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What’s in a Name?What’s in a Name?Don’t give your kid

a weird name Researchers studied 15,000

first names given to baby boys from 1987-1991.

The more unusual the boy’s name, the more likely he was to commit a crime.

“Each 10% increase in the popularity of a name correlates with a 3.7% decrease in the number of juvenile delinquents who have that name” (Kalist & Lee, 2009, p. 47)

Why?

Names can be targets for discrimination.

Self-concept is based on reflected appraisals from others (the “looking glass” self)

People with unpopular names may come from underprivileged families or lower socio-economic groups.

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SymbolsSymbols

Symbols are arbitrary words, images, or behavior that stand for or represent something else.◦Symbols are arbitrary: The

word for “pig” could just as easily be “garp.”

◦Symbols include images (peace sign, thumbs up gesture)

◦Symbols can include behavior (rituals and rites or other symbolic action)

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Symbols, Meaning, and Symbols, Meaning, and PersuasionPersuasion

Denotative meaning◦ A word’s strict

dictionary definition◦ Animals’ names

Alligator Moose

Bison Python

Elephant Rooster

Leopard Zebra

Connotative meaning◦ Emotional associations

surrounding a word◦ References to

females/males using animal names

Bitch Fox

Chick Pig

Cougar Stud

Cow Tiger

Dog Wolf

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Ultimate TermsUltimate Terms God terms

◦ family values, progress, freedom, democracy

Devil terms◦ deadbeat dad, sexual predator,

socialist, sweatshop, gang member, racist

Charismatic terms◦ green, change, freedom,

democracy

Terms may change, evolve over time◦ political correctness, affirmative

action, liberal

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Familiar PhrasesFamiliar Phrases Famous sayings,

proverbs, and folk wisdom can facilitate persuasion.

Familiar phrases function as peripheral cues.◦ “Rome wasn’t built in a

day.”

◦ “Don’t put all your eggs in one basket.”

◦ “Money doesn’t grow on trees.”

Students heard a persuasive message that included familiar phrases.◦ Some students were

distracted while listening.

◦ Some students were not.

The distracted students were more persuaded than the ones who paid full attention (Howard, 1997).

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The Power of LabelingThe Power of Labeling

People’s names influence:◦Where they live

◦Their choice of professions

Implicit Egotismpeople favor things that they associate with themselves.

People named Dennis are more likely to become dentists.

People who live in Virginia are more likely to be named Virginia.

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The Power of LabelingThe Power of Labeling

Naming prescription drugs◦branding companies

typically earn between $50,000 and $250,000 for coming up with a unique name for a prescription drug.

◦Names that sound scientific, with an “X” or “Z” are popular. Paxil Prozac Zoloft Xanax Lexapro Nexium

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The Power of RenamingThe Power of Renaming

“progressive” versus “liberal”“death panels” versus “health insurance”“troop reduction” versus “cut and run”“peer-to-peer file sharing” versus “internet

piracy”“pre-owned” versus “used”“womyn” instead of “women”

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Sapir-Whorf HypothesisSapir-Whorf Hypothesis Language shapes the

way we think. Language can facilitate

or inhibit certain types of thinking.

More precise language enables more focused thought.

Texting versus writing

◦ Texting is fast, generic

◦ Writing is slow, nuanced

The average Joe or Jill might call a color “off-white.”

A painter or clothing designer might differentiate between subtle shades.• alabaster• antique white• bone• China• cream• eggshell• ivory• parchment

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Euphemisms & Double-Euphemisms & Double-SpeakSpeakIt sounds so much better when you put it

that way.◦ pre-owned versus used

◦ peer-to-peer file sharing versus Internet piracy

◦ gaming vs. gambling

◦ commercial sex worker vs. prostitute

◦ enhanced interrogation techniques vs. torture

◦ rendition versus kidnapping

◦ faith-based vs. religious

◦ downsizing vs. fired

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Language Intensity, Language Intensity, Vividness, and Vividness, and OffensivenessOffensivenessProfanity is rarely a

persuader’s friend.◦Profanity tends to lower

perceived credibility.◦Perceptions of profanity

are topic, audience, and situation specific.

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Political CorrectnessPolitical Correctness

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Evolving terms for African-Americans

N-word

Darkie

Colored

Negro

Black

African-American

Person of color

Bi-racial, multi-

racial

Political CorrectnessPolitical Correctness

The language of disability

◦Saying “wheel chair bound” emphasizes the disability first.

◦Saying “person with a disability,” (PWD) emphasizes the person first.

Persuaders who used empowering terms (heroic) for PWDs were perceived as more credible.

Persuaders who used pejorative terms (pathetic) were perceived as less credible.

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Language IntensityLanguage Intensity Intense language

demonstrates a source’s bias on a topic or issue.◦ National health insurance

will lead to “death panels” (Sarah Palin).

◦ “Humans have no more value than slugs” (John Daley, editor of Earth First!).

◦ People who aren’t shifting to bio-diesel fuel are “raping the planet” (Fuel: Uncovering America’s Dirty Little Secret, 2008 documentary).

Reinforcement Theory◦ Intense language facilitates

persuasion with a friendly audience.

◦ Intense language can alienate a hostile audience.

Language Expectancy Theory◦ Violations perceived positively

facilitate persuasion.

◦ Violations perceived negatively inhibit persuasion.

◦ How a violation is perceived depends on the status and reward power of the violator.

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Language IntensityLanguage Intensity

Information Processing Theory◦ Intense language

persuades via message discrepancy.

◦ A previously unthinkable position becomes more thinkable.

◦ Intense language may also backfire based on the contrast effect.

Communication Accommodation Theory◦ Persuaders who match

the language style of their audience are more effective.

◦ Intense language users prefer intense speakers.

◦ Non-intense language users prefer non-intense speakers.

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VividnessVividness

Vivid language is more memorable than pallid language.◦Colorful, picturesque

language increases attention and retention.

◦Pallid language is, well, boring.

◦Vivid language must be congruent with the message.

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Powerful LanguagePowerful Language

Powerful, assertive language is generally more persuasive.◦ “I have an important

question…”

◦ “I loved that movie.”

◦ “Let’s grab some coffee and talk.”

◦ “My skill set is a perfect fit for your company.”

Powerful language conveys confidence, credibility.

But…Powerful language

requires good arguments and evidence.

Females may need to moderate their assertiveness for male audiences.

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Powerless LanguagePowerless Language Powerless language

signifies low status, low credibility◦ This may sound like a dumb

question but…”

◦ “That was a good movie, don’t you think?”

◦ “I was kind of hoping that maybe we could get together for coffee sometime, if you want.”

◦ “Uh, so I would, really,um, like to work here,at, like, your company.”

Types of powerless language

Disclaimers

◦ You’ll probably say ‘No’ but…”

Hedges

◦ “kind of,” “sort of,” “I guess”

Hesitations

◦ “uh,” “um,” “like,” “you know”

◦ Intensifiers

◦ “Very,” “really,”

Polite forms*

◦ “If it’s okay…” “I’d appreciate it if…”

Tag questions

◦ “don’t you think?”19*Note: Some types of diplomatic

language are polite, but not powerless