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www e l se we r n l /l oc a t e /hngua

O n th e l ef t e d g e o f Y o r hb i c o m p l e m e n t s

R o s e - M a r i e D 6 c h a i n e

Umverslty of Brlttsh Columbta, 1866 Mam Mall,

E270, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z1

R e c e i v e d 1 O c t o b e r 1 9 9 9 , r e v i s e d v e r s i o n 1 6 J u l y 2 0 0 0

A b s t r a c t

I n S t a n d a r d Y o r~ b ~ i, s y n t a x a f f e c t s th e t o n e o f b o t h l e x l c a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l h e a d s m d i f f e r -

e n t w a y s . B e f o r e a n A c c u s a t i v e - m a r k e d c o m p l e m e n t , t he m h e r e n t l o w t o n e o f a m o n o s y l l a b i c

v e r b is s u p p r e s s e d . C o n v e r s e l y , m c e r t a in e m p t y f u n c t i o n a l h e a d p o s i t ,o n s , a ' s p u r i o u s ' h i g h

t o n e a p p e a r s B o t h p h e n o m e n a a r g u a b l y d e m o n s t r a t e th e i n t e r a ct i o n o f l a b e l e d p h r a s e - s t r u c -

t u r e w i t h t o n a l fe e t. A c c o r d i n g l y , Y o r 6 b f i p r o s o d y c o u n t s a s a n e x a m p l e o f d i re c t a c c e s s

b y p h o n o l o g y t o s u rf a c e s y n t a x , a s p r o p o s e d b y K a l s s e ( 1 9 8 5 ) a n d O d d e n ( 1 9 9 0 a ) . 2 0 0 1

E l s e v t e r S c i e n c e B . V . A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d

1 . A u d i b l e p h ra s e s t ru c t u re

S o m e f a m o u s p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s m n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e s d e p e n d o n p h r a s e

s t r u c t u r e , e . g . Ba n t u ' b o u n d a r y t o n e s ' , Ch i n e s e t o n e s a n d h i , E n g l i s h c o m p o u n d

s t res s , F rench haison, I ta l ian radoppiamento, I r i s h c o n s o n a n t m u t a t i o n , J a p a n e s e

E a r h e r v e r si o n s o f t h i s p a p e r i n c lu d e D 6 c h a m e ( 1 9 9 3 8 3 - 1 0 4 , 1 9 9 5 a ) a n d c o l lo q u i u m p r e s e n t a t i o n s

a t t il e 0 h w e r s m e s o f B r at ls fi C o f u m b l a , fbhdhn, f l o r i n , L e i d e n , M a n i t o b a a n d V l c t o n a . R e s e a r c f i w a s

s u p p o r t e d b y t h e S o c i al S c i e n c e s a n d H u m a m t i e s R e s e a r c h C o u n c d o f C a n a d a ( g r a n t s 4 1 0 - 9 6 - 1 4 4 5 a n d

4 1 2 - 9 7 M 3 0 1 6 ) , b y H u m a m t l e s a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e s g r a n t 7 0 0 6 9 f r o m U B C , a n d b y a U B C r e s e a r c h le a v e

t o a tt e n d t h e U m v e r s l t y o f ] lo r l n a n d M I T a s a V ,S lt m g s c h o l a r m 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 T h a n k s t o t w o a n o n y m o u s

r e w e we r s a nd to O Ab oh , F Ad6 k,6 y~, O . Ad6so l~ i, A . Ad6 t f igb6 , 'B . A j~ yf , Q Aj ~ 6 y ~ , A Ak ln l a b f ,

O Aw 6 b~ l f i y l , 'Y Aw 6 ya l6 , M B a m ba , A B f if fl gb6 ,s6, H D a v i s , G D , m m e nda a l , L D ow ni ng ,

K . Ha le , T . Hu ka n , H v d Hu l s t , J Ka ye , Y L~ in fr an , M. L lbe r m a n , J Lo we ns t a m m , F ,a nuw~ , V M a n-

f redl , 'K Ow61abf, F Oy~b~id6 , 'S Oy~l~ irhn, 'L Q16runy6ml, D Pu l leyb lank , J . Re nm so n, K Ru sse l l ,

I S~t~infis[,L S a xon , T S c ha d e be r g , O T S te wa r t , S Ur b a nc z y k , Q Yf asu f, c Zo l l a nd Egb ,6 E I ,6 m u u

Yu n i lo r ln . Abb r e w a t lon s . 1 /2 /3 = l s t / 2 nd /3 r d pe r son , AC C usat ive , DEMons tr atwe, Foc us , GENl tWe ,

GERund, IMPerfectlve, K

=

case , Loca t ive , NEGat ion;

Nom=nommahser;

NoMmattve, P

=

p lu r a l ,

PV = pre ve rb , RELat lve m ark er , s = s ingu la r .

037 8- 21 6 6 /01 /$ - s e e f r on t m a t t e r 2001 E l se v , e r S c i e nc e B V Al l r i gh t s r e se r ve d

P I I . S 0 0 2 4 3 8 4 1 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 2 5 - 5

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82 R -M Ddchame / Lingua 111 (2001) 81-130

p i t c h - a c c e n t. S u c h p h e n o m e n a r a is e th e q u e s ti o n o f w h e t h e r s y n t a c t ic o b j e c t s a f f e c t

p h o n o l o g y d i r e c t l y , o r w h e t h e r s y n t a x a n d p h o n o l o g y a r e m e d i a t e d b y p r o s o d i c r e p -

r e s e n t a t i o n s w h i c h a r e l e s s t h a n f u l l y s y n t a c t i c , t h o u g h t h e y m a y h a v e p h r a s a l c h a r -

a c t e r l s t i c s . S e l k i r k ' s ( 1 9 7 2 ) d i s s e r t a t i o n d e v e l o p e d t h e

indH'ect mapping

t h e o r y o f

The Sound Pattern of Enghsh

( C h o m s k y a n d H a l l e , 1 9 6 8 ) ' o n l y a s u b s e t o f p o s t -

c y c l i c p h r a s e b o u n d a r i e s a r e r e l e v a n t t o th e a p p l i c a t io n o f p h o n o l o g i c a l r u le s . ~ T h e

c o n t r a r y v i e w - direct mapping - w a s a r t t c u la t e d a r o u n d t he s a m e t i m e , i n B r e s n a n ' s

c l a i m t h a t C h o m s k y a n d H a l l e ' s ( 1 9 6 8 ) " N u c l e a r S t r e s s R u l e i s o r d e r e d

within

t h e

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l c y c l e " ( 1 9 7 1 ' 2 5 7 , e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) .

I n it s t h i rd d e c a d e , t h e d e b a t e i s f a r f r o m d o n e ( c f. B o o l j , 1 9 9 2 ). K a l s s e ( 1 9 8 5 )

a n d O d d e n ( 1 9 9 0 a ) d e f e n d d i r e c t m a p p i n g , N e s p o r a n d V o g e l ( 1 9 8 6 ) t a k e t h e c o n -

t r a r y v i e w , a n d o t h e r s h a v e p r o p o s e d h y b r i d t h e o r i e s ( S e l k l r k , 1 9 8 4 a , 1 9 8 6 ; H a l l e

a n d M a r a n t z , 1 9 9 3) M o r e o v e r , re c e n t r e a s s i g n m e n t s o f t h e f u n c t io n s o f g r a m m a h c a l

m o d u l e s i n p r i n c i p l e s a n d p a r a m e t e r s t h e o r i e s h a v e r e f r a m e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n . I n p a r -

t lc u la r , e c o n o m y - b a s e d a n a l y se s - w h e t h e r d e r lv a t lo n a l ( C h o m s k y , 1 99 5) o r r e p re -

s e n t a t i o n a l ( R l Z z l, 1 9 9 7 ) - f o r c e a r e a p p r a i s a l o f t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f t h e g r a m m a r a s

i t p e r t a i n s t o o v e r t s y n t a x , w ~ th c o n s e q u e n c e s I n t u rn f o r th e a n a l y s i s o f s y n t a x - s e n -

s it xv e p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s .

T h i s p a p e r c o n s i d e r s a u d i b l e e f f e c t s o f p h r a s e s t r u c t u r e - p r i n c i p a l l y , th e s u p p r e s -

s i o n o f l e x l c a l l o w t o n e m Y o r f i b fi - a n d a r g u e s t h a t d i r e c t m a p p i n g p e r m i t s a ' n u l l '

o r n o n s t l p u l a t i v e t h e o r y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h i n d e p e n d e n t g e n e r a h s a t l o n s m t h e g r a m m a r

( C l n q u e , 1 9 93 ). M o r e a b s t r a c t ly , p h o n o l o g i c a l a n d s y n t a c t ic r e p r e s e n t a t io n s r e s p e c t

t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r a l c o n d t t i o n s o n l o c a h t y a n d r e c o v e r a b i l i t y . M o s t a b s t r a c t l y , t h e r e

IS a c o n v e r g e n c e o f s y n t a c ti c a n d p r o s o d i c c o n d i t io n s o n t h e h c e n s m g o f n u ll p o s i -

t i o n s , i n th e f o r m o f t h e

phonosyntacttc ECP

w h i c h r e q u i r e s t h a t a n u n g o v e r n e d n u l l

f u n c t i o n a l h e a d b e p r o s o d i c a l l y s t r o n g . T h i s r e s u l t c o n v e r g e s w i t h L o n g o b a r d l

( 1 9 9 4 ) w h o a r g u e s t h a t n u l l f u n c t i o n a l h e a d s o b e y s t r i c t r e c o v e r a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n s

U n d e r s t o o d a n a l o g o u s l y , t h e

phonosynlacttc EcP

is o n e o f t he m e c h a n i s m s a v a i l a b l e

in U n i v e r s a l G r a m m a r to s a ti s fy r e c o v e r a b d i t y .

S e c t i o n 2 m t r o d u c e s t h e p h e n o m e n o n S e c t i o n 3 s u r v e y s ItS s y n t a c t ic e n v i r o n -

m e n t : t he l e ft e d g e o f c a s e - m a r k e d D P s , a s w e l l as c e r ta i n C P s . T h e f o r m e r a r e

w i d e l y d ~ s c u s s e d m t h e h t e r a t u r e , t h e l a t t e r l e s s w e l l s o . S e c t i o n 4 d e r i v e s t h e e f f e c t

f r o m t h e d i re c t c o - r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f p h o n o l o g y a n d s y n t a x , w h a t R l z z l a n d S a v o l a

( 1 9 9 2 ) c a l l

phono~yntax

: S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e p h e n o m e n o n i s a r g u e d t o r e f l e c t a r e c o v -

e r a b i h t y c o n d i t i o n o n n u ll f u n c t i o n a l h e a d s . S e c t i o n 5 c o n c l u d e s b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h is c o n d i t i o n t o o t h e r p h o n o l o g i c a l a n d s y n t a c t i c c o n s t r a i n t s .

Selklrk's m e&atlng representations are derived acco rding to an a lgorithm th at slmphfles syntactm

bracketing The sep arate theory ot LexJcal Phono logy addresses structule-sensltJve word-internal

phonology, although the distinction between ' lextcal' and 'post-lextcal ' pho nology remains problematic

(cf Bo olj and Rubach 1987) Pulleyblank (1986a 7) dlstmg msh es lextcal fiom phrasal phonology b)

charactensmg the lauer as excep tlonles,, S om e exceptlonles,, processe% e g Yor~?.tb~t eru nd re du ph ca -

tlon, are nonelheles., treated as lexlcal via feedback lo op s m stratal ordermg (A km labf and Oy6bfid6.

