner must therefor$be equipped tofind innovative and responsive techniques as aneffective behavior change and social change agent.We are concerned that despite years of lip,,service tothe notion that practitioners must understand andprovide intervention techniques that match the lifestyle of diverse groups, little has actually been doneto systematically facilitate-these techniques. It is es-sential that cultural nuances of Asian American life,family and community dynamics, and available re-sources be correctly interpreted. The "brofessionalrole may then encompass diagnostic assessment;advocacy, liaison worker, etc. As in the Vail model,individuals with a Ph.D. should be expected to per-form.in more demanding roles.

Although prima4bemphasie on the product has beento recommend new approaches and rolas, we feelthat /traditional training products, skills, and compe-

. tencies are often necessary to learn. However, theseshould not be at the expense of novel approaches tominonty group research and service.

Discussion has thus far been, focused upon thetraining products of doctoral students. It is importantto recognize that subdoctoraj students can also play avital role in serving Asian Americans. Not everyonecan obtain a Ph.D. degree. However, many subdoc-torsi Asian Americans who have experience inworking with Asian Americans, who are interested in .their groups, and who demonstrate effective skillsshould be encouraged to assume roles consistentwith their expertise. In view of the need for a diversityof skyls in research and practice, we have avoidedadvocating a narrow, specific Product: It Should alsobe recognized that the Asian American groups are`'rapidly experiencing change. Pilipinos have thehighest immigration rate to this country, the Viet-namese are encoCntering,,special problems,- AsianAmerican ghettos are increasing, the Asian American"unity", is eroding. With such changes and unpredic-tability, specific training products are hard to define.Ability to speak the ethnic lagguage is important,however, a'nd this skill shduld be advocated whmonedeals with cliirts whose main facility is in thelthnictongue rather than English.

One .final point should be- ,ratsed. Should we alsostrive to train nonAsian Americans to work with AsianAmericans? Some obviouslyifeel that nonAsian Amer-ican psychologists lack insight and credibility inAsian American communities. While we feel that pri-mary emphasis should be placed upon Asian Amer-ican students, others must be included if they develop

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the necessary skills, expertise, and credibility in

helping Asiar Americans.

Types of Training

Most Asian Americans who obtained Ph.D.'s a fewyears ago were unable,to find courses and practicimtraining with Asian Americans. It is not surprisingthen, that Asian, American facutty at few there are)in psychology and ptachcum supervisors have verylittle precedence in shaping traditional programs intoones that can respond to the needs of Asian Ameri-cans. Similar problems, of course, have been experi-enced by Blacks, Native Americans, and Spanishspeaking/surnamed groups Therefore, we would liketo offer some possible directions for the training otAsian American psychologists along with concreterecommendations, on how to actualize these direc-

, lions The following questions are examined .Hownecessary are traditional aspects of training? Whatnew academic 6Iements and field experiences areneeded for Asian American psychologists? What arethe means by 'which various training programs canrespond to Asian Americans?

'*

There is a great deal of variability in Pti.D grantinginstitutions in psychology. When Psy.D., misters, andbachelor's degree programs are included, we aredealing with a multidimensional phenomenon. De-pending upon the program, various 'combinations ofacademic ecourses, research activities, and work inpraqticum setting are required In addition, the eon-tent of training' varies according to the areas of psy-chology (i.e , clinical, community, social, counseling,developmental, personality, physiological, etc.). It isimpossible to draw specific recommendations fortraining in view of this diversity. We feel that tradi-tionalfiects of training such as the development of,diagnostic, psychotherapeutic, and.community skillsfor clinical psychologists are important to learn, par-ticularly if such skills prepare one to deal with multi-cultural populations. To the extent that training ig-nores minority groups, especially Asian Americans,then training programs iCust change.

Academic courses should include emphasis ot mi-nority groups, individual, institutional, and culturalracism, perspectives of ethnic researchers and theo-ries, etc. For Asian American students, specific con-tent on Asian Americans must be included While ithas .been asserted that the knowledge base on AsianAmericans is quite low, we feel, that the assertionshould not be used as ari excuse for avoiding the of-fering of Asian American content. First, a review ofpublished 'social science literature on Asian Ameri-cans reveals over 1,000 sources. About half of theseare relevant to the field of psychology and within thelast few years, a dramatic increase in Asian Americanresearch has appeared. Second, even though the re-,

26

search knowledge base is relatively small, this shouldbe added incentive to provide the available literature,to stimulate the search for new knowledge, and todiscuss the relevance of the research on other ethnicgroups.

