The Civil War Begins 481

11

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW

War EruptsWar Erupts TERMS & NAMESFort Sumter

Robert E. Lee

border state

King Cotton

Anaconda Plan

blockade

First Battle of Bull Run

First Shots at Fort SumterAs they seceded from the Union (the states loyal to the United States ofAmerica during the Civil War), the Southern states took over most of thefederal forts inside their borders. President Abraham Lincoln had to decidewhat to do about the forts that remained under federal control. MajorRobert Anderson and his garrison held on to Fort Sumter in the harbor ofCharleston, South Carolina, but they were running out of supplies.

If Lincoln supplied the garrison, he risked war. If he ordered thetroops to leave the fort, he would be giving in to the rebels. Lincolninformed South Carolina that he was sending supply ships to FortSumter. Leaders of the Confederacy (the nation formed by Southernstates in 1861) decided to prevent the federal government from holdingonto the fort by attacking before the supply ships arrived.

The secession of the Southern statesquickly led to armed conflictbetween the North and the South.

The nation’s identity was in partforged by the Civil War.

ONE AMERICAN’S STORYTwo months before the Civil War broke out, 22-year-old Emma Holmes

of Charleston began keeping a detailed diary. Like other South

Carolinians, Holmes got caught up in the passions that led her state to

secede. From a rooftop, she witnessed the event that started the war.

She wrote about South Carolina’s attack on Fort Sumter, a federal fort

in Charleston’s harbor, in her diary.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

[A]t half past four this morning, the heavy booming of cannons woke thecity from its slumbers. . . . Every body seems relieved that what has beenso long dreaded has come at last and so confident of victory that theyseem not to think of the danger of their friends. . . . I had a splendid viewof the harbor with the naked eye. We could distinctly see flames amidstthe smoke. All the barracks were on fire. . . . With the telescope I saw theshots as they struck the fort and [saw] the masonry crumbling.

Emma Holmes, The Diary of Emma Holmes 1861–1866

Many Southerners expected a short war that they would easily win.

Northerners expected the same. In this section, you will learn how the

war started, how the states divided, and how each side planned to win.

This photograph of Emma Holmes was taken in 1900.

At 4:30 A.M. on April 12, 1861, shore guns opened fire on the islandfort. For 34 hours, the Confederates fired shells into the fort untilAnderson was forced to surrender. No one was killed, but the South’sattack on Fort Sumter was the beginning of the Civil War.

Lincoln Calls Out the MilitiaTwo days after the surrender of Fort Sumter, President Lincoln askedthe Union states to provide 75,000 militiamen for 90 days to put downthe uprising in the South. Citizens of the North responded with enthu-siasm to the call to arms. A New York woman wrote, “It seems as if wenever were alive till now; never had a country till now.”

In the upper South, however, state leaders responded with anger. Thegovernor of Kentucky said that the state would “furnish no troops for thewicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern States.” In the weeksthat followed, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas voted

to join the Confederacy.As each state seceded, volunteers rushed to enlist,

just as citizens did in the North. A young Arkansasenlistee wrote, “So impatient did I become for startingthat I felt like ten thousand pins were pricking me inevery part of the body, and started off a week in advanceof my brothers.” Some feared the war would be overbefore they got the chance to fight.

With Virginia on its side, the Confederacy had amuch better chance for victory. Virginia was wealthy andpopulous, and the Confederacy in May of 1861 movedits capital to Richmond. Virginia also was the home ofRobert E. Lee, a talented military leader. WhenVirginia seceded, Lee resigned from the United StatesArmy and joined the Confederacy. Although Leeopposed slavery and secession, he explained, “I cannotraise my hand against my birthplace, my home, my chil-dren.” He eventually became the commanding generalof the Army of Northern Virginia.

Choosing SidesAfter Virginia seceded, both sides knew that the borderstates would play a key role in the war’s outcome. Theborder states—Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, andMissouri—were slave states that bordered states in whichslavery was illegal. Because of their location and resources,the border states could tip the scales toward one side.

Keeping Maryland in the Union was important forthe North. If Maryland seceded, then Washington,D.C., would be cut off from the Union. To hold on tothe state, Lincoln considered arresting Maryland law-makers who backed the South, but he decided against it.

482 CHAPTER 16

A. ComparingWhy might citi-zens in both theNorth and theSouth have beeneager to fight inthe Civil War?A. AnswerTensions had beenbrewing a longtime, and on bothsides peoplemight have beenanxious to see theconflict resolved.

BackgroundThe state militiaswere armies ofordinary citizensrather than pro-fessional soldiers.