1987, Pu lteyblank and A km labi, 1988)

Also known as wnta.~-phrmolo~,,~ ~ohabltat;on (Ddchalne and Ma nfredk 1995)

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R - M D d ch a m e / L i n g u a 1 1 1 (2 0( 91 ) 8 1 - 1 3 0 83

2 . L - d ro p i n m o n o s y l l a b i c verb s

B a s e d o n t h e i r f o r m s i n i s o l a t i o n ( e .g . i n i m p e r a t i v e s ) , i n d e v e r b a l r o o t n o u n s a n d

i n s o m e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , Y o r f i b d m o n o s y l l a b i c v e r b s d i v i d e i n t o th r e e t o n e c l a s s e s :

l o w ( L) , m i d ( M ), h i g h ( H ). C o n s i d e r t h e g e r u n d s i n ( 1 ). 3

(1) a . m r - m 6 [ [ r n i m 5 5 ] ] L t o n e v e r b

i

G E R - k n O W

' k n o w i n g '

b . j f - j e [ [ d 3 id 3 ~ ] ] M t o n e v e r b

G E R - e a t

' e a t i n g '

c . k f -k ,6 [ [ k ~ f i ] ] H t o n e v e r b

G E R - b u i l d

' b u i l d i n g '

I n S t a n d a r d Y o r fi bf i , b e f o r e a d i r e c t o b j e c t ( D P ) , m o n o s y l l a b i c L - t o n e v e r b s a r e

p r o n o u n c e d M ( A b r a h a m , 1 9 5 8 : x i i i ; B fi ff ag b 6s & 1 9 6 7 : 2 3 ; A w 6 b f i l t l y l , 1 9 7 8 a : 5 2 ) .

C a l l th i s L - d r op . I n t h e s a m e c o n t e x t , m o n o s y l l a b i c H - a n d M - t o n e v e r b s m a i n t a i n

t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e l e x i c a l t o n e s :4

(2)

a . M o m o i1 6 e r ~. [ [ . . . m S . . . 1 1

l s k n o w h o u s e G EN 3 S

' I k n o w h i s /h e r r e s i d e n c e '

b . M o j e i lf i [ [ . . . d 3 ~ . . . ] ]

l s e a t o k r o

' I a t e ( s o m e / t h e ) o k r o '

c . M o k 6 i1 6. [ [ . . . k 5 . . . 1 1

l s b u i l d h o u s e

' I b u i l t a h o u s e '

L - d ro p i s o b l ig a t o r y b e f o r e o b j e c t D P s b e a r i n g a n y t o n e s . B u t b e f o r e a n e m b e d d e d

c l a u s e ( C P ) , a n L - t o n e v e r b s u r f a c e s w i t h e i t h e r L o r M , c o r r e l a t e d t o a d i f f e r e n c e i n

3 Data are presen ted in the or thography, which m arks L and H tones wi th grave [" ] and acu te [ ' ] accents

respectwely (B~i~g b6st , 1970a) . M tone i s unm arked m the orthography , bu t where phonet ic represen ta-

t ions m do uble brackets a re added for c lar i ty , a m acron [[-]] m &cates M. Fol low ing the co nven t ion of the

Yorfibd l inguis t ic communi ty m Nigeria , phonet ic contour tones are t ranscr ibed as sequences of leve l

tones . This makes n o c la im as to vow el length , which i s o r thogonal to presen t concerns - a l though

lmpre ss lom sucal ly vowels w i th contour tones seem longer The superscr ip t exc lam at ion ma rk represen ts

dow nstep - wha t B~,Tagb6s6 (1966b) ca l ls the " assim ilated L tone ".

4 O . Aw6b01tlyl (p .c) obse rves that L-drop fal ls to occu r m eastern dialects such as Ofid6 A ll data

reported here be long to Standard YorOb& broadly iden t i f ied wi th the &alec t o f Q y6 and i t s descendant

tow ns K eepin g to the pract ice of Yorfibfi hngm sts, I m&ca te L-drop m orthographic t ransc ript ion (as

we ll as m ph one uc doub le brackets). Th at this non -lexlc al tonal effect is reflected m the orthograp hy is

no tab le , smce gram mat ica l tone is usual ly omi t ted from wrm ng.

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84 R -M Dd( ham e / Lingua 111 (2001) 8 1-1 30

l n t e r p r e ta t m n . ( 3) s h o w s t h is w i t h a n e m b e d d e d i n & c a t w e c l a u s e i n t ro d u c e d b y th e

c o m p l e m e n b e r p d .

( 3 ) a . M o m 6 , [ p 6 a n f l b i y e n ] [ [ . . . m , 5 . . 1 ]

l s k n o w c 2 P h a v e . u s e t h a t

' I k n o w t h a t w e n e e d t h a t "

b . M o m o [pC a n i l 6 ~yen ] . [ [ . . m ,5 . . . ] ]

' W h a t I k n o w ,s t h a t w e n e e d t h a t '

T h e o p t l o n a h t y o f L - d ro p b e f o r e c l a u s e s Is n o t h m l t e d t o th e i n d i c a ti v e p d - c o m -

p l e m e n t l s e r , b u t e x t e n d s t o t h e c o m p l e m e n t l s e r k[ , a n d t o l n t e r r o g a t w e c l a u s e s i n t r o -

d u c e d b y b[. T h r o u g h o u t , t he r e t e n t m n o r n o n - r e t e n t m n o f t h e l e x lc a l L t o n e h a s

i n t e r p r e t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s .

( 4 ) a . M o g b ~ [ k f 6 l o l . [[ g b h . . . ] ]

l s r e c e i v e c 3 s g o

' I a g r e e t h a t s / h e s h o u l d g o '

b . M o g b a [ k f 6 l o] . [ [ . . . g b a . ]]

' I a c c e p t t h e s u g g e s n o n t h a t s / h e s h o u l d g o '

' W h a t 1 a c c e p t i s t h a t s /h e s h o u l d g o '

( 5 ) a . M o m 9 [ b f 6 t l p a e k lh n ]. [[ m S . . ] ]

l s k n o w w a y 3 s p v k i ll l e o p a r d

' I k n e w 0 t ) a s s o o n a s s / h e k i l l e d t h e l e o p a r d '

b . M o m 9 [ b i 6 tl p a e k f m ] [ [ . . . m 5 . . ] ]

' I k n o w h o w s / h e k i l l e d t h e l e o p a r d '

T o s u m m a r ls e " b e f o r e a D P c o m p l e m e n t , L -d r op a l w a y s a p p h e s , b e f o r e a C P

c o m p l e m e n t , L - d r o p a p p h e s o n l y o n c e r t a in l n t e rp r e t a tm n s . I n o th e r w o r d s , L - d r o p ~s

a p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s w h o s e a p p h c a t l o n i s c o n s t r a i n e d b y s y n t a x / s e m a n t i c s

A c c o r d i n g l y , a n a n a l y s i s f a c e s t w o t a s k s ( i) t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e p h o n e t i c e f f e c t o f

t o n e c h a n g e f r o m L t o M; (u ) t o c h a r a c t e r l s e t h e s y n t a c t l c o - s e m a n t i c c o n t e x t s t h a t

b l o c k o r t r i g g e r i t . A s a f i r s t s t e p , c o n s i d e r h o w e a r h e r s t u & e s h a v e a d d r e s s e d t h e s e

p o i n t s

2 .1 T h e m g h t c o n t e x t

S t a n d a r d a u t o s e g m e n t a l a n a l y s e s o f Y o r f ib 4 t o n e ( A k m l a b f , 1 9 8 5 : P u l l e y b l a n k ,

1 9 8 6a ) h o l d t h a t b o t h L a n d H a r e m a r k e d b y t o n a l f e a t u r e s i n u n d e r l y i n g r e p r e s e n t a -

t io n , w h i l e M i s t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f to n e l e s s n e s s - t h e a b s e n c e o f t o n e s p e c i f i c a t i o n

( c f. a l s o K a y e , 1 9 8 1 ). F r o m th ~s s t a n d p o i n t , t h a t L t o n e v e r b s e v e r s u r f a c e w i t h M

d o e s n o t r e q u i r e s u b s t i t u t io n o f M f o r L, b u t c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s r u l e - g o v e r n e d d e l e -

t i o n o f l e x i c a l L a n d d e f a u l t p r o n u n c m t l o n o f t h e r e s u l t a n t t o n e l e s s s y l l a b l e

A s t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e r u l e . P u l l e y b l a n k ( 1 9 8 6 a 1 1 7) p o s i t s a r i g h t - a d j a c e n t N P '

( 6 ) L - - - ~ @ / _ I v [ Y P

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R -M D~chatne / Lingua 111 (2001) 81-1 30

85

F o r a n e x a m p l e l i k e ( 2 a ), t h e d e r iv a t i o n p r o c e e d s a s f o l l o w s . I n th e i n p u t , o n l y L a n d

n t o n e s a r e s p e c i f i e d , (7 a ) . L -d r o p a p p l ie s t o m ,b ' k n o w ' , ( 7 b) . S u b s e q u e n t l y , t o n e l e s s

v o w e l s a r e a s s ig n e d M b y d e f a u l t , (7 c ).

(7) a. M o [ m o Iv [ i l 6 e r ~, ]NP INPUT

I I I

L H L

b. M o [m o ]v [ i l 6 e r ~, ]NP L-DROP

I I I

Q~ H L

c . M o [m o ]v [ i l 6 e r ~ ]N~ OEFAULTM

I I I I I I

M M M H M L

A p r o b l e m f o r ( 6 ) i s p o s e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t e m b e d d e d C P s c a n a l s o t r i g g e r t h e

r u l e . C a r s t e n s ( 1 9 8 7 : 1 0) a t t e m p t s t o h a n d l e t h i s b y r e s t a t i n g th e c o n t e x t in t e r m s o f

c a s e f e a t u r e s s o t h a t a v e r b ' s l e x i c a l L i s d e l e te d b e f o r e a n y A c c u s a t i v e X P :

(8 ) L --' ->~ / - -I v [XP+Acc

( 8 ) c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t s t h a t s i n c e D P s m u s t b e c a s e - m a r k e d , t h e y o b l i g a t o r i l y t r i g g e r

L - d r o p . B u t ( 8 ) i s f o r m u l a t e d i n a f r a m e w o r k t h a t a d o p t s t h e C a s e R e s i s t a n c e P r in c i -

p l e ( S t o w e l l , 1 9 8 1 ) , w h ic h b a n s [-W H ] c l a u s e s f r o m c a s e - m a r k e d p o s i t io n s . T h i s

in c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t s a n a s y m m e t r y b e t w e e n W H - cla us es a n d n o n - w r t - c l a u s e s : t h e f o r -

m e r s h o u l d t r i g g e r L - d ro p a n d t h e l a t t e r s h o u l d f a i l t o d o s o . T h i s e x p e c t a t i o n i s c o n -

f o u n d e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t L - d r o p i s o p n o n a l w i t h e m b e d d e d C P s o f b o t h t y p e s .

T h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s m a k e s f i v e c l a im s . F i r st ( f o l l o w i n g P u l l e y b l a n k ) , L -d r o p as

s y n t a x - s e n s i t i v e . S e c o n d ( f o l l o w in g C a r s t e n s ) , i t s i g n a l s c a s e a s s ig n m e n t . T h i r d , i t s

a p p a r e n t o p t i o n a l i t y w i t h e m b e d d e d C P s r e f le c t s a s tr u c tu r a l a m b i g u i t y : n o m i n a l i s e d

C P s t r i g g e r L -d r o p , b a r e C P s d o n ' t . F o u r t h , t h e f a c t t h a t p o l y s y l l a b i c L - to n e v e r b s a r e

a f f e c t e d d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m m o n o s y l l a b i c o n e s r e f l e c t s i n d e p e n d e n t d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n G e n i t i v e a n d A c c u s a t i v e c a s e a s s i g n m e n t . F i f t h ( f o l l o w i n g M a n f r e d i ,

1 9 9 5b ), a m e t r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t o n e m a k e s p o s s i b le a n u l l t h e o r y o f s y n t a c t i c a l ly c o n -

d i t i o n e d L - dr o p. T a k e n t o g e t h e r , t h e se c l a i m s r e q u i re a m o d e l o f g r a m m a r i n w h i c h

s y n t a x a n d p h o n o l o g y m e e t d i r ec t ly .

