10.1.1.300.6194

IJRREST: International Journal of Research Review in Engineering Science and Technology (ISSN 2278- 6643) | Volume-2 Issue-1, March 2013

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Present Status of Solar Still: A Critical Review *Bhavsinh Zala, **Kuldip Dodia, ***Hitesh N Panchal

*M.E. (Thermal Engineering) Scholar, Gandhinangar Institute of Technology, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India

**Asst. Professor, Mech. Engg. Dept., Gandhingar Institute of Technology, Gandhingar, Gujarat, India

***Asst. Professor, Mech. Engg. Dept., Gujarat Power Engineering & Research Institute, Mehsana, Gujarat, India

Abstract— People can survive for day, weeks or

months without food, but cannot live for more

than a week without water. The body use water

for digestion, absorption, circulation, transporting

nutrients, building tissues, carrying away waste

and maintaining body temperature. The average

adult consumes about 2.5 to 3 litters of water per

day to drink. Solar still is a device, which can

produce water more than 2.5 Liter to 3 Liter of

water by improvement in it. Hence, this review

paper shows researches done by many scientists

on solar still to enhance productivity.

1. INTRODUCTION

Adequate quality and reliability of drinking water

supply is fundamentally needed of all people. Without

potable or fresh water, there is no human life.

Industries and agricultural need fresh water without

which they cannot function or thrive. Water is

therefore, the key to man’s prosperity; it is intimately

associated with the evolution of civilization from

rivers, lakes and ponds in plenty are becoming scarce

because of industrialization and population explosion.

2. SOLAR DISTILLATION

2.1. About Distillation

The solar distillation method is an easy, small-scale

and cost effective technique for providing safe water

at homes or in small communities. Distillation is one

of many processes that can be used for water

purification. This requires an energy input as heat and

the solar radiation can be the source of energy. In this

process, water is evaporated, thus, separating water

vapor from dissolved matter. The vapors get

condensed as pure water. A conceptual diagram

showing the process of solar still is shown in Figure

1. Most of the conventional water distillation plants

discussed earlier are energy-intensive and require

scarce electric power or fossil fuel for operation. But

solar energy, despite being much lower grade energy,

is ideally suited. The technology involved in

distillation of saline or brackish water using solar

energy is relatively simple and semiskilled/unskilled

operators can carry out its operation and

maintenance.

Fig. 1. Conceptual diagram explaining the process

of solar distillation.

Thus, for a small scale decentralized production of

potable water by using the brackish or saline water of

salinity level < 10,000 ppm or mg/l (10 ppm = 10

mg/l = 0.01 g/l). Solar distillation which is capable of

removing bacteria also, is best suited.Nature itself

provides most of the required fresh water, through a

similar hydrological cycle in which a very large-scale

process of solar distillation produces fresh water

naturally. The essential features of the hydrological

cycle can be summarized as the production of vapors

above the surface of the liquids, followed by

transport of vapors by winds, then cooling of air-

vapor mixture, condensation and precipitation. This

natural process is copied on a small scale in basin-

type solar stills shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 2. Basin-type single slope passive solar still.


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2.2. Basic Principle of double slope solar still

A solar still operates using the basic principles of

evaporation and condensation. The impure saline

feed water goes into the solar still and the sun's rays

penetrate a glass surface causing the water to heat up

through the greenhouse effect and, consequently,

evaporate. When the water evaporates inside the solar

still, it leaves all contaminants and microbes behind

in the basin. The evaporated and now purified water

condenses on the underside of the glass and runs into

a collection trough and then into an enclosed

container. In this method the salts and microbes that

were present in the original feed water to the solar

still, are left behind. Additional water fed into the

solar still flushes out concentrated waste from the

basin of solar still to avoid excessive salt deposition

in the basin. A solar still effectively eliminates all

water-borne pathogens, salts and heavy metals that

other huge methods cannot do. Solar still

technologies bring immediate benefits to users by

reducing health problems associated with water-

borne diseases. For solar still users, there is also a

sense of satisfaction in having their own trusted and

easy to use water treatment plant on-site at home. As

a thumb rule, solar still production is a function of

solar energy (insolation) and ambient temperature.

Figure 3 diagrammatically shows the principal

energy exchange mechanisms in a basin-type double

slope solar still. Solar radiation is absorbed on the

black bottom of the basin generally known as basin

liner. However, there are several reflection losses

from the cover surfaces, the water surface, and the

bottom itself. There may also be some absorption of

solar energy in the cover of the solar still.