The following are our recommendations for academictraining: ,*

(8a) We recommend the cross fertilization of psy-chology training programs with university or commu-nity based programs in Asian American affairs. Uni-versity programs should examine their requirementsfor substitutability or for supplemental activities.Graduate and undergraduate level programs shouldbe included.

(8b) We recommend an extension of cress universityregistration to allow the developing local or regionalprograms relevant to Asian American persons andcommunities to be fully utilized.

(8c) For Asian American students, Asian Americancontent must be offered in separate courses, inte-grated into courses on minority groups, or integratedinto psychology courses.

(8d) Training programs should view Asian Americancourses as "legitimate" ones.

(8e) If campuses have Asiankmerican studies pro-grams; students should be able to use these pro-grams of to enroll in their courses as part of training.On campuses where there are few Asi n Americanresources or communities, visiting Asi n Americanpractitioners and faculty should be invqe o conductseminars and workshops,

(8f) Training. programs should, in the very least, havereference lists, and bibliographic materials availableto interested students:An annotated bibliography isbeing developed by Stanley Suegand James Mor-ishima.

(8g) Students should' be encouraged to transfer tem-porarily to other training programs that have an em-phasis on Asian Americans. '

(ah) Universities should affirmatively hire faculty whohave expertise on Asian Americans<

(Si) Content of academic courses on Asian Americansshould vary according to the skills needed by stu7dents. The precise specialty of expertise should beleft up to the interests of students.

It is virally important that Asian American studentshave practicum experiences with Asian Americans.Therefore, exposure to Asian American communitiesshould take place in internships, traineeships, andfield work courses. This training should be supervisedby persons With expertise with Asian Americans. Con-tact with Asian Americans, in roles of therapist, re-,searcher, consultant, service organizer, etc. must be

28

encouraged. In order to facilitate practicum experi-ences, we recommend that

(8j) Training programs identify and support practicumsettings in Asian American cOmmunitres so that stu-dents can receive experience in such settings

(8k) APA affirmatively explore formal* approval ofthese practicum settings and sources of funds to sup-port them be found.

(81) Practicum settings that train other mental healthprofessionals e., pnctiatrists, socials workers, andpsychiatric nurses) be suitable for psychologists aslong as the specific psychological skills of studentsare enhanced.

(8m) Students receive training with diverse AsianAmeriban groups While it is recognized that there aresubstantial differences among Asian groups and thatwork with one's own group- is highly desirable andimportant, we simply lack enough psychologisti tomeet the needs of all Asian American groups Untilthe time arrives where a substantial number ofChinese. Japanese, Pilipino, Vietnamese, etc., Amer-ican psychologists are available for work with theirown group, students should be trained to deal withdiverse Asian groups. While we recognize(that Asiangroups often have difficiqty working 4th each other,there does not presently seem to be a better alterna-tive. Ultimately e solution resides in recruitingenough psycholo fists representing all Asian Amer-ican factions

(8n) Students should also be exposed to diverseroles. In clinical internships, assessment, \group ther-apy and individual psychotherapy are trsually theprimary skills learned. While some practicUm settingsalso offer experiences in consultation, corrimunity in-tervention, etc., we believe that the roles arid. experi-ences must be much more diverse. As mentionedpreviously, Asian American's often have certain cul-tural- resources and means of dealing with deviance.Students- should be able to bridge their more tradi-tional and professionalized skills with those recurredin Asian American communities. For example', thismay mean that psychologists be able to utilize ethnic

intermedianes,;to work with community institut?ns-^ '''and organizations, and to further develop cultural le-

sources. Asrap.Americans 'should also become ettac-tive in the political decision making process so thetlegislation affecting the psychology profession ,andAsian Americans can be influenced: \-

1

Sociiil Change in Training Programs

This last issue is concerned with affecting--hanges inexisting programs How do we goinut facilitatingrealistic changes in training programs, especiallysince such progrdms are under multiple demands, areusually resistant to change, have little knowledge ofAsian American needs, often fail to recognize theimportance of Asian American concerns, and are fre-

27

quently located in areas where there are few AsianAmericans'? The first step in facilitating change wouldbe to inform training programs of the complex issuesand concerns of Asian Americans The Vail Confer-ence served to dramatize the feelings of many mi-nority groups. We should now begin the task of sys-tematically informing training programs of AsianAmerican needs.