2.2. Try the direct appro ach

I f L - d r o p i s a s y n t a x - s e n s i t i v e c a s e - m a r k in g r u l e , t h e n i t e n t a i l s m a p p in g a s y n -

t a c t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o n t o a p h o n o l o g i c a l o n e . T h u s , w e m u s t a s k w h i c h c o m p o n e n t

o f t h e g r a m m a r r e g u l a te s c a s e , a n d c o n s i d e r h o w L - d ro p , as a p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c es s ,

c a n a c c e s s t h i s i n f o r m a t io n . I n t h e p r in c ip l e s a n d p a r a m e t e r s f r a m e w o r k s , t h e r e i s

g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t t h a t c a s e i s a c o n f ig u r a t i o n a l p r o p e r t y : a g iv e n D P i s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h a g iv e n c a s e i f th e D P o c c u p i e s a p o s i t i o n r e l a t iv e t o s o m e l o c a l h e a d ; c a l l t h i s

a c a s e - r e l a ti o n . T h u s , t h e t a s k is to d e t e r m in e t h e n e c e s s a r y a n d s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n s

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f o r a c a s e - r e l a ti o n t o h o l d . T h e s o l u t io n c a n b e c a s t i n a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l o r a d e r i v a -

t io n a l m o d e l . T h i s p a p e r a d o p t s t h e r e p r e s e n t a ti o n a l c a s e t h e o r y o f B i t t n e r a n d H a l e

( 1 9 9 5 ). A s s u m i n g t h is m u c h , w e c a n a s k h o w a p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s s u c h a s L - d ro p

c a n a c c e s s t h e s y n t a c t i c s t ru c t u r e r e l e v a n t f o r c a s e .

C o n s i d e r th e m o d e l i n ( 9 ) , i n w h i c h t h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n s y n t a c ti c a n d p h o n o l o -

g i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i s m e d i a t e d b y p h o n o s y n t a x . A t s u c h a l e v e l , s y n t a c t i c a n d

p h o n o l o g i c a l r e p re s e n t a ti o n s m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d a s h o l d i n g c o n c u r r e n t l y , o r e l se p e r -

h a p s a s o r d e r e d r e l a t iv e t o e a c h o t h e r .

(9 )

D i r e c t m a p p i n g t h e o r y

NON-PHONOLOGICAL S-REPRESENTATION

PHONOSYNTAX

l a b e le d s y n t a c ti c b r a c k e t i n g o f w o r d - l e v e l P - r e p r e s e n t a ti o n s

NON-SYNTACTIC P-REPRESENTATION

I n d i r e c t m a p p i n g t h e o r i e s e x c l u d e t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e i n ( 9 ) , a n d a c c o u n t f o r s y n t a x -

s e n s i t i v e P - r u l e s b y a p p e a l i n g t o a l e v e l o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n w h i c h s y n t a c t i c i n f o r -

m a t i o n i s o n l y p a r t i a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d ; t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e a d j u s t e d S - r e p r e s e n t a -

t i o n i n ( 1 0 ) . T h e c l a i m i s t h a t o n l y s y n t a c t i c i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

i n d e p e n d e n t l y m o t i v a t e d p r o s o d i c c o n s t r a i n t s i s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p h o n o l o g y . F o r

e x a m p l e , i t h a s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t p h o n o l o g y i s s e n s i t i v e t o e d g e s , b u t n o t t o p h r a s a l

c o n s t i t u e n t s o r t o c a t e g o r y l a b e ls ( N e s p o r a n d V o g e l , 1 9 8 6 ; S e l k i rk , 1 9 8 6 ) .

( 1 0 )

I n d i r e c t m a p p i n g t h e o r y

NON-PHONOLOGICAL S-REPRESENTATION

I PR OS OD ICA LLY DJUSTED S-REPRESENTATION(S)

[ N O N - S Y N T A C T I C-REPRESENTATION ]

T h e s c h e m a s i n ( 9 ) a n d ( 1 0 ) r e p r e s e n t s t r o n g v e r s i o n s o f d ir e c t a n d i n d i r e c t m a p -

p i n g . I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o c o u n t e n a n c e a h y b r i d t h e o r y , a s i n ( l l ) , w h e r e s o m e P -

r u l e s r e s u l t f r o m a d i r e c t m a p p i n g b e t w e e n s y n t a x a n d p h o n o l o g y , w h i l e o t h e r P -

r u l e s r e s u l t f r o m a m e d i a t e d S - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . 5

s Su ch a theo ry is adopted by Selklrk (1984a: 34 ), who recognizes the existence of P-rules tha t are

directly determined by S-representations (he r S-structure), as we ll as P-rules that app ly to adjusted rep-

resentations (her Sn" and Sn"). In Selklrk's m odel, Focus rules and the Sense U nit Condition require PF

to fee d back in to LF. In a theory where phono logy is syntax-sensitive, foc us intonation wou ld be read

off o f ov ert syntax, and so wou ld automatically hav e LF consequences.

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87

(11) Hybrid theory

NON-PHONOLOGICAL S-REPRESENTATION

PHONOSYNTAX

labeled syntactic bracketing of word-level P-representations

PROSODICALLY ADJUSTED S-REPRESENTATION(S)

NON-SYNTACTIC P-REPRESENTATION

How does L-drop bear on the status of syntax-sensitive P-rules? Following

Selkirk (1984a), if a P-rule refers to labeled syntactic bracketing, then it is directly

conditioned by S-representation. Recall that both Pulleyblank's and Carstens' ver-

sions of L-drop crucially refer to labeled syntactic bracketing, so i f they are correct,

L-drop motivates a level of phonosyntactic representation. This finding is

prima

facie

consistent with either a strong theory of direct mapping, or with a hybrid the-

ory, but not with a strong theory of indirect mapping.

Exactly the opposite conclusion is drawn by Hayes (1990), who argues that rules

such as YorOb~i L-drop, which seem to be syntax-sensitive, "are actually lexical

rules, which precompile allomorphs for insertion in particular phrasal contexts"

(Hayes, 1990: 103). This allows him to retain a strong version of indirect mapping,

but at the cost of reintroducing syntactic information elsewhere in the grammar. By

nature, pre-compiled rules are restricted to a particular diacritic lexical class (Hayes,

1990: 95). Thus, a pre-compilation analysis ~ la Hayes necessarily denies that L-

drop is related to other tone processes in Yor0b~i, in particular H-insertion. With this

in mind, the next two sections demonstrate that L-drop is irreducibly phonosyntac-

tic in nature, requiring a model of grammar where phonology has direct access to

syntax.

3 . Th e s yn ta x o f L - d rop

L-drop is obligatory before a DP complement (3.1), but optional before a CP

complement, with a corresponding difference in interpretation (3.2). The targets of

L-drop are surveyed in 3.3.

3.1 DP complements

Starting from Carstens' (1987) claim that L-drop is the reflex of Accusative case-

marking, a theory of case is introduced and the labeled syntactic bracketing which

triggers L-drop is identified (3.1.1). Confirmation that L-drop applies to labeled syn-

tax comes from its sensitivity to both the complement/non-complement distinction

(3.1.2) and to complement type (3.1.3).

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3 1 1 A c c u s a t i v e c a s e - m a r k m g

C a s e c a n b e i n f o r m a l l y d e f i n e d a s a r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a h e a d a n d a d e p e n d e n t ,

w h e r e h e a d c o r r e s p o n d s t o a m o r p h o s y n t a c t l c s y n t a c t i c h e a d s u c h a s V o r I n fl , a n d

d e p e n d e n t t o D P T h e h e a d i s t h e ' s o u r c e ' o f t h e c a s e f e a t u r e , e .g . I n f l is a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h N o m i n a t i v e , t r a n s i ti v e v e r b s w i t h A c c u s a t i v e . T h e d e p e n d e n t D P b e a r s a c a s e

w h o s e v a l u e i s d e t e r m i n e d b y th e p o s i t io n it o c c u p i e s i n t h e s tr u c t u re , l o o s e l y a D P

I'S a s s o c i a t e d w i t fi N o m i n a t i v e i f i t i s i n ti le v i c i n i t y o f f n f f ( i .e . , i n s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n ) .

a n d A c c u s a t i v e i f i t i s i n t il e v i c i n i t y o f V ( i. e. , f n o b j e c t p o s i t io n ) W f i e n t h e p o s i -

t i o n t h a t a D P o c c u p i e s d e t e r m i n e s t h e c a s e t h a t it b e a r s , it is o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s

' s t ru c t u r a l c a s e ' ( C h o m s k y , 1 9 8 1) . F o r c o n c r e t e n e s s , t h is p a p e r a d o p t s th e t h e o r y o f

B l t t n e r a n d H a l e ( 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e i r p r o p o s a l d i s t in g u i s h e s t w o t y p e s o f s tr u c tu r a l c a s e :

u n m a r k e d a n d m a r k e d , w i t h th e f o r m e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a b a r e D P , a n d th e l at te r

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a D P c o n t a i n e d w i th a K a s e P h r a s e ( K P ) J ~ I n a N o m i n a t i v e /

A c c u s a t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n , N o m i n a t i v e is t h e u n m a r k e d s t r u c t u ra l C a s e ( = D P ) , w h i l e

A c c u s a t i v e i s t h e m a r k e d s t r u c t u ra l C a s e ( = D P i n t r o d u c e d b y K P ) . A c c u s a t i v e i s a

f e a t u r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a K w h i c h h e a d s a K P p r o j e c t i o n b e t w e e n V a n d D P . N o m i -

n a t i v e , b y c o n t r a s t , is a f e a t u re a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s o m e f u n c t i o n a l h e a d a b o v e V P ( f o r

Y o r h b f i at l e a st , th i s s e e m s t o b e T ). K ' s A c c u s a t i v e f e a t u r e 1s a s s i g n e d u n d e r l e x i c a l

h e a d g o v e r n m e n t , w h i l e T ' s N o m i n a t i v e f e a tu r e is a s s i g n e d u n d e r S p e c i f i er - h e a d

a g r e e m e n t , c f ( 1 2 ). 7

( 1 2 )

T P

J %

D P T

T V P

[NOMI

V K P

K D P

[ACCl

I f t h e la b e l e d b r a c k e t i n g r e l e v a n t f o r A c c u s a t i v e c a s e a s s i g n m e n t is ( 1 3 ), a n d i f

L - d r o p w i th v e r b s i s t h e re f l e x o f A c c u s a t i v e c a s e - m a r k i n g , t h e n t h is l a b e l e d b r a c k -

e t i n g i s t h e d e s c r i p t i v e c o n t e x t f o r L - d r o p .

+ ' L a m o n ta g n e - a n d T ,- a~ ~ 1 9 ~7 ) d lx o - p r o W , ' ~ a" KP " s ir a~ -r mx: -, {Ta t h ' , r f i ~m- , a l l " c w ;e w r r d r k e ~ m - g - a m~W ,

a re K P s F o r B l t t n e r a n d H a l e , o n ly ' m a r k e d s ir u c l u ra l c a se " ( E r g a i w e . A c c u s a l w e ) a n d m h e r e n l c ~ s e

( G e n i t i v e . D a t w e . e t c ) i s r e a f i z e d t~v K- P H i e p r e s e n - P a t lo r r 111 [ f ie l I f a l l l I~ JKI Ix, d SllT[p/:lfit~aI'lolI (Ii [flu

B l l t n e r an d H a l e p r o p o s a l

v A l t e l ' n a lv e e l ? ; c a n e " c a l f b e" mw f o n ' n - ly th' e- at ed - a s a i'c, m- a] ~%-ai'm-e"ow ,c Pan-ct-am-a'l" Ir~ ad: so- i 'Irai all"ca~,e"

r e l a ti o n s a re S p e c - H e a d c o n f i g u r a t i o n s (e g , C h o m s k y . 1 9 95 ) A l t h o u g h t h e K P n o t a t i o n is t r a n s la t a b l e

i n t o a S p e c - H e a d i h eo L y o f c a s e, flT e t w o a i l a l y s e s m a k e & f f e r e n l N e e h c n ~ m s a N m l p o s s J h l e p h o n o s y n -

t a c t i c in t e r a c t i o n s e s p e c i a l l y a s r e g a r d s A c c u s a t i v e c a s e T h i s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e b r o a d e r q u e s i i o n o f h o w

t ; ) - t r e a t s u b je c f f o b j e c t - a . ~? i mw e tn e - ~ a na l- i r e a d : g x ~ e Tm n e - l r c rf f m- m mc a i r q - h =n -r re ~u- ck s t c i - ~k ~r n' ,i ~z /m

1 9 9 5 )

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(1 3) . . - ]v [KP.- .