Fig. 3. Double slope Basin type solar still with

energy flow.

2.3. Working Principle of single slope solar still

Energy absorbed on the basin bottom (basin liner) is

then largely transferred to the saline water by

conduction and convection. A small fraction of the

absorbed heat may be lost by conduction into the

ground. At the water surface, energy is transferred to

the cover by three mechanisms. The principal means

is by vaporization of water from the liquid surface.

By diffusion and convection, the vapor is transferred

to the cover, where its latent heat is liberated by

condensation. Some heat is also transferred to the

cover by free convection of the air in the distiller.

Thirdly, heat is radiated from the water surface to the

condensing cover. Figure 4 shows a single slope

basin-type solar still.

Fig. 4. Single basin- Single slope solar still.

2.4. Progress of solar still for enhancement of

distillate output

2.4.1 Free Surface Area of Water

The evaporation rate of the water in the solar still is

directly proportional to the exposure area of the

water. Thus the productivity of the solar still

increases with the free surface area of the water in the

basin. To increase the free surface area of the water,

sponges are used at the basin water.

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of the solar still with

sponge cubes.


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Bassam et al. (2003) used sponges to increase the

free surface area of the water in the solar still as

shown in Fig. 5. Due to capillary action, water is

sucked by the sponges. The sponge cubes increase

the surface area over which water evaporation occurs.

The use of sponge cubes in the basin water resulted

in a significant improvement in still production.

Experiments were carried out with various sizes of

the sponge cubes, sponge to basin water volume ratio

and water depth. The optimal combination was:

sponge cubes with 6 cm sides, 20% sponge to basin

water volume ratio and 7 cm basin water depth. It

was found that the increase in distillate production of

the still ranged from 18% to 273% compared to an

identical still without sponge cubes under the same

conditions. Velmurugan et al. (2008, 2009) found

that the productivity of the solar still increased by

15.3%, when the sponges are used in single basin

solar still and stepped solar still integrated with fin.

2.4.2 Water–Glass Cover Temperature Difference

The yield of a solar still mainly depends on the

difference between water and glass cover

temperatures. The temperature difference between

water and glass are acting as a driving force of the

distillation process. Regenerative solar still, Yousef

et al. (2004), solar still with double glasses, Mink et

al. (1998) and triple-basin solar still were used to

increase the temperature difference between glass and

the water.

2.4.2.1 Regenerative Solar Still with Double Glass

Fig. 6. Schematics of the regenerative solar still.

The regenerative solar still consists of two basins,

with provision for cooling water to flow in and out of

the second effect as shown in Fig. 6 This

arrangement has the advantages of increasing the

temperature difference between water and glass cover

in the first effect and utilizes the latent heat of water

vapor condensing on the glass of the first effect to

produce more fresh water in the second effect. The

performance of the regenerative solar still is

evaluated by comparison with the performance of the

conventional still under the same weather conditions.

The results show that the productivity of the

regenerative still is 20% higher compared to the

conventional still.

2.4.2.2 Triple-Basin Solar Still

A triple-basin solar still was fabricated by El-Sebaii

(2005). It consists of three basins namely, lower

basin, middle basin and upper basin. Water was made

available in all three basins. It was concluded that the

productivity of the lower basin is higher than the

productivities of the middle and upper basins during

the day time, and this behavior is reversed overnight.

Further, the total daily productivity of the system is

maximum for the least water masses in the lower and

middle basins without dry spots over the base of the

each effect.

2.4.3 Area of The Absorber Plate

Fig. 7. Solar still integrated with fins.

Productivity of the solar still increases with increase

in absorber area. Fins are integrated with solar still to

increase the absorber plate area. Five rectangular

solid fins Velmurugan et al. (2008) are integrated at

the basin of the solar still as shown in Fig. 7. The

area of the basin increases considerably.

Experimental results showed that the average daily

production of distilled water in solar still increases by

30%, when fins are integrated in basin of the solar

still.