ABRAHAM LINCOLN

1809–1865

Today, Abraham Lincoln is consid-ered one of the great men of all time. Yet early in his presi-dency, he was widely criticizedand ridiculed. Critics labeled him ignorant, incompetent, andsocially crude. As Lincoln grewinto his job, however, he gainedthe respect and affection of many Northerners.

Even as a youth, Lincoln haddisplayed a gift for public speak-ing. During the Civil War, throughhis speeches and writings, Lincolninspired fellow Americans to“dare to do our duty as weunderstand it.”

Why would the ability toinspire people be importantin a wartime leader?

0

0

500 Miles

1,000 Kilometers

Union stateBorder state not secedingConfederate state

120°

W

110°

W 100°W

90°W

80°W

70°W

20°N

30°N

40°N

50°N

A T L A N T I CO C E A N

P A C I F I CO C E A N

M

ississippi R.

G u l f o f M e x i c o

CALIFORNIA

TEXAS

Claimed by Confederacy

LA.

ARK.

MISSOURIKANSAS

IOWA

MINN.

WIS.

ILLINOIS IND.

MICH.

OREGON

TERRITORIESOHIO

KENTUCKY

TENNESSEE

MISS. ALA.GEORGIA

FLA.

S.C.

N.C.

VA.

N.H.VT.

PA. CONN.

DEL.

MASS.N.Y.

R.I.

N.J.MD.

MAINE

W.VA.

M E X I C O

The States Choose Sides, 1861

B. SummarizingWhy were theborder states crit-ical to the war’soutcome?B. Answer Theywere criticalbecause of theirlocation andresources.

Pro-Union leaders eventually gained control of the Maryland legislature,and the state stayed in the Union.

Kentucky was also important to both sides because of its rivers. For theUnion, the rivers could provide an invasion route into the South. For theSouth, the rivers could provide a barrier. Kentuckians were deeply dividedover secession. However, a Confederate invasion in 1861 prompted thestate to stay in the Union.

Both Missouri and Delaware also stayed in the Union. In Virginia,federal troops helped a group of western counties break away. Thesecounties formed the state of West Virginia and returned to the Union.In the end, 24 states made up the Union and 11 joined the Confederacy.

Strengths and WeaknessesThe Union had huge advantages in manpower and resources. The Northhad about 22 million people. The Confederacy had roughly 9 million, ofwhom about 3.5 million were slaves. About 85 percent of the nation’s fac-tories were located in the North. The North had more than double therailroad mileage of the South. Almost all the naval power and shipyardsbelonged to the North.

The Union’s greatest asset, however, was President Abraham Lincoln.He developed into a remarkable leader. Lincoln convinced Northernersthat democracy depended on preserving the Union.

The Civil War Begins 483

SkillbuilderAnswers1. Union2. It provided ameans of trans-portation, commu-nication, trade, andtroop movements.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps1. Location Which side had states bordering the Atlantic

and Pacific oceans and the Great Lakes?2. Region Why was the Mississippi River important to

both sides in the war?

West Virginia separated from Virginia in 1861. It wasadmitted to the Union in 1863.

Washington, D.C., wasthe capital of the Union.

Richmond, Virginia, thecapital of the Confederacy,was only about 90 milessouth of Washington, D.C.

Fort Sumter is located onan island in the harbor ofCharleston, South Carolina.It was the site of the firstbattle of the Civil War.

The Confederacy had some advantages, too. Itbegan the war with able generals, such as Robert E.Lee. It also had the advantage of fighting a defensivewar. This meant Northern supply lines would have tobe stretched very far. In addition, soldiers defendingtheir homes have more will to fight than invaders do.

The Confederate StrategyAt first, the Confederacy took a defensive position. Itdid not want to conquer the North—it only wantedto be independent. “All we ask is to be let alone,” saidConfederate President Jefferson Davis. Confederateleaders hoped the North would soon tire of the warand accept Southern independence.

The South also depended on King Cotton as a wayto win foreign support. Cotton was king becauseSouthern cotton was important in the world market.The South grew most of the cotton for Europe’s tex-tile mills. When the war broke out, Southern planterswithheld cotton from the market. They hoped to forceFrance and Britain to aid the Confederate cause. Butin 1861, European nations had surplus cotton becauseof a big crop the year before. They did not want to getinvolved in the American war.

As the war heated up, the South soon moved awayfrom its cautious plans. It began to take the offensiveand try for big victories to wreck Northern morale.

The Union StrategyThe North wanted to bring the Southern states backinto the Union. To do this, the North developed anoffensive strategy based on General Winfield Scott’sAnaconda Plan. This plan was designed to smotherthe South’s economy like a giant anaconda snakesqueezing its prey.