3.1.2. So me complement ~non-comp lement asymmetri es

N o m i n a l c o m p l e m e n t s t r i g g e r L - d r o p , n o m i n a l a d j u n c t s d o n ' t ( A w 6 b t d t ~ y L

1 9 9 2 b ; A w 6 y a l 6 , 1 9 9 7 a ), c f. (1 4 ). T h e r e a r e e v e n m i n i m a l p a i r s w h e r e o n e a n d t h e

s a m e n o m i n a l e x p r e s s i o n t r i g g e r s L - d r o p a s a n a r g u m e n t b u t n o t a s a n a d j u n c t o r

a d v e r b i a l m o d i f i e r , ( 1 5 ) .

( 1 4 ) a . 0 j a o g u n m 6 t a y ] i.

3 s f ig h t w a r t h r e e DEM

' S / h e w a g e d t h e s e t h r e e w a r s ' ( c f . A b r a h a m , 1 9 5 8 : 3 3 7 )

b. 0 f i j~ p~ti-p~tL 8

3 s IM P f i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n

' S / h e i s f i g h t in g d o g g e d l y ' ( A b r a h a m , 1 9 5 8: x i i l)

(15 ) a . M o t a j~ ibu - j~bu .

l s s e ll u n i m a g i n a b l e

' I s o l d u n i m a g i n a b l e t h i n g s ' ( i . e . e v e r y t h i n g y o u c a n t h i n k o f )

b . M o t a j ~ i b u -j a b u .

l s s e ll u n i m a g i n a b l e

' I s o ld ( m y w a r e s ) i n c r e d i b l y ' ( i. e. v e r y s u c c e s s f u l l y )

T h e s e c o n t r a s t s s h o w t h a t L - d r o p I s s e n s i t i v e t o t h e c o m p l e m e n t r e l a t i o n . I n t e r m s

o f b r a c k e t e d s t ri n gs , a c a s e - m a r k e d c o m p l e m e n t i s s e p a ra t e d f r o m V b y o n e r ig h t -

h a n d b r a c k e t ( . . . ] v [ K P..- ), w h e r e a s a n a d j u n c t i s tw o r i g h t - h a n d b r a c k e t s a w a y

( . . . ] v ] v P [ N P . . . ) .

A c o m p l e m e n t / n o n - c o m p l e m e n t a s y m m e t r y a p p e a rs w i t h g e ru n d s t o o ( A b r a h a m ,

1 9 5 8 : x i li , 3 0 6 , 4 2 5 ) . G e r u n d s a r e f o r m e d b y p r e f i x a l C V r e d u p l i c a t io n p l u s a g r a m -

m a t i c a l H t o n e. R e l e v a n t h e r e i s t h e s u r f a c e t o n e o f t h e v e r b r o o t . I f L - d r o p o c c u r s ,

t h e D P f o l l o w i n g t h e g e r u n d is c o n s t r u e d a s th e o b j e c t / t h e m e o f th e g e r u n d , ( 1 6 a ) . I f

t h e l e x i c a l L - t o n e o f th e v e r b i s p r o n o u n c e d , t h e D P g e t s s u b j e c t / a g e n t c o n s t r u a l a n d

G e n i t w e c a s e , ( 1 6 b ) . 9

( 1 6 )

a . [ G b f - g b o n i y ~ ,f u n n ~i~ t k t l r b n i n f i h p b y ) f ] s b r o . [ [ g b f g b S . . . ] ]

G E R - s h a k e f l o u r t h e l e a v e L o c . m s l d e b a g t h i s d i f f i c u l t

' S h a k i n g t h e f l o u r o u t o f t h i s b a g i s d i f f i c u l t '

b . [ G b f - g b b n o n m 6 t b y l f]

ja mi laaya. [[gblgb~55...]]

G E R - s h a k e G EN c a r t h i s s t r i k e l s L O C . c h e st

' T h e c a r ' s s h a k i n g f r i g h t e n e d m e '

s The Afncamst hterature describes i tem s l ike piti-piti as ldeop hones. They are variously translated

into Enghsh as adjectives or adverbs and the ir syntactic category is a m atter of debate (cf Q Stewart,

1998, A w6y al6, 1998).

9 The vo w el of the g erund prefix is z, arguably Yor~b~'s unmarked vowel (Aw6bf~ltlyl, 1978a, Pulley-

blank, 1988a, 1998) Ge m tlve in Y or~bfi shows up m the form o f a M-tone mora, w hich acqmres seg-

men tal content from the preceding vo w el In (16b ), the relevant vow el is [[5]], which Yor~bfi orthogra-

phy spells on

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9 0

R -M Dd(halne / Lmgua III (2001) 81-130

T h e c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y b e t w e e n L - d r o p a n d G e n i t i v e c a s e c o n f i r m s t h e c l a i m t h at L-

d r o p r e q u i re s A c c u s a t i v e c a s e - m a r k i n g . M o r e o v e r , i f n o m l n a h s e r s f r e e l y a t ta c h to

d i f f e r e n t l a y e r s o f a v e r b p r o j e c t i o n ( A b n e y , 1 9 8 7 ) , t h e n t h e c o n t r a s t s i n ( 1 6 ) c a n b e

a c c o u n t e d f o r in t e r m s o f w h e r e t h e g e r u n d a t ta c h e s .

I f t h e g e r u n d i v e p r e f i x a t t a c h e s t o V P , a s in ( 1 7 a ), s u c h a n o m m a l i s a t i o n h a s t h e

e x t e r n a l s y n t a x o f a n o m i n a l ( L e ., i t m a y o c c u r in a r g u m e n t p o s i t i o n ) b u t r e t a in s t h e

i n t e r n a l s y n t a x o f V P I n p a r t i c u l a r , V P n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s a t i s fi e s t h e st r u c tu r a l c o n d i -

t i o n s f o r L - d r o p ( . .. ] ~ [K ~. - )- T h e o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y IS t h a t t h e g e r u n d i v e p r e f i x

a t t a c h e s t o V , a s i n (1 7 b ) . T h i s t y p e o f n o m i n a h z a t i o n h a s t h e e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l

s y n t a x o f N . C r u c i a l l y , s i n c e K P i s n o t s i s t e r t o V , t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r A c c u s a t i v e L -

d r o p a r e n o t s a t i s f i e d ; i n s t e a d G e n i t i v e i s a s s i g n e d .

( 17 ) a N o m P b . N o m P

g e ru n d V P N o m P K P

f

I V K P g e r u n d V K D P

I I I r i I I

gb[- gbo,n iy~ un ndd gb[- gbOn on mdtC) yi[

s h a k i n g t h e f l o u r . a c e s h a k i n g G EN tl~ e c a r

T h e s e & f f e r e n c e s i n c a s e a s s i g n m e n t c o r r e l a t e w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e t h e m a t i c r o l e

a s s i g n e d t o t h e p o s t - n o m i n a l K P . I n ( 1 7 a ) K P i s c o n s t r u e d a s a t h e m e ( t h e f l o u r i s

b e i n g s h a k e n ) , b u t i n ( 1 7 b ) K P i s c o n s t r u e d a s a p o s s e s s o r / a g e n t ( t h e c a r i s d o i n g t h e

s h a k i n g ) . T h i s l e a d s to t he f o l l o w i n g t w o g e n e r a l i z a t io n s f o r n o m i n a h s e d L - to n e

v e r b s ( M a n f r e d i , 1 9 9 2 b , D d c h a i n e , 1 9 9 3 ). F ir s t, i f a n o m l n a h s e d v e r b lo s e s it s l e x l -

c a l L - t o n e , i t i s c o n s t r u e d t r a n s i t i v e l y a n d t h e p o s t - n o m i n a l K P i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s

o b j e c t / t h e m e ; t h is i s V P - n o m l n a l i s a t i o n . S e c o n d , i f a n o m l n a l i s e d v e r b r e ta i n s it s

l e x i c a l c - t o n e , t h e n i t i s c o n s t r u e d i n t r a n s i t i v e l y , a n d t h e p o s t - n o m i n a l K P h a s a s u b -

j e c t / p o s s e s s o r / a g e n t i n t e r p r e ta t i o n ; t h is i s V - n o m l n a h s a t l o n .

T h e s e c o m p l e m e n f f n o n - c o m p l e m e n t a s y m m e t r i e s s u p p o r t th e c l a im t h a t L -d r op is

t h e re f le x o f A c c u s a t i v e c a s e - m a r k i n g . N o m i n a l c o m p l e m e n t s t r i g g e r A c c u s a t i v e L -

d r o p , n o m i n a l a d j u n c t s d o n ' t . V P - n o m l n a h s a t l o n s a ti s fi e s t h e s tr u c tu r a l c o n d i ti o n s

f o r A c c u s a t i v e L - d r o p , V - n o m i n a h s a t l o n d o e s n o t .

3 1 .3 DP - types and the necessary condi t ions fo r L-drop

C l a s s i c a l c a s e t h e o r y ( e .g . v a n R i e m s d i j k a n d W i l li a m s , 1 9 8 6: 2 5 6 ; H a e g e m a n ,

1 9 9 1 : C h . 3 ) d i v i d e s a r g u m e n t - p o s i t i o n s i n to c a s e - m a r k e d a n d c a s e l e s s . T h e p r e d i c -

t i o n i s t h a t w h e n e v e r a D P o c c u p i e s a n A c c u s a t i v e c a s e - m a r k e d p o s i t i o n i t s h o u l d

t r i g g e r L - d r o p , b u t t h e o b s e r v e d s i t u a t i o n i s m o r e c o m p l e x , c f . ( 1 8 )

C a s e d ? P - w o r d ? L - d ro p ?

(18 ) a . O v er t D P YES YES YES

b . T r a c e o f A - b a r m o v e m e n t ( = W H - tr ac e ) YES

c . P r o n o m i n a l c l i t ic Y ES

d . T r a c e o f A - m o v e m e n t ( = ' N P - t r a c e ' ) NO

e . Su bJec t PRO NO

N O N O ]

I

N O N O j

N O N O

NO (n/a)

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( 1 8 ) s h o w s t h a t th e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s fo r L -d r o p a re b o t h s y n t a c t i c - t h e t ri g -

g e r m u s t o c c u p y a c a s e - m a r k e d p o s i t i o n - a n d p r o s o d i c - t h e t r ig g e r m u s t b e a

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d . C o n s id e r h o w t h e c o n t e x t s in ( 1 8 ) s a t i s f y ( o r f a i l t o s a t i s fy ) t h e s e

t w i n c o n d i t i o n s . L -d r o p a p p li e s c o n s i s t e n t l y b e f o r e o v e r t D P ' s t h a t n e e d c a s e , a s

i l l u s t r a t e d a b o v e . T h i s e x t e n d s t o

in sttu

W H - w o r d s , a s i n a n o b j e c t e c h o q u e s t i o n :

( 1 9 ) a . O r a k f n i ? [ [ . . . r ~ . . . ] ]

b u y w h a t

' Y o u b o u g h t W H A T ? ' ( e c h o q u e s t i o n )

b . *O r?a k fn i? [ [ . . . r~ . . . ] ]

B u t L -d r o p f a i l s w i t h A - b a r m o v e m e n t (C a r s t e n s , 1 9 8 7 : 5 ; Y f i s u f, 1 9 8 9 ), e . g . W H -

m o v e m e n t , f o c u s - m o v e m e n t a n d r e l a t i v i s a t i o n , ( 2 0 ) . T h e s t a n d a r d v i e w o f A - b a r

c h a in s i s t h a t t h e h e a d i s [ - c a s e ] a n d t h e t a i l i s [ + c a s e ] . T h i s m e a n s t h a t a n o b j e c t

W H - t r a c e i s c o n t a in e d i n a K P . A l t h o u g h t h i s c o n f ig u r a t i o n s a t i s f i e s t h e s y n t a c t i c

c o n d i t i o n f o r L -d r o p, i t f a i ls t h e p r o s o d i c c o n d i t i o n : b y d e f i n i ti o n , a n e m p t y c a t e g o r y

l i k e W H - tra ce i s n o t a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d .