2.4.4 Inlet Temperature of Water

The evaporation rate of saline water increases with

the temperature of the saline water. Flat plate

collector, storage tank, mini solar pond, multi-source,


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multi-use environment, greenhouse and, multi-

source, multi-use environment heat pipe are

integrated with the solar still to increase the

temperature of the solar still water. Higher energy

may be required to increase the temperature of the

entire solar still water. The evaporation rate is

proportional with the temperature of the free surface

area of the water only. So, baffle suspended absorber

plates are used to increase the free surface area of the

water.

2.4.4.1 Flat Plate Collector

Fig. 8. Solar still coupled with collector.

Fig. 9. Solar still coupled with flat plate collector.

A flat plate collector is integrated by Voropoulos et

al. (2001) with the solar still, to increase the

temperature of the basin water. The preheated water

from the solar collector was circulated by a tube

through the basin water. The tube is acting as a heat

exchanger and exchanging heat from the preheated

water to the basin water as shown in Fig. 8. Thus the

basin water gets heated. In an another arrangement,

as shown in Fig. 9, the basin water is directly

circulated through the flat plate collector. The various

factors influencing the productivity of a multiple-

effect diffusion-type solar still coupled with a flat

plate collector and the effect of inclination of external

flat plate collector of basin type still in winter were

studied by Tanaka and Nakatake (2005, 2007)

Fig. 10. Solar still coupled with tank and collector.

A single-stage basin-type solar still, a storage tank

and a conventional flat-plate collector were

connected together in order to study the effect of

augmentation on the still as shown in Fig. 10. The

still inlet was connected to a locally made, fin-type

collector such that its outlet was fed to the still basin

instead of the common storage tank. It was found that

the mass of distilled water production using

augmentation was increased by 231% in the case of

tap water as feed and by 52% in the case of salt water

as a feed.

2.4.4.2 Storage Tank

Fig. 11. Solar still coupled with a hot water

storage tank.

An experimental evaluation of the behavior of a solar

still is presented by Voropoulos et al. (2003) in which

a thermal storage tank with hot water is integrated as

shown in Fig. 11. The integration of the storage tank

is done in such a way that a compact solar distillation

system is formed. This design leads to higher distilled


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water output due to higher basin water temperatures

as a result hot storage tank water.

2.4.4.3 Mini Solar Pond

Fig. 12. Solar still integrated with a mini solar

pond.

Velmurugan et al. (2007, 2008) integrated a mini

solar pond with single basin solar still as shown in

Fig. 12. The mini solar pond supplied hot water to the

solar still. Thus evaporation rate of the saline water in

the solar still was augmented. The productivity of the

solar still increases by 27.6% than the conventional

solar still.

2.4.4.4 Baffle Suspended Absorber

Fig. 13. Solar still with baffle suspended absorber.

As shown in Fig. 13, a single slope single basin solar

still with baffle suspended absorber El-Sebaii et al.

(2000) was designed and fabricated, to decrease the

preheating time of the basin water. The effect of vent

area and water depth of upper and lower water

column on the daily productivity of the solar still was

studied. It was found that, the daily productivity of

the solar still is about 20% higher than that of

conventional solar still when it is used with baffle

suspended absorber.

2.4.4.5 Floating Perforated Plate

Productivity of the solar still increases with the

saturation pressure of the water. The saturation

pressure is determined by the temperature of the

basin water. To increase temperature of the free

surface area of the water, initially porous wick

material was used. During the long run of

experiments, the porous wick material would be

clogged by accumulated salt. Therefore, floating

perforated plates are used to maintain film

evaporation the still. The effect of using floating

perforated black plate on the productivity process is

investigated theoretically and experimentally at

different brine depth under the same operating

condition. It was found that using floating perforated

aluminum plate in the solar still increase the solar

still productivity by 15% for a brine depth of 3 cm

and 40% for a brine depth of 6 cm.

2.4.5 Glass Angle

Singh and Tiwari (2004) found that the annual yield

of the solar still was maximum when the condensing

glass cover inclination is equal to the latitude of the

place.

2.4.6 Depth of Water

It has been reported that the yield is maximum for the

least water depth. While maintaining minimum depth

in the solar still, dry spot may occur. So, it is very

difficult to maintain minimum depth in the solar still.

Wick type solar stills, a plastic water purifier and

stepped solar still were developed. The effect of

various depth of water in the solar still is verified by

Khalifa et al. (1990) Extreme operating condition in

shallow solar stills was studied by Porta et al. (1997).

Murugavel et al. (2007, 2010) studied an

experimental study on single basin double slope

simulation solar still with thin layer of water in the

basin.