The plan called for a naval blockade of the South’scoastline. In a blockade, armed forces prevent thetransportation of goods or people into or out of anarea. The plan also called for the Union to gain con-trol of the Mississippi River. This would split theConfederacy in two.

One of the drawbacks of Scott’s plan was that itwould take time to work. But many people, eager foraction, were calling for an immediate attack onRichmond, the Confederate capital. Lincoln ordered aninvasion of Virginia in the summer of 1861.

484 CHAPTER 16

C. SupportingOpinions At thebeginning of theCivil War, whichside would youhave predicted towin? Why?C. Answer Moststudents will probably pick theNorth because ithad huge advan-tages in peopleand resources.Some studentsmight say theSouth becauseSoutherners weredefending theirhomes.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. the Union2. The factoriesproduced moresupplies thatcould be deliveredby the railways.

The pie charts show the relativestrength of the Union and the Confederacy in population and industry.

Total U.S. Manufacturing Plants

Total U.S. Industrial Workers

Source: Encyclopedia Americana

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Charts1. Which side had more resources?2. How might the North’s railwaysand factories have helped its armies?

Resources, 1860

29%71%

29% 71%

15%

85%

8%

92%

Total U.S. Population

Total U.S. Railroad Mileage

Union Confederacy

Battle of Bull RunTo take Richmond, the Union armywould first have to defeat theConfederate troops stationed at thetown of Manassas, Virginia. Thiswas a railway center southwest ofWashington, D.C.

On July 21, 1861, Union forcescommanded by General IrvinMcDowell clashed with Confederateforces headed by General PierreBeauregard near a little creek calledBull Run north of Manassas. In theNorth, this battle came to be knownas the First Battle of Bull Run.

At one point in the battle, a Confederate officer rallied his troops bypointing his sword toward Southern General Thomas J. Jackson. Theofficer cried, “There is Jackson standing like a stone wall! Rally behindthe Virginians!” From this incident, Jackson won the nickname“Stonewall” Jackson. His men held fast against the Union assault.

As fresh troops arrived, the Confederates equaled the Union forces innumber and launched a countercharge. Attacking the Union line, theylet out a blood-curdling scream. This scream, later called the “rebel yell,”caused the Union troops to panic. They broke ranks and scattered.

The Confederate victory in the First Battle of Bull Run thrilled theSouth and shocked the North. Many in the South thought the war waswon. The North realized it had underestimated its opponent. Lincoln sentthe 90-day militias home and called for a real army of 500,000 volunteersfor three years. In the next section, you will learn what army life was like.

The Civil War Begins 485

2. Taking NotesUse a Venn diagram to com-pare and contrast thestrengths of the North andthe South.

3. Main Ideasa. How did citizens in theNorth and the South respondto the outbreak of the Civil War?

b. Why were the borderstates important to bothsides in the Civil War?

c. What kind of military strategy did each sidedevelop?

4. Critical ThinkingComparing How was the South’s situation in the Civil War similar to thesituation of the Patriots inthe Revolutionary War?

THINK ABOUT• their reasons for fighting• their opponents’ strengths

1. Terms & NamesExplain the

significance of:• Fort Sumter• Robert E. Lee• border state• King Cotton• Anaconda Plan• blockade• First Battle of

Bull Run

Section Assessment

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

LANGUAGE ARTSTECHNOLOGY

Read an account of the First Battle of Bull Run. Use the information to write anews article or plan the battle’s home page for the Internet.

1

The ConfederateArmy passes inreview beforeGeneral PierreBeauregard.

Strengthsin

common

North South

BackgroundIn the South, thebattle was calledthe First Battle of Manassas. Inmost cases, theSouth named abattle after anearby town.The North used alandmark nearthe fighting, usually a stream.

488 CHAPTER 16

22 Life in the ArmyLife in the Army TERMS & NAMEShygiene

rifle

minié ball

ironclad

Those Who FoughtLike Peter Vredenburgh, the majority of soldiers in the Civil War werebetween 18 and 30 years of age. But both the Confederate and Unionarmies had younger and older soldiers. Charles Carter Hay was just 11years old when he joined an Alabama regiment. William Wilkins was 83when he became one of the Pennsylvania Home Guards.

Farmers made up the largest group among Civil War soldiers. Abouthalf the soldiers on both sides came from farms. Having rarely traveledfar from their fields, many viewed going off to war as an exciting adven-ture. Some rode a train for the first time.

Both Union and Confederate soldiersendured many hardships serving inthe army during the Civil War.

The hardships endured led to long-lasting bitterness on both sides.