(9a) We redommend that the various, professionalassociations urge their constitutent committees andboards to include attention to eliminating barriers ofinstitutional racism affecting the well-being of AsianAmerican persons and institutions. '.

(9b) We recommend that the various professionalassociations urge their constituent committees and"Hoards to include attention to eliminating barriers, ofsexism affecting the well-being of Asian Americanpersons and institutions.

(9c) We recommend that the ,various professionalassociations urge their constituent committees andboards to include attention to eliminating barriers ofinstitutional legalisms such as American citizenshiprequirements to hold positions in various federal,state, and local agencies, receive training or researchgrants, and all other rights. As part,of the legalismbarriers to eliminate "foreign" training, nonaccept-ance' of foreign training be re-examined to ensure thatcompetenty is the basis of accreditation, not merelyon the basis of the foreign location of the institution orprogram. Professionals from Asian countries now lo-cated in American institutions should not be discnmr-nated against. ,s

(9d) We recommenda vigorous information and im-plementation program in federal agencies. Theseprograms should also emphasize that traineeshipsand stipends may be now open to permanent resi-dents and certain classes of other non-citizens.

(9e) We recommend the formation of FOcal or regionaldirectories of psychologists, psyChiatrists, socialworkers, pastoral counselors, shOnt personnelstaffs, community workers, physicians, and commu-nity leaders who are competent to offer direct servicesand consultation. These directories shoure6e avail-able to list the competency and experience in variousAsian American issues, cultural background andcommunity involvement. Distribution to strategic per-sons and locations should be arranged.

(9f) We redommend a committee,be formed of AsianAmerican 'researchers to develop further stimuli forfurther theory and research. Resealch and theorydevelopment can be enhanced in meetings of na-tional, regional and local professional conventions. Aset of topics can be outlined in advance for two orthree years in order for individuals to think and pre-pare papers and research. While it is,presumptious toattempt to influence the selection of topics for termpapers, master's and doctorate theses, it .has been

29

our experience that many students plough over the'same ground in each Asian group, with no cumulativeeffect, and with limited samples and inadequate toolsof measurement and concepts. A set of theoreticaland research papers detailing the possibilities in anumber of topics can reinforce replications, providestimulation and priorities for young researchers inplaces where they do not have guidance, and createframeworks to test hypotheses. The Association ofAsian American Psychologists and/or Ae AsianAmerican Mental Health Research Center Fafri Oe theorganizing focus for such activities. ,

(9g) The final recommendation that we halm con-cerning change in existing programs is intended toput some "teeth into the proNss of responding toAsian Aoffericart or other ethnic gretip needs. Thereshould be a system of reinforcement to programs thatrespond or fail to respond to minority groups in termsof recruitment and training. In order to see that pro-grams work toward, the training of ethnic psycholo-gists, we suggest that (II criteria for the award oftraining grants or stipends include consideration ofminority group issues and concerns, (2) APA strongly.use the recruitment and training of minority grouppsychologists and other affirmative action aspects asaccreditation criteria, and (3) particularly responsiveprograms be publicized as possible models for otherprograms. Because of external circumstances, pro-grams may-differ as to their ability to respond. How-ever, a genuine attempt to respond to Asian Americanand minority group needs must be demonstrated,

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Appendix B: List of Participants Amrs

Max CallaoSam ChanRobert ChinKi-Tack ChunJim CortezTim DongLloyd !nutDavis faHenry JohnsonJohn JungBok-Lim KimLuke KimHarry KitanoMargaret KokkaRamsey LitmMilani LiuChalsa LooBarbara LuiRoger LumNorman Mar ,

Tuan NguyenAline NishihareVincente NobleYukio OkanoK. Patrick OkuraRobert RyanLindbergh SataStanley SchneiderHelen SingStanley SueRichard SuinnRuby TakanishiGilfred TanabeDalmas TaylorMarion TthloyReiko TrueLeon WestHerbert WongHarry YamaguchiAlbert H. Yee

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