2.4.6.1 Wick Type

Fig. 14. Wick type solar still.


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Fig. 15. Multi-wick type solar still.

Minasian and Al-Karaghouli (1995) connected a

wick type solar still with a conventional basin-type

solar still. The hot waste brine leaving the wick-type

would feed the basin type in order to extract the

energy contained in the lost hot drainage water and

thus increase the productivity of the wick-type solar

still. Fig. 15 shows the schematic diagram of the

experimental set-up. Two types of solar stills were

investigated. These were: a conventional basin type

and wick-basin type solar still. The total yearly

amounts of distilled water indicate that the wick-

basin type could produce 85% more than the basin

type and 43% more than the wick type solar still. In

multi-wick solar still, jute cloths with different

lengths are used. One end of a wet jute cloth pieces

(porous fiber) are dipped into a water reservoir while

the other ends are spread over the absorber basin as

shown in Fig 15. The jute cloth pieces are blackened

and placed one upon the other, separated by

polythene sheets. Here the wet piece of jute cloth

forms the water surface in the still. It could attain a

higher temperature due to its negligible heat capacity.

This leads to rapid evaporation of water. Surfaces

used for evaporation and condensation phenomena

play important roles in the performance of basin type

solar still.

Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of concave wick solar

still.

As shown in Fig. 16, a concave wick surface by

Kabeel AE (2009) was used for evaporation, whereas

four sides of a pyramid shaped still were used for

condensation. Use of jute wick increased the amount

of absorbed solar radiation and enhanced the

evaporation surface area. A concave shaped wick

surface increases the evaporation area due to the

capillary effect. Results show that average distillate

productivity in day time was 4.1 l/m2 and a

maximum instantaneous system efficiency of 45%

and average daily efficiency of 30% were recorded.

The maximum hourly yield was 0.5 l/hm2 after solar

noon. An estimated cost of 1 l of distillate was

0.065$ for the presented solar still.

2.4.6.2 Plastic Solar Water Purifier

Ward (2003) designed a solar water purifier, which

consists of a plastic sheet and a glass window. The

author formed the plastic into an array of

interconnected square cells which contain impure

water. In their experimental set-up there were no

filters, no electronics, no moving parts and cleaning

was also rarely needed. It was light weight, cheap

strong, durable and cheap. It can be used in any

sunny location on earth.

2.4.6.3 Stepped Solar Still

Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of a stepped solar

still.

While maintaining minimum depth in the solar still

dry spots are formed. So, maintaining minimum

depth in the solar still is very difficult. To overcome

this problem, a solar still with stepped structured

absorber plate was designed and fabricated by

Velmurugan et al. (2009, 2008) As shown in Fig. 17,

there are 50 trays in the solar still. The sizes of the

trays are 99mm×99mm cross-section with different

depth. Experiments were carried out with fins and


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sponges in the stepped solar still to enhance its

productivity.

2.4.7 Other Methods

Reflectors, condenser, vacuum technology, combined

stills, asphalt basin liner and sprinkler and sun

tracking systems are used to maximize the yield of

the solar still. Also energy storage materials like

black rubber, gravel and metallic wiry sponges are

used for enhancing the productivity of the solar still.

The effect of using different designs of solar stills on

water distillation was studied by Al-Hayek and

Badran (2004).

2.4.7.1 Reflectors

Fig. 18. Solar still with reflectors.

Tanaka and Nakatake (2006) proposed a geometrical

method to calculate the solar radiation reflected by

the internal and external reflectors and then absorbed

on the basin liner. The schematic diagram for the set

is shown in Fig. 18. They found that the internal and

external reflectors remarkably increase the distillate

productivity by 48%.

2.4.7.2 Condenser

Fig. 19. Solar still with external condenser.

An external condenser Tiwari et al. (2003) is attached

with a solar still as shown in Fig. 19 to enhance the

productivity of the solar still. The condensation

occurs due to the temperature difference not only on

the glass surface but also on the four sidewalls, which

can be cooled by water circulation through tubes

attached on the wall surface for efficiency

enhancement. Such an arrangement Khalifa et al.

(1999)is made to enhance the productivity of the

solar still as shown in Fig. 20.

Fig. 20. Solar still with internal condenser.