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW

ONE AMERICAN’S STORYWhen the Civil War began, Peter Vredenburgh, Jr., the son of a well-

known judge, was working as a lawyer in Eatontown, New Jersey. In

1862, he answered President Lincoln’s call for an additional 300,000

soldiers. Nearly 26 years old, Vredenburgh became a major in the 14th

Regiment New Jersey Volunteer Infantry. Less than two months after

joining the regiment, he wrote a letter urging his parents to keep his

18-year-old brother from enlisting.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

I am glad that Jim has not joined any Regt. [regiment] and I hope henever will. I would not have him go for all my pay; it would be veryimprobable that we could both go through this war and come outunharmed. Let him come here and see the thousands with their arms and legs off, or if that won’t do, let him go as I did the other day through the Frederick hospitals and see how little account a man’s lifeand limbs are held in by others and what little return he gets inreputation or money for the risk and privations of enlisting and his ideas of the fun of the thing will vanish in thin air.

Major Peter Vredenburgh, Jr., quoted in Upon the Tented Field

On September 19, 1864, Vredenburgh was killed in battle. In this

section, you will learn more about other soldiers and what their

experiences were like.

Major Peter Vredenburgh, Jr., wasan officer in the Union army.

Although the majority of soldiers in the war were born in the UnitedStates, immigrants from other countries also served. German and Irishimmigrants made up the largest ethnic groups. One regiment from NewYork had soldiers who were born in 15 foreign countries. The com-manding officer gave orders in seven languages.

At the beginning of the war, African Americans wanted to fight.They saw the war as a way to end slavery. However, neither the Northnor the South accepted African Americans into their armies. As the wardragged on, the North finally took African Americans into its ranks.Native Americans served on both sides.

In all, about 2 million American soldiers served the Union, and fewerthan 1 million served the Confederacy. The vast majority were volunteers.Why did so many Americans volunteer to fight? Many sought adventureand glory. Some sought an escape from the boredom of farm and factorywork. Some signed up because their friends and neighbors were doing it.Others signed up for the recruitment money offered by both sides.Soldiers also fought because they were loyal to their country or state.

Turning Civilians into SoldiersAfter enlisting, a volunteer was sent to a nearby army camp for training.A typical camp looked like a sea of canvas tents. The tents were groupedby company, and each tent held from two to twentymen. In winter, the soldiers lived in log huts or in heavytents positioned on a log base. In the Civil War, recruitsin training elected their company officers. Both theUnion and Confederate armies followed this practice.

A soldier in training followed a set schedule. A bugleor drum awakened the soldier at dawn. After roll calland breakfast, the soldier had the first of several drill ses-sions. In between drills and meals, soldiers performedguard duty, cut wood for the campfires, dug trenches forlatrines (outdoor toilets), and cleaned up the camp.

Shortly after they came to camp, new recruits weregiven uniforms and equipment. Union soldiers woreblue uniforms, and Confederate soldiers wore gray or

DRILL SESSIONS

“The first thing in the morningis drill. Then drill, then drillagain. Then drill, drill, a littlemore drill. Then drill, and lastlydrill.” That is the way one sol-dier described his day in camp.

A soldier in training mighthave as many as five drill sessionsa day, each lasting up to twohours. The soldiers learned tostand straight and march in for-mation. They also learned toload and fire their guns. Showndrilling below are soldiers of the22nd New York State Militia nearHarpers Ferry, Virginia, in 1862.

A. SummarizingHow did mostmen in the Northand the Southfeel about goingoff to war?A. Answer Mostwere excited bythe idea of adven-ture and commit-ted to doing theirduty for theircountry.

489

yellowish-brown uniforms. Getting a uniform of the right size was aproblem, however. On both sides, soldiers traded items to get clothingthat fit properly.

Early in the war, Northern soldiers received clothing of very poorquality. Contractors took advantage of the government’s need and sup-plied shoddy goods. Shoes made of imitation leather, for example, fellapart when they got wet. In the Confederacy, some states had troubleproviding uniforms at all, while others had surpluses. Because the statesdid not always cooperate and share supplies, Confederate soldiers some-times lacked shoes. Like soldiers in the Revolutionary War, theymarched over frozen ground in bare feet. After battles, needy soldierstook coats, boots, and other clothing from the dead.

At the beginning of the war, most soldiers in army camps received plentyof food. Their rations included beef or salt pork, flour, vegetables, and cof-fee. But when they were in the field, the soldiers’ diet became more limited.Some soldiers went hungry because supply trains could not reach them.