(20)

a . Kf i ni o r~ t i ?

w ha t FOC 2S bu y

' W h a t d i d y o u b u y ? '

b . I sui nl m o r~ t i

y a m F O l s b u y

' Y a m i s w h a t I b o u g h t '

c . isu , t f o r~ t~ . . .

y a m c 2 s b u y

' th e y a m t h a t y o u b o u g h t . . . '

A n o t h e r c o n t e x t w h e r e L - d r o p f a i l s t o a p p l y i s w i t h o b j e c t c l i t ic s , (2 1 ) . C h t i c s a r e

c a s e - m a r k e d a r g u m e n t - t y p e e x p r e s s i o n s , b u t t h e y a r e n o t p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s . S i n c e

t h e t r i g g e r m u s t b e a c a s e d i n d e p e n d e n t w o r d , c l i t l c s a r e c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t e d n o t t o

t r igger L-drop .

(2 1) l s m i K b m 6 m r. [ [ . . . m S m i l ] ]

2 s ,e /o K b m 6,6 /6 . [ [ . . . m S ~ / . . . m 5 5 5 ] ]

3 s O K b m 6 fin . [ [ . . . m 5 5 ] ]

1P w a K b m 6 w~i. [ [ . . . m S w~t~i]]

2 P y f n K b m b y f n. [ [ . . . m ~ j a ~ ] ]

3P w on K b m 6 w6 n. [ [.. .mSrjW5 5] ]

' S / h e d o e s n ' t k n o w X '

T o v e r i f y t h a t t h e f a i l u r e o f L -d r o p w i t h t h e s e o b j e c t p r o n o m i n a l s i s d u e t o t h e i r

c l i t l c s t a t u s r e q u i r e s i n d e p e n d e n t e v id e n c e t h a t t h a t t h e y a r e i n d e e d c l i t i c s . A n a l y s e s

o f R o m a n c e - t y p e c l i t i c s p u t t h e m m a n A - p o s i t i o n , a n d p o s i t s u c c e s s i v e D P a n d D

m o v e m e n t s ( K a y n e , 1 9 9 0 ; C h o m s k y , 1 9 9 5; S p o r t ic h e , 1 9 9 8 ). A t f ir s t g l a n c e ,

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92

R - M D & h a m e / L i n g u a I I I ( 20 0 1) 8 1 - 1 3 0

Y o r h b f i c h t l c s d o n o t e x h i b it D - m o v e m e n t e f f ec t s s i n ce t h e y o c c u p y t h e s a m e l in e a r

p o s i t i o n a s p h r a s a l a r g u m e n t s . Y e t m a n y r e a s o n s s ti l l e x i s t t o d l s t i n g m s h t h e m . F i r st ,

Y o r /a b fi c h t l c s f a i l s t a n d a r d s y n t a c t i c te s t s o f i n d e p e n d e n t w o r d s ( B f i r h g b d s 6 , 1 9 6 7 :

P u l l e y b l a n k , 1 9 8 6 b : 4 9 ; c f K a y n e , 1 9 7 5 ) : t h e y c a n ' t b e m o d i f i e d , c o n j o i n e d .

f o c u s e d o r t o p i c a h s e d , w h i l e t h e in d e p e n d e n t f o r m s p e r m a t a ll t h e s e th i n g s S e c o n d ,

c h t i c s d i ff e r f r o m t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n d e p e n d e n t p r o n o u n s in t e r m s o f t h ei r

p r o s o d y , m o s t c h t l c s la c k i n h e r e n t to n e , w h al e t h e i n d e p e n d e n t f o r m s c o n s i s t e n t ly

s h o w a LM t o n a l m e l o d y . F u r th e r , c h t l c s a r e e it h e r V o r C V , w h a le t h e i n d e p e n d e n t

f o r m s h a v e th e c a n o n i c a l V C V s te m s h a p e o f o r d i n a ry n o u n s '

( 22 ) A C C C L I T I C S I N D EPE N D E N TPRONOLNS

l s m t b -m 1

2s ,e/o, i - w o

3 s O 6 - u n

lP w a h - w a

2 P y f n ~ - y m

3 P w o n h - w o n

i I

R e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l l y , t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n i n d e p e n d e n t a n d c h t lc p r o n o u n s i n

Y o r h b f i c a n b e r e d u c e d t o a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n p h r a s a l a n d n o n - p h r a s a l c o n s t i t u e n t s

T h e t o n a l , s e g m e n t a l a n d d i s tr i b u t io n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f i n d e p e n d e n t f o r m s q u a h f y t h e m

a s p h r a s a l A s i l lu s t ra t e d i n ( 2 2 ), th e r e la t io n b e t w e e n i n d e p e n d e n t p r o n o u n s a n d c o r -

r e s p o n d i n g o b j e c t c ll ti c s is t r a n s p a r e n t : e x c e p t f o r th e l m t I a l v o w e l , th e l a tt e r a r e

s e g m e n t a l l y i d e n t ic a l t o t h e f o r m e r . T h e i ni ti al v o w e l o f t h e in d e p e n d e n t p r o n o u n s ts

p l a u s ib l y a D e t e r m i n e r - l ik e p o s i t io n , w h i le t h e C V c o m p o n e n t o f t he p r o n o u n o c c u -

p i e s a n o m i n a l p o s m o n , ( 2 3 a ) . ~ T h a s is c o n s a s t e n t w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t n o u n - i n i t ia l

v o w e l s a r e v e s t i g e s o f o l d n o u n c l a ss p r e f i x e s ( W e l m e r s , 1 9 7 3 : S t a h lk e , 1 9 7 6 .

W f l h a m s o n , 1 9 7 6 , A k f n k u g b 6 , 1 9 7 8 , A w 6 b ~ l t iy ] , 1 9 9 7, S 6 t d 6 y b , 1 9 9 7) . S u p p o s e

t h e n t h a t a n o b j e c t c l m c is w h a t i t s e e m s : t h e t r u n c a te d f o r m o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t p r o -

n o u n . S p e c i f i c a l l y , a n o b j e c t c l l t t C i s a b a r e N - h e a d i n a D - p r o j e c t i o n w h e r e D l a c k s

c o n t e n t , ( 2 3 b ) l~ A c c o r d i n g l y , th e f a il u r e o f I - d r o p w a th A c c u s a t w e c h h c s f o l l o w s

f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e n o t p h r a s a l

( 23 ) a . [,~ ,, 9 - [~ c v l ]

b . [D Q [ , c v l ]

INDEPENDENT PRONObN

ACCUSATIVE CLITIC

S o f a r , w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d A - p o s i t i o n s t h a t a r e c a s e - m a r k e d b u t d o n ' t t r i g g e r

L - d r o p . w H - t r a c e s a n d c l it lc s in o b j e c t p o s i t i o n N e x t , c o n s i d e r h o w L - d r o p in t e r a c t s

w i t h A - p o s i t i o n s t h at a r e n o t c a s e - m a r k e d I f a n o v e r t D P m u s t o c c u p y a c a s e - m a r k e d

m It may be that the outer functional layer is distract from D P, e g D dch am e and W lltschko (2000)

treat Yor/~bfi prono uns as q~Ps, a proJe ction located be tween D and N

t t The syntax of Accusative cllhcs ~s discussed in more detail belo w The dlst lnchon between phlasal

and non-phrasal pronominal elements recalls Chom sky% (19 95 33 7) distraction between complex and

sample pronominal elements respechvely

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p o s i t i o n , t h e n a D P t h a t o c c u p i e s a n u n c a s e d A - p o s i t i o n h a s t o m o v e : t h i s i s A -

m o v e m e n t ( o r ' N P m o v e m e n t ' c f . C h o m s k y , 1 9 8 1 ; Ja e g g l i, 1 9 8 6 ; B a k e r e t a l.,

1 9 8 9 ) . T y p i c a l e x a m p l e s o c c u r w i t h v e r b - f o r m s t h a t f a i l t o a s s i g n A c c u s a t i v e c a s e t o

t h e i r in t e r n a l a r g u m e n t , e .g . p a s s iv e , m i d d l e , u n a c c u s a t i v e a n d r in s i n g v e r b s :

( 2 4 )

a . [ D o z e n s o f m y s t e r y n o v e l s ] w e r e p u r c h a s e d [to p] i n S e at tl e .

b . [ T h r e e b o x e s o f m y s t e r y n o v e l s ] a r ri v e d [tDp y e s t e r d a y .

c . [ M y s t e r y n o v e l s ] s e l l [to p ] w e l l .

d . [ D a l e ] s e e m s [tD p] t o l ik e m y s t e r y n o v e l s .

A l l t h e e x a m p l e s i n ( 2 4 ) h a v e a c a s e l e s s A - p o s i t i o n . I n t h e c a s e t h e o r y a d o p t e d

h e r e A c c u s a t i v e c a s e i s a m a r k e d s t r u c t u r a l c a s e r e q u i r i n g a K P - p r o j e c t i o n , a s i n

( 2 5 a ). C o n s e q u e n t l y , a c a s e le s s o b j e c t p o s i ti o n w i ll s i m p l y c o n s i s t o f a D P , ( 2 5 b ) .

( 2 5 ) a . . . . ] v [ K P [ o P . . . 1 ]

b . . . . ] v 1 o . . . . ]

case-marked complement DP

caseless complement DP

I f L - d ro p r eq u i r e s A c c u s a t i v e K P , t h e n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g A - m o v e m e n t s t r u c tu r e s

i n Y o N b f i s h o u l d n o t b e L - d r o p c o n t e x t s . Y o n ab f i l a c k s p a s s i v e , a n d u n a c c u s a t i v e

d i a g n o s ti c s a r e e q u i v o c a l ( C a r st e n s, 1 9 8 6 : 5 l f .) , b u t c l e a r in s t an c e s o f A - m o v e m e n t

e x i s t in t h e f o r m o f o b j e c t - f r o n t i n g ( A w d y a l 6 , 1 9 9 7 a ) . I n m a t r i x c l a u s e s , t h is y i e l d s

a m i d d l e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a n o b j e c t ra i s e d t o s u b j e c t p o s i t io n , ( 2 6 ) . I n c o n t r o l e n v i -

r o n m e n t s , t h e o b j e c t o f th e e m b e d d e d v e r b r a i se s t o s o m e i n te r m e d i a t e p o s it io n ,

(27) .

( 2 6 ) a . A d 6 t a b a t a . [ [ . . . t a . . . ] ]

s e l l s h o e

' A d 6 s o ld s h o e s '

b. Bhta~ fi ta t , .

sh oe NOM sel l

' S h o e s s o l d '

(27 ) a . M o f,6 ,6 ra bath. [ [ . . . ra . . . ] ]

l s w a n t H b u y s h o e

' I w a n t t o b u y s h o e s '

b . M o f ,6 bata i f i ra

l s w a n t s h o e H b u y

' I w a n t t o

c. Mo f ,6

l s w a n t

' I w a n t t o

[ [ . . . t f ia] ]

t i . [[ . . . r~ia]]

b u y s o m e s h o e s '

ba t a , r f - r a t j .

shoe GER-buy

b u y s h o e s ' / ' I w a n t s h o e - b u y i n g t o o c c u r '

[ [ . . . r ~ i a ] ]

I n ( 2 6 ) , t h e D P r a i s e s t o S p e c , T P , w h e r e i t i s a s s i g n e d N o m i n a t i v e c a s e v i a S p e c -

h e a d a g r e e m e n t . T h e D P - m o v e m e n t i n ( 2 7 ) h a s n o t b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y t re a t e d in t h e

l i te r a t u r e : i t m i n i m a l l y i n v o l v e s r a i s in g t o t h e s p e c i f i e r o f s o m e f u n c t i o n a l h e a d ;

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M a n f r e d l ( 1 9 9 7 ) t r e a t s ~t a s m o v e m e n t to S p e c , A s p e c t P . I n th e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s , su p -

p r e s s r u n o f A c c u s a t i v e c a s e c o r r e l at e s w i t h th e a b s e n c e o f a K P p r o j e c t i o n H e n c e ,

t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s i n v o l v e a c a s e l e s s c o m p l e m e n t D P w h i c h p r e d i c t a b l y f a i l s t o t r i g g e r

A c c u s a t i v e L - d r o p .