The maximum daily production of the solar still was

about 1.4 l/m2/day, and its efficiency was about 30%

with corresponding average solar insolation of 28

MJ/day. The condensate water quality was analysed

and was found to be comparable with water quality

standards and against rainwater and mineral water.

Increased cooling on the wall surface was observed

enhancing the condensation process. To comprise in

a nutshell, conclusions can be drawn that the

utilization of solar energy in purifying water offers a

good recommendation not only on the environmental

aspect but also on the sanitation. Per- formance study

on solar still with enhanced condensation was studied

by Kumar and Bai (2008).

2.4.7.3 Energy Storing Materials

To store the thermal energy in solar still, some

energy storing materials are used. Black rubber,

gravel, metallic wiry sponges and surfactant additives

are some of the energy storing materials used in solar

still.

2.4.7.3.1 Black rubber

The influence of the variation of the rubber sheet

thickness on the still productivity is investigated by

Nafey et al. (2001). The experimental results showed

that black rubber of 10mm thick improves the

productivity by 20% at the conditions of 60 l/m2

brine volume and 15o glass cover angle.


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2.4.7.3.2 Gravel

Fig. 21. Solar still with gravel.

Nafey et al. (2001) studied the influence of black

gravel on the productivity of the solar still. The solar

still with gravel is as shown in Fig. 21. Using black

gravel of 20–30mm size improves the productivity by

19% at the condition of 20 l/m2 brine volume and 15◦

glass cover angle. Also Velmurugan et al. (2001)

added pebbles in the solar still and found that the

productivity increased by 20% than the conventional

solar still.

2.4.7.3.3 Metallic Wiry Sponges

Fig. 22. Solar still with metallic wiry sponges.

Different types of absorbing materials like metallic

wiry sponges (coated and uncoated) and black

volcanic rocks are used to study their effect on the

yield of solar stills as shown in Fig. 22. The results

showed that the uncoated sponge has the highest

water collection during day time, followed by the

black rocks and then coated metallic wiry sponges.

On the other hand, the overall average gain in the

collected distilled water taking into the consideration

the overnight water collections were 28%, 43% and

60% for coated and uncoated metallic wiry sponges

and black rocks, respectively.

2.4.7.3.4 Surfactant Additives

The presence of surfactant additives in water is found

to enhance the boiling heat transfer significantly. The

effect of using a surfactant as sodium lauryl sulfate

(SLS) in relatively small dosages of concentration

with a small size unit of solar water distillation

process is investigated.

2.4.7.4 Vacuum Technology

The effect of vacuum inside the still is to avoid any

heat transfer due to convection in the still. The heat

loss from the water in an insulated still is due to

evaporation and radiation only. In the presence of

vacuum, the effect of the non-condensable gas, which

reduces the rate of condensation, was also avoided.

Hussaini and Smith (1995) studied the effect of

applying vacuum inside the solar still. It was found

that the solar still’s water productivity increased by

100% when vacuum was applied.

2.4.7.5 Combined Stills

Fig. 23. Schematic diagram of combined stills.

Velmurugan et al. (2009) integrated amini solar pond,

a stepped solar still and a single basin solar still as

shown in Fig. 23. They were used this experimental

set-up for effluent desalination process. Initially,

water from the effluent settling tank is allowed to

pass through the mini solar pond. While passing

through the mini solar pond, it is getting heated. The

hot effluent water enters into stepped solar still and

the distilled water is produced. The excess water

from the stepped solar still enters into the single basin

solar still. Thus, distilled water is produced in both

single basin solar still and stepped solar still.

3. SUMMARY

The orientation of glass cover is very important for

increase in productivity. Hence, north latitude places

south facing glass cover should be used and south


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latitude places north facing glass cover should be

used.

• Lower latitude places double slope solar still and

higher latitude places single slope solar still should

be used.

• Lower thickness glass cover is preferred compared

with higher thickness glass cover due to its higher

absorptions.

• Glass is most suitable material for the solar still

cover because of higher transmittance and higher

thermal conductivity.

• Day time as well as night time productivity of solar

still is greatly depends on the heat capacity and water

capacity inside the basin.

• To improve the higher absorption of the water,

black die is most preferable compared with another

dies.

• For higher radiation intensity places deep basin

solar still should be prefer for nocturnal production

and lower radiation intensity places shallow basin

solar still should be prefer.

• Rubber, gravel, saw dust and sponge cubes are good

material to store the solar energy and increase the

productivity.

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