Hardships of Army LifeCivil War soldiers in the field were often wet, muddy, orcold from marching outdoors and living in crude shel-ters. Many camps were unsanitary and smelled from theodors of garbage and latrines. One Union soldierdescribed a camp near Washington. In the camp, cattlewere killed to provide the troops with meat.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

The hides and [waste parts] of the [cattle] for miles uponmiles around, under a sweltering sun and sultry showers,would gender such swarms of flies, armies of worms, blastsof stench and oceans of filth as to make life miserable.

William Keesy, quoted in The Civil War Infantryman

Not only were the camps filthy, but so were the sol-diers. They often went weeks without bathing or wash-ing their clothes. Their bodies, clothing, and beddingbecame infested with lice and fleas.

Poor hygiene—conditions and practices that pro-mote health—resulted in widespread sickness. Mostsoldiers had chronic diarrhea or other intestinal disor-ders. These disorders were caused by contaminated

water or food or by germ-carrying insects. Peopledid not know that germs cause diseases.Doctors failed to wash their hands or theirinstruments. An observer described howsurgeons “armed with long, bloody knivesand saws, cut and sawed away with frightfulrapidity, throwing the mangled limbs on apile nearby as soon as removed.”

DEADLIER THAN BULLETS

“Look at our company—21 havedied of disease, 18 have becomeso unhealthy as to be discharged,and only four have been killed inbattle.” So a Louisiana officerexplained the high death rate inthe Civil War.

More than twice as many mendied of disease as died of battlewounds. Intestinal disorders,including typhoid fever, diarrhea,and dysentery, killed the most.Pneumonia, tuberculosis, andmalaria killed many others. Badwater and food, poor diet, expo-sure to cold and rain, unsanitaryconditions, and disease-carryinginsects all contributed to thehigh rate of disease.

B. Answerattention tohygiene in campsby soldiers anddoctors

B. MakingInferences Whatchanges couldhave helpedlower the spreadof disease amongsoldiers?

BackgroundBefore uniformsbecame standard-ized, soldiersdressed in outfitssupplied fromhome. This causedconfusion on thebattlefield.

490

The Civil War Begins 491

2. Taking NotesComplete the chart below.

Which hardship do you thinkwould have been most diffi-cult to endure? Why?

3. Main Ideasa. How were the wartimeexperiences of Northern andSouthern soldiers alike?

b. What factors contributedto the spread of diseaseamong soldiers?

c. How did the use of the rifle and minié ballchange combat tactics in the Civil War?

4. Critical ThinkingForming and SupportingOpinions What were themotives that led individualsoldiers to fight in the Civil War?

THINK ABOUT• the multiple reasons that

people had for enlisting• what you consider valid

reasons for fighting

1. Terms & NamesExplain the

significance of:• hygiene• rifle• minié ball• ironclad

Section Assessment

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

LANGUAGE ARTSART

Imagine you are a soldier in the Civil War. Write a letter home to your parentsabout your experience or draw an illustrated map of your training camp.

2

Age

Occupation

Training

Hardships

The Typical Civil War Soldier

Vocabularycasualties: num-ber of peoplekilled or injured

C. Answer Rifleswith minié ballsincreased thecasualty rate andchanged battletactics.

C. DrawingConclusionsWhich changes inmilitary technol-ogy had an effecton the averagesoldier? Why?

Changes in Military TechnologyWhile camp life remained rough, military technology advanced.Improvements in the weapons of war had far-reaching effects. Battletactics changed, and casualties soared.

Rifles that used minié balls contributed to the high casualty rate in theCivil War. A rifle is a gun with a grooved barrel that causes a bullet to spinthrough the air. This spin gives the bullet more distance and accuracy. Theminié ball is a bullet with a hollow base. The bullet expands upon firingto fit the grooves in the barrel. Rifles with minié balls could shoot fartherand more accurately than old-fashioned muskets. As a result, mountedcharges and infantry assaults did not work as well. Defenders using riflescould shoot more of the attackers before they got close.

Ironclads, warships covered with iron, proved to be a vast improvementover wooden ships. In the first ironclad battle, the Confederate Virginia(originally named the Merrimack) battled the Union Monitor off the coastof Virginia in 1862. After hammering away for about four hours, the bat-tle ended in a draw. (See page 492 for more information on ironclads.)

Despite new technology and tactics, neither side gained a decisive vic-tory in the first two years of the war, as you will see in the next section.

The naval duelbetween theUnion Monitor andthe ConfederateMerrimack (orVirginia) took placeon March 9, 1862.

ONE AMERICAN’S STORYIn the summer of 1861, President Lincoln gave George McClellan

command of the Union army in the East. The army had recently

been defeated at Bull Run. McClellan faced the task of restoring

the soldiers’ confidence while organizing and training an army

that could defeat the Confederates.

Within months, McClellan had