I n s u m , t h e c l a i m t h a t L - d r o p o c c u r s i n t h e c o n t e x t . . ],, [ ~ . . c a p t u r e s t h e fa c t t h a t

A c c u s a n v e K P s t r i g g e r L - d r op . I t a l so a c c o u n t s f o r t h e p o s s ib i l it y o f L - d r o p w i t h

n o m l n a l i s e d V P s : w h e r e v e r th e A c c u s a t i v e c a s e c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s p r e s e n t, L - d ro p

o c c u r s . T h e a n a l y s i s c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t s t h a t L - d r o p w i l l fa i l t o o c c u r i f a n o m i n a l i s

n o t c a s e - m a r k e d : n o m i n a l a d j u n c t s d o n ' t t r i g g e r L - d ro p , n o r d o c a s e le s s D P - t r a c e s

B u t a s n o t e d b y Y ~ s u f ( 1 9 8 9 ) , t h e f a i l u r e o f L - d r o p w i t h a c a s e - m a r k e d W H - t r a c e i s

n o t p r e d i c t e d b y a p u r e l y s y n t a c t i c a n a l y s i s , a n d w e h a v e s e e n t h a t L - d r o p a l s o f a i l s

w i t h o b j e c t c lltlC S , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y a r e c a s e - m a r k e d . I t I s t h e s e t w o c o n t e x t s t h a t

e s t a b l is h t h a t L - d r o p i s d e t e r m i n e d n o t j u s t i n sy n t a x b u t m p h o n o s y n t a x . W e c a n

n o w t u r n t o C P c o m p l e m e n t s

3.2. CP complements

R e c a l l t h a t L - d r o p i s o p t i o n a l w i t h C P c o m p l e m e n t s . T h e C P c o m p l e m e n t s t h a t

t r i g g e r L - d r o p a r e a r g u e d t o b e n o m i n a h s e d a n d c a s e - m a r k e d , c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e

c l a i m t h a t L - d r o p is th e r e f l e x o f A c c u s a t i v e c a s e - m a r k i n g ( 3 .2 . 1 ). I n d e p e n d e n t e v i -

d e n c e f o r a l in k b e t w e e n A c c u s a t i v e L - d r o p a n d C P - n o m i n a h s a h o n i n c lu d e s t h e p o s -

s i b l h t y o f m a r k i n g c l a u s e s w i th o v e r t G e n i t i v e c a s e ( 3 2.2 ) . I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i th a

l a n g u a g e - s p e c i f i c b a n o n e m b e d d e d W H - c l a u s e s , r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t L - d r o p i s p o s s i b l e

o n l y w i t h n o m i n a l c o m p l e m e n t s p r o v i d e s i n s i g h t In t o t h e p a tt e rn o f L -d r o p w i t h

e m b e d d e d c l a u s e s h e a d e d b y

b{

( 3 .2 .3 ) .

3 2 1 No mm ah se d CPs are triggers fo r Accusative L-drop

I f L - d r o p m a r k s A c c u s a t i v e c a s e , a n d i f L - d r o p o c c u r s in th e c o n t e x t o f a n e m b e d -

d e d c l a u s e , th i s i m p l i e s t he c l a u s e is c a s e - m a r k e d . I f o n l y D P a r g u m e n t s n e e d c a s e ,

t h e n t h e s e c a s e - m a r k e d c o m p l e m e n t C P s a r e n o m i n a h s e d S u p p o s e t h at th ~s is t h e

e f f e c t o f a n a b s t r a c t n o m l n a l i s e r , m t h e f o r m o f n ul l D '

( 2 8 ) V P

V K P

K D P

D xo m C P

C T P

I n o t h e r w o r d s , e m b e d d e d c l a u s e s a r e s t r u c t u r a l l y a m b i g u o u s b e t w e e n C P a n d

n o m i n a h s e d C P . I f s o , w e e x p e c t to fi n d e v i d e n c e - i n d e p e n d e n t o f L -d r o p - f o r D P -

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s y n t a x i n n o m i n a l i s e d c l a u s es . E x t r a c t i o n f r o m a n o m i n a l i s e d c l a u s e - w i t h L - d r o p -

s h o u l d v i o l a te s u b j a c e n c y , s i n ce n o m i n a l l s a t i o n a d d s a b o u n d m g n o d e , b u t e x t ra c t i o n

s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e i f t h e m a t r i x v e r b k e e p s i t s l e x i c a l L . 12 T h i s i s t r u e :

( 2 9 ) a . ] w 6 n i m o m 6 , p 6 a n f l 6 .

b o o k FOC l s k n o w c 1P n e e d

' I t ' s a b o o k t h a t I k n o w w e n e e d '

b . ] w 6

n i m o m o p 6 a n f l6 .

b o o k FO C l S k n o w c 1P n e e d

[ ' I t ' s a b o o k t h a t I k n o w i t ' s a f a c t t h a t w e n e e d ' ]

W h i l e L - d r o p is o p t io n a l b e f o r e m o s t C P c o m p l e m e n t s , t h e r e a re s o m e c o n t e x t s

w h e r e i t i s o b l i g a t o r y . S o m e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e e x a m p l e s a r e g i v e n i n (3 0 ) .

( 3 0 )

a . N - n f o w 6 p f ip 6 , k b { * k h n / k a n } p 6 a s e i s 6 l f l e .

G E R -h a ve m o n e y p l e n t y NEG r e a c h c l P d o j o b h a r d

' Y o u d o n ' t n e c e s s a r i l y g e t r i c h b y e n g a g i n g m h a r d l a b o u r ' .

( L it . ' H a v i n g p l e n t y o f m o n e y d o e s n ' t r eq u i r e th a t w e w o r k h a r d ' )

b . I - s e y e n { * g b h / g b a } 106 k f a j f l w 6 w b . 13

N OM -d O t h a t r e c e i v e c c 1 P s t e a l b o o k l o o k

' T h a t a s s i g n m e n t r e q u i r e s t h a t w e c o p y f r o m o u r n o t e s ' .

( L i t. , ' D o i n g t h a t r e q u i r e s t h a t w e p l a g i a r i s e ' )

I s u g g e s t t h a t L - d r o p i s o b l i g a t o r y w h e n e v e r a C P c o m p l e m e n t d e n o t e s a s t a te - o f -

a f f a i r s, w h i c h ts d i s t i n c t f r o m b o t h e v e n t n o m i n a l s a n d p r o p o s i t i o n s ( Z u c c h i ,

1 9 9 3 ). 14 I t s e e m s t h a t i f t h e s u b j e c t d e n o t e s a n a b s t r a c t p r o p e r t y , t h i s f o r c e s t h e

e m b e d d e d C P t o d o th e s a m e , w h i c h r e q u tr e s a s ta t e -o f - a ff a i rs n o m i n a h s a t i o n , w h i c h

i n t u r n t r i g g e r s L - d r o p . T h i s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r e d i c a t e s k d n a n d

g b d

n o r m a l l y t a k e a n a n i m a t e s u b j e c t a n d s e le c t a p r o p o s i t i o n a l c o m p l e m e n t ; i n s u c h

c a s e s L - d r o p i s o p t i o n a l , c f . ( 4 ) a b o v e f o r g b ~ . B u t w h e n t h e s u b j e c t ~s i t s e l f a n o m -

i n a l i s a t i o n - a s i n ( 3 0 a ) n :n i o w 6 p @ b ' h a v i n g p l e n t y o f m o n e y ' , a n d ( 3 0 b ) i s ( y e n

' d o i n g t h a t ' - t h e c o m p l e m e n t d e n o t e s a s t a te - o f - a f fa i r s . A l t h o u g h i t i s a t p r e s e n t

u n c l e a r w h a t f o r c e s t h i s s t a t e - o f -a f f a i r s c o n s t u r a l , i t s c o r r e la t i o n w i t h A c c u s a t i v e

12 To m y know ledge, Yor~Jb~i do es not have a contrast betw een so-c alled brid ge verbs (e.g.

Who did

you ~ay left?)

and non-bridge verbs e.g

(*Who d id you whisper left's)

See Carstens (1986) for relevant

discussion

i~ The p~ k{ sequence is a series of two distinct Co m ps' indicative p~, followe d by subjunctive ki See

D6chalne (2000) for an analysis based on RlzzFs (1997) exploded Comp, with p~ mstantlatlng a higher

' forc e ' Comp, and k{ a lower ' f ini tene ss ' Com p

14 Zu cch l 's criteria predict the following for Yorl)b~ (1) events should correspond to Gem tlve gerunds,

(u) states-otZafl~urs sho uld be reafised by Acc usative gerunds an d no mln ahse d Cffs, ( in) proposltlonai

entitles shou ld be CP s an d thctlve ctauses "Uais classification ma y prov ide a way to distinguish the

abstract ' fac t ' noun po si ted by C ol l ins (1994) for Gbb from the event n om mahser propo sed by Manfredi

(1997 96 f) for Yor~ b The form er should act l ike a proposmonal entity, the latter l ike a state-of-

affairs.

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9 6 R - ~ 4 D d ~ h a m e / L n q,u a t l l ( 2 0 01 ) 8 1 - 1 3 0

L - d r o p p r o v M e s l n d t re c t s u p p o r t f o r th e c l a i m t h a t Y o n h b ;i C P s u n d e r g o a b s t r a c t

n o m m a h z a t m n ~5

3 2 2 N o m m a h s e d C P s w it h G e n m v e c a se

B y h y p o t h e s~ s , a n o m m a h s e d C P m o b J e c t p o s i tr o n - t r ig g e r i n g L - d r o p - ts

m a r k e d A c c u s a t i v e . T h i s p r ed i ct s th a t n o m m a h s e d C P s c a n o c c u r m o th e r c as e d

p o s m o n s , a n d th ~s ms t r u e A l t e r a n o u n t h a t t a k e s a p r o p o s m o n a l a r g m n e n t , e g

h i

' w a y / m a n n e r " a n d 0 ,s dn ' r e a s o n ' , b o t h p d a n d L f - cl a us e s c a n b e a r o v e r t G e n m v e c a s e

i n t h e f o r m o f t h e ~4 -t on e m o r a ( A b r a h a m . 1 9 5 8 ' 1 0 7 ; O y E lf ir h n , 1 9 8 2 a 1 1 6 f )

(3 1) a As~in an [p~ R ea ga n j,d b ' abf i r~ ,l k6 j d kf a su n , .

r e a s o n G EN C e q u a l f a t h e r 3 s N EG a l l o w c l p r e s t

' T h e f a c t t h a t R e a g a n t s h i s f a t h e r d o e s n ' t a l l o w u s t o r e st "

b E w f i r 6 w o a l f ihpa t 'a b f t [ k i 6 k f i ]

g o a t l o o k b u t c h e r w a y GEN C 3 S d i e

" T h e g o a t l o o k e d a t t h e b u t c h e r h k e i t w o u l d d t e '

W h i l e m o n o s y l l a N c v e r b s a s s i g n A c c u s a n v e c a s e , p o l y s y l l a b i c v e r b s a s s i g n G e m -

t iv e . 1 3 2 a ). W i t h s u c h v e r b s , G e m t l v e I s o p n o n a l b e f o r e C P . 1 3 2 b ,c )

( 32 ) a . ( 5 r f i n ' t i ] m l

3 s r e m e m b e r G EN lS

" S / h e r e m e m b e r e d m e '

b . M o r f in t i [pd e w ~ i ] .

l s r e m e m b e r c 2 P c o m e

"I r e m e m b e r e d t h a t y o u ( p l. ) c am e "

i t L - d r op i s a l s o o b l i g a t o r y b e l o r e e m b e d d e d c l a u s e s c o n t a i n e d m r h e t o r ic a l q u e s n o n s ( l) N o t e t he

r e m o t e n e s s o l th e h t e r a l m t e r p r e t a t t o n 0 - a ) , w i t h th e e m b e d d e d s u b j e c t a w e c o n , , t r u e d a s t h s l o m t t i o m

t h e m a t r i x w l ~ - w o r d t a w h o ' M o r e s a h e n t i s t h e b o u n d v a r i a b l e r e a d i n g ( b b )

( 1) T a m k ~ { * m ~ j m o } p d k i a i i ] x~ e ~ 6 '~

, a h o t o ( M c , k n o w . ~ l p s t e a l b o o k l o o k

; e / a ) ' W h o d o e s n ' t k n o w t h a t w e c he a t >"

= ( b) ' W h o d o e , ,n ' t k n o w h o w t o c h e a t " '

A q u e s n o n m a y b e r e p r e s e n l e n d m o n e o l t w o w a y s ( G r o e n e n d @ a n d S t o k h o l. 1 9 83 . E n g d a h l 1 9 8 6,

C h m r c h m 1 9 9 3 , H o m s t e m 1 9 9 6 ) I t c a n a sk l o r t h e v a l u e o l a n m d p d d u a l , , a rm b l e ~, a ,, m ( n - a ) t o

w h i c h a f eh c m t ou s a n s w e r p r o v i d e s a h st o [ i n d i v i d u a l s A d d , B (> s~ a n d M r F r i d a y ( d o n ' t k n o w t h a t w e

c h e a t ) ' T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is p r e ci se l y , t h e o n e n o t a w u l a b l e f o i O ) O r a q u e ' , n o n c a n a s k f o r t h e v a l u e

o t a f u n c n o n v a r i a b l e / a s m ( u - b ) I l n t h e h t e r a t m e , t h i s is c a l l e d a t u n c t 2 o n a l r o t e @ r e / a n o n ) H e r e , t h e

q u e s t i o n b e i n g a s k e d i s ' I s n ' t i t t r u e t h a t e v e r ~ X k n o w s F ( X ) '~ , 2 e ' l s n t ~t t r u e t h a t e v e r ) ~ k n o w s

c h e a t s '~ T h i s f u n c n o n a l m t e r p r e t a t m n Js t h e o n l y o n e a v a i l a b l e f o r (2 ) a n d s e e m , , t o b e h n k e d t o th e

s t a l e - o l - a l t m r s c o n s tr u a l a s s o c i a t e d w n h t h e n o m m a h s e d ( ' P s t h a t t r i g g e r L - dr op

( u) ~ ( a ) Q { P P l s t r u e a n d l o r s o m e x P = x N o r k n o w w e c h e a l }

= ( b ) Q { P P J s t r u e a n d l o r s m n e f , P = ( N o l s o m e , X k n o , a F I X ) ) }

N o t e t h a t (u - b ) u n p h e s t h a t I P a I s a b o u n d v a r i a b l e T h i s i s c o n s p , l e n t w i t h E k 0 n d a > 6 ( 1 9 7 6 ) w h o

a r g u e s t h a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n gbo~,,h() o wa a l l o l us c o m b i n e s t h e u m v c r ~ a l q u a n n f l e t g h o g b o w i t h ~ a a

w h i c h h e t r a n s l a t e s as " p er ,, o ns w h o m e h e r e ' , s u b s u m i n g t h e d e n o t a n o n o f I p

Gbo~,,l~o

c a n n o t a p p e a r b 5

i t s e l l

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c . M o r~in ' t f i [p6 e w~i].

l s r e m e m b e r GEN C 2P c o m e

' W h a t I r e m e m b e r e d is t h at y o u ( p l. ) c a m e '

T h e o p t i o n a h t y o f G e n i t i v e w i th c l a u sa l c o m p l e m e n t s s h a d o w s t he o p t l o n al i t y o f

A c c u s a t i v e L - d r o p . S u c h c a s e - m a r k e d c l a u s e s a r e o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h b y

Yor f ib~ i speake r s w i th a w h a t - c l e f t , e . g. ( 3 b ) a n d ( 4 b ) f o r A c c u s a t i v e - m a r k e d c l a u s e s ,

a n d ( 3 2 c ) f o r G e n i t i v e - m a r k e d c l a u se s . T h i s i s p r e s u m a b l y a n a t t e m p t to r e n d e r th e

s t a t e - o f -a f f a i rs c o n s t r u a l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h C P - n o m i n a l i s a t I o n . T h e c l a i m t h a t n o m l -

n a l i s e d c o m p l e m e n t C P s t r i g g e r A c c u s a t i v e L - d ro p a ls o h a s i m p l i c a t io n s f o r th e

a n a l y s i s o f e m b e d d e d w u - c l a u s e s , t o w h i c h I n o w t u rn .

3 . 2 .3 . O n t h e i m p o s s i b i li t y o f e m b e d d e d W H - c la u s es

F r o m e x a m p l e s l i k e (3 3 ) , C a r s t e n s ( 1 9 8 8 ) c o n c l u d e s t h a t L - d r o p i s o b l i g a t o r y w i t h

e m b e d d e d W E - c l a u s e s . T h e p i c t u r e i s m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , h o w e v e r . ( 3 4 ) s h o w s t h a t

s u c h e x a m p l e s c a n a l so b e p r o n o u n c e d w i t h L t o n e o n t h e m a t r i x v e r b m ,b ' k n o w ' , s o

L - d r o p i s e v i d e n t l y o p t i o n a l , e v e n t h e r e .

( 3 3 ) a . M o m o [ b f 6 t i p a e k f i n ] .

l s k n o w w a y 3 s PV k i ll l e o p a r d

' I k n o w h o w s / he k il l e d t h e l e o p a r d ' ( C a r s t e n s, 1 9 8 8)

b . M o f 6 6 m o [ b f o t i r f ] .

i I i

I s w a n t N OM k n o w w a y 2 s p v s ee

' I w a n t to k n o w h o w y o u l o o k ' ( A b r a h a m , 1 9 58 : 1 04 )

c . O m o [ b f a t i f i d u r a l .

i

3 s k n o w w a y 1p p v IM P b a l a n c e

' S / h e k n o w s h o w t o k e e p o n e ' s b a l a n c e ' ( A b r a h a m , 1 9 58 : 1 04 )

d . A m o [ b f a t l se nf l~ i t i s6 ] .

1 p k n o w w a y 1 p PV d o m u s t d o . 3 s

' W e k n o w h o w w e m u s t d o i t ' (A b r a h a m , 1 95 8 : 1 04 )

( 3 4 ) a . M o m 6 , [ b f 6

t l

p a , e k t m ] .

l s k n o w w a y 3s p v k i ll le o p a r d

' I k n e w ( i t ) a s s o o n a s s / h e k i l l e d t h e l e o p a r d '

b . M o f 6 6 m 6 [ b f o t i r f ] .

l s w a n t N OM k n O W w a y 2 s P V s e e

' I w a n t to k n o w h o w y o u l o o k ' ( A b r a h a m , 1 95 8 : 1 04 )

c . 6 m 6 [ b f a t i f i d u r a ] .

i

3 s k n o w w a y 1P PV IM P b a l a n c e

' S / h e k n o w s h o w t o k e e p o n e ' s b a l a n c e ' ( A b r a h a m , 1 9 58 : 1 04 )

d . A m 6 [b f a t i se nf lf it l s6 ] .

1P k n o w w a y l p p v d o m u s t d o . 3 s

' W e k n o w h o w w e m u s t d o i t ' ( A b r a h a m , 1 9 58 : 1 04 )

(< m,b)

A s e c o n d o b s e r v a t i o n i s a l s o p e r t i n e n t : a l l t h e e x a m p l e s i n ( 3 3 ) a n d ( 3 4 ) c o n t a i n

b / - c l a u s e s . O t h e r t h a n b / - c l a u s e s , Y o n ) b ~ i l a c k s e m b e d d e d W H - c l a u s e s a s a g e n e r a l

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9 8 R - M

D & h a m e / L m q u a l l l (2 00 1) 8 1 - 1 3 0

m a t t e r ( C a r s t e n s , 1 9 8 8 : 1 6, f n 3 ). P r e s e n t e d w i th a n i l l- f o r m e d e m b e d d e d

w u - c l a u s e l i k e ( 3 5 a ) , s p e a k e r s v o l u n t e e r th e r e l a ti v e c l a u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n m ( 3 5 b ) I n

t h e la t te r , t h e n o m i n a l h e a d o f t h e r e l a h v e c l a u s e ( e r a " p e r s o n ' ) t r i g g e r s L - d r o p a s

e x p e c t e d

( 3 5 ) a . * A d d m b / m o [ t a n l K t i nl 6 r f ] .

k n o w w h o c s ee

[ A d d k n o w s w h o K t in l6 s a w ]

b . A d d m o e m t f K f i n ld r f.

, i

k n o w p e r s o n ( ' s e e

" A d 6 k n o w s w h o K t in ld s a w '

( L i t ' A d d k n o w s th e p e r s o n K t in l6 s a w ' . )

T h e a b o v e p o i n t s c a n b e a s s e s s e d t o g e t h e r I f L - d r o p a p p h e s b e f o r e a K P . i t is r e a -

s o n a b l e t o l o o k f o r I n d e p e n d e n t e v i d e n c e t h a t i n t e r ro g a t i v e b / - c l a u s e s w h i c h t r i g g e r

L - d r o p m e e t t h is s t r u c tu r a l d e s c r i p t i o n . T h e a b s e n c e o f o th e r t y p e s o f e m b e d d e d W H -

c l a u s e s I n Y o r f i b fi s u g g e s t s t h a t b / - c l a u s e s a r e n o t [ + w n ] C P s . B u t i f b / - c l a u s e s d o n ' t

h a v e t h e s t r u c t u r e o f w f t - c l a u s e s , w h a t ~ s t h e i r s t r u c t u r e '~ T h e r e a r e r e a s o n s t o t b m k

t h a t b [ i s t h e n o m i n a l h e a d o f a r e l a t iv e c l a u s e :

(36) [ , , , b[, [~ ,, O P, [ ,~ . t , . . ] 1 ]

A c c o r d i n g l y , b / - c l a u s e s t h a t f a il t o t r i g g e r L - d r o p w il l b e a n a l y s e d i n t h e s a m e

w a y a s n o m i n a l a d j u n c t s I n b o t h i n s ta n c e s , t h e n o m i n a l h e a d is i n t r o d u c e d a s a V P -

a d j u n c t , s o L - d r o p f a l ls :

( 3 7 )

a . M o m 6 [ b f 6 tl p a e k t m ]

I s k n o w w a y 3 s p v k il l l e o p a r d

' I k n e w ( it ) a s s o o n a s s / h e k il l e d t h e le o p a r d '

b . M o t ~

j f i b u - j h b u .

I s s ell u m m a g m a b l e

' I s o l d ( m y w a r e s ) i n c r e d i b l y ' (1 e . v e r y s u c c e s s f u l l y )

A n d b / - c l a u s e s t h a t t r i g g e r L - d ro p w il l b e a n a l y s e d i n t h e s a m e w a y a s n o m i n a l c o m -

p l e m e n t s . B o t h a r e in a n A c c u s a t i v e c o n f i g u r a t l o n , s o L - d r o p a p p l i e s .

( 3 8 )

a M o m o [ b f 6 tl p a e k a n ]

l s k n o w w a y 3 s p v ki ll l e o p a r d

' I k n o w h o w s /h e k d l e d t h e l e o p a rd " ( C a r s t e n s, 1 9 8 8 )

b M o t a j f i b u - j ~ b u .

l s s el l u n i m a g i n a b l e

' I s o ld u n i m a g i n a b l e t h i n g s ' (1 e . e v e r y t h i n g y o u c a n t h i n k o f )

I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n ( 3 7 a ) a n d ( 3 8 a ) r e f l e c ts t h e a t t a c h m e n t s it e o f

t h e b / - c l a u s e ' a s a V P - a d j u n c t m ( 3 7 a ) , a s a c a s e - m a r k e d c o m p l e m e n t to V m ( 3 8 a ).

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T h i s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e in t e r p r e t iv e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o e x a m p l e s . N o w

c o n s i d e r t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t b f h e a d s a r e l a t iv e c l a u s e .

T h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s c o n c u r s w i t h t h e t r a & t i o n a l v i e w t h a t b f i s a n o u n m e a n i n g

' w a y , m a n n e r ' ( A b r a h a m , 1 9 5 8 ; A w 6 b h l fi y i, 1 9 7 8a ; O y ~ h i r ~ , 1 9 8 2 a) . W i th re s p e c t

t o i t s i n t e r n a l s y n t a x ,

b [

b e h a v e s l i k e a n o u n i n i t s a b i l i t y t o a s s i g n G e n i t i v e c a s e t o

a f o l lo w i n g n o u n :

( 3 9 )

13 w f e j 6 [ b f i a w 6 w a ] .

3 s s a y c a s e w a y GEN g r u m b l e r

' S / h e c o m p l a i n s l ik e a g r u m b l e r ' ( O y h l~ i ra n , 1 9 8 2 a : 1 1 4 )

W i t h r e s p e c t t o e x t e r n a l s y n t a x , a p h r a s e h e a d e d b y b [ c a n s t a n d i n t h e f u l l r a n g e o f

c a s e p o s i t i o n s . I n s u b j e c t p o s i t io n , a b / - c l a u s e is m a r k e d N o m i n a t i v e b y t h e H t o n e

s p e l l - o u t o f n u l l T , ( 4 0 a ) . A b / - c l a u s e i n o b j e c t p o s i t i o n c a n t r i g g e r L - d ro p , w h i c h b y

h y p o t h e s i s r e q m r e s A c c u s a t i v e , ( 4 0 b ) . A b / - c l a u s e i s m a r k e d G e n i t i v e a s t h e c o m -

p l e m e n t o f t h e l o c a ti v e n o m i n a l i n ~ ' s t o m a c h , i n s i d e ' , ( 4 0 c ) . F i n a l ly , a b / -c l a u s e c a n

b e a p r e p o s i t i o n a l ( O b l i q u e ) o b j e c t o f s [ ' t o ' , ( 4 0 d ) .

(40 ) a . [BI i su 6 se ta] f i yh m f l ',6nu.

w a y y a m NOM P v s e ll NOM o p e n l S K - m o u t h

' T h e w a y y a m s o l d s u r p r i s e d m e '

b . M o m o , [ b f 6 t i p a e k h n ] .

l s k n o w w a y 3 s P v k il l l e o p a r d

' I k n o w h o w s / h e k i l l e d t h e le o p a r d ' ( C a r s te n s , 1 9 8 8 )

c . S o f l in m i o h u n t f k 6 d f ir a n ' f n t i u n

t e l l g iv e l s t h ing c NEG go od P - ins ide GEN

[b f ~ia t l se lo 6r6 , yi i ] .

w a y 1 P PV d o u s e w o r d t h i s

' T e l l m e w h a t i s w r o n g

i n t h e w a y w e h a v e u s e d th i s w o r d ' ( A b r a h a m , 1 9 5 8 : 1 0 4 )

d. 13 pad?~ sf [b f 6 t i w h r f ] .

3 s r e t u r n P w a y 3 s PV b e . a t l o o k

' I t c h a n g e d b a c k t o t h e w a y it w a s b e f o r e ' ( A b r a h a m , 1 9 5 8 : 1 0 5 )

T h i s e s t a b l i s h e s t h a t th e e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l s y n t a x o f b f- p h r a s e s ( i n c l u d i n g b i -

c l a u s e s ) i s t h a t o f a n o m i n a l e x p r e s s i o n . A n d i f b [ i s a n o u n , i t c a n h o s t a r e l a t i v e

c l a u s e , s o b / - c l a u s e s p r e d i c t a b l y t r i g g e r L - d r o p . T h i s c o n t r a s t s w i t h C a r s t e n s ' p r o -

p o s a l t h a t b / - c l a u s e s a r e w n - c l a u s e s , w h i c h l e a v e s u n e x p l a i n e d w h y b / - c l a u s e s d i f f e r

f r o m a l l o t h e r W H - c l a u s e s i n Y o n h N i i n t h a t t h e l a t t e r c a n n o t b e e m b e d d e d . W h a t

r e m a i n s t o b e s h o w n i s t h a t t h e b / -c l a u s e s h a v e t h e i n t e r n a l s t ru c t u r e o f r e l a t iv e

c l a u s e s .

Y o r hb ~ i r e l a t i v e c l a u s es a r e h e a d - i n i ti a l ; t h e h e a d i s u s u a l l y f o l l o w e d b y t h e e l e -

m e n t tL O b l i g a t o r y t i is s e e n i n ( 4 1 a ) w i t h o b j e c t r e la t i v is a t i o n . H o w e v e r , a r e s t ri c t e d

s et o f h e a d n o u n s m c l u d i n g ~ i ' p e r s o n ' ,

o h u n

' t h i n g ' , , b nd ' w a y ' a n d

i g b a

' t i m e ' ,

a l l o w t f t o b e s u p p r e s s e d a s i n ( 4 1 b ) , c f . A w 6 b h l f i y l ( 1 9 7 8 a : 3 6 ).

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(4 1) a. aj fi , [* ( t f ) B6sb, ,6 r f t , ] . .

d o g R E I . N OM s e e

' t h e d o g t h a t B 6 s ~ , s a w

b. ent , [ ( t i ) B6sb, ,6 r f t , ] . .

p e r s o n R E [ . N OM s e e

" th e p e r s o n t h a t B ( ) s } s a w .

A s t m d a r c o n t r a s t o c c u r s w t t h r e l a t lv t s e d a d j u n c t s. T h e a d j u n c t g a p ~s l i c e n s e d b y a

p r e v e r b , u s u a l l y tt o r s e ( C a r s t e n s , 1 9 8 6 ) . ~e' A l m o s t a ll a d j u n c t r e l a t i v e s r e q u i r e t[ a s

in ( 4 2 a ) L i k e o t h e r a d j u n c t r e la t iv e s , c l a u s e s h e a d e d b y th e m a n n e r n o u n b [ r e q u i r e

a p r e v e r b : b u t i n a b [ r e l a t i v e , 1[ is u n g r a m m a n c a l , ( 4 2 b ) .

( 4 2 ) a . [ l b l ] , [ * ( t i ) B 6 s ~ t t f i s e r 6 t , ] . .

p l a ce R EL PV [MP p l a y

' t h e p l a c e w h e r e B 6 ,s6 is p l a y m g . . . ' ( C a r s t e n s . 1 9 8 6 " 4 )

b . [ b f l . [ ( * t f ) B 6 @ ,6 t l r f t , ] . . .

w ay R LL N OM PV see

' t h e w a y B ds 6, s e e m e d . ' ( C a r s t e n s . 1 9 8 6 ' 7 )

T h e f o l l o w i n g p i c tu r e e m e r g e s . R e l a t i v i s a t io n o f b o t h a r g u m e n t s a n d a d ju n c t s

m o s t l y r e q u i r e s t h e r e l a t t v e m a r k e r t[. ( 4 3 a , b ) . A d J u n c t e x t r a c t t o n a l s o n e e d s a p r e -

v e r b ( 4 3 b ) . A s m a l l s e t o f h e a d n o u n s d o n o t re q u t r e t h e r e la t tv e m a r k e r ( 4 3 c ) , w h i le

t h e r e l a t l v l s e d m a n n e r n o u n b [ " w a y ' a c t u a l l y e x c l u d e s tt ( 4 3 d ) . 17

( 4 3 )

a . NP, [~ , t [ [,~, t , .11

b. NP, [~.~ t [ [~,, PV . . t, . . . l l

c N P , [~,. (t t' ) [~ t , . l l

d. b[ , [ , , . 0 [~e p v . . . t , . . . ] l

I n t h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s , t h e o p t l o n a h t y o f L - d r o p b e f o r e b / - c l a u s e s i s a c c o u n t e d f o r

a s f o l l o w s . A s a n o u n . b [ c a n h o s t a r e l a t i v e c l a u s e ; t h is is a h # c l a u s e L i k e o t h e r

n o m i n a l e x p r e s s i o n s , h i m a y b e i n t r o d u c e d a s a n a d j u n c t t o V P ( a n d s o d o e s n o t t r i g -

g e r L - d r o p ) o r a s a c o m p l e m e n t t o V ( a n d s o t r i g g e r s L - d r o p ) . T h i s c l o s e s t h e d i s -

c u s s i o n o f th e t r tg g e r s o f L - d r o p ; n o w c o n s i d e r t h e t a r g e t o f t h e r ul e.

3 3 M o n o s y l l a b i c v e r b s a l e t he t a r g e t o [ A c c u s a t t v e L - d ro p

L - d r o p ta r g e t s a n e l e m e n t t h a t b e a r s L t o n e I f t h e t r ig g e r i s a n A c c u s a t i v e K P ,

t h e n o n l y L - t o n e v e r b s c a n b e t a rg e t s T h ~s p r e d ic t s t h a t n o o t h e r c a s e - a s s t g n l n g h e a d

16 These prev erb particles are related to the indepen dent predicates )e do and tt ' f r om' (Ward , 1952

I09 1:, 13 '-)) /g-'~'~ e-' J'~ also iJo-,sd~le-a~ a- pre~erb- wnlr ad]mrct-extracnolr (Ward; 19 ~2 i09 )

17 Ttns accords w ith Awdb fJlfiy] (1978a 36 ), who d~stmgm shes three types of relatives according to

whether C is obhgatordy filled(most Ns), opnonaily hiled (clauses headed by ~2" "person , ohun "thing"

tOi pellod'), ol obhgatorfly nu ll (clauses headed by h i "way')

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i n p a r t i c u l a r L - t o n e s t e m s w h i c h a s s i g n G e n i t i v e c a s e - w i l l b e a t a r g e t f o r L - d r o p

( 3 . 3 .1 ) . I f th e c o n t e x t f o r L - d r o p i s t h e h e a d - c o m p l e m e n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n . .. ] v [KP . . .

t h i s p r e d i c t s t h a t n o o t h e r h e a d - c o m p l e m e n t s t r u c t u r e w i l l b e a c o n t e x t f o r L - d r o p

( 3 .3 . 2 ). C o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e s e t w o p r e d i c t i o n s p r o v i d e s a d d i t io n a l e v i d e n c e t h a t L-

d r o p i s a p h o n o s y n t a c t i c p r o c e s s t h a t r e f e r s to l a b e l e d s y n t a c t i c b r a c k e t i n g .

3.3.1. Genitive L-drop

W i t h i n a K P a n a l y s i s , t h e d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c a s e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f A c c u s a h v e

a n d G e n i t iv e r e d u c e s t o w h e t h e r o r n o t K i s u n d e r l y i n g l y e m p t y ( B i t t n e r an d H a l e ,

1 9 9 5 : 6 f .) . A m a r k e d s t ru c t u ra l c a s e s u c h a s A c c u s a t i v e i s a n u n d e r l y i n g l y e m p t y K

t h a t s a ti s fi e s th e E C P . A n i n h e r e n t c a s e s u c h a s G e n i t i v e i s a n u n d e r l y m g l y f i l le d K

s e l e c t e d b y a g o v e r n i n g h e a d . T h i s p r e d i c t s t h a t A c c u s a t i v e K w i l l b e n u l l , w h i l e

G e n i t i v e K w i l l h a v e c o n t e n t . T h i s c o n t r a s t i s b o r n e o u t i n Y o n S b f i . W h i l e

A c c u s a t i v e h a s n o o v e r t c o n t e n t , G e n i t i v e s h o w s u p m t h e f o r m o f a M - t on e m o r a o r

t i m i n g u n i t :

(4 4) a . ]v [KP [n 9 ] [DP " ' ' 1 ]

Accusative KP

b . ]x [KP [K g ] [OF "' " ] ]

Genitive KP

I n Y o r6 b~ i, A c c u s a t i v e a n d G e n i t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a l s o r e fl e c t th e p r o s o d y a n d c a t -

e g o r y o f th e h e a d . A c c u s a t i v e K P i s f o u n d w i t h a ll m o n o s y l l a b i c v e r b s , ( 4 5 a) . G e n -

i t i v e K P i s f o u n d w i t h a l l p o l y s y l l a b i c v e r b s ( O y b l ~ i r ~ n , 1 9 7 0 ; A w 6 b f a l f i y L 1 9 7 8 a ;

E l i m e l e c h , 1 9 8 2 ; A w 6 y a l 6 , 1 9 9 7 a ) , a n d a ll n o u n s , ( 4 5 b , c ) . Is

( 4 5 )

a t J v [ K P [ K Q ] [ D P l ]

b . ( . . . t J ) t J C ~ ] v [K P [K B ] [ D P ] 1

c . ] N [ K . [ K . U ] [ D - - - 1 1

monosyllabic verbs

polysyllabic verbs

noutlS

I f L - d r o p is a r e f le x o f A c c u s a t i v e c a s e , t h e n i t w i l l o c c u r o n l y i n c o n t e x t s s u c h a s

( 4 5 a) . H o w e v e r , i f L - d r o p m a r k s t h e p r e s e n c e o f K P , t h e n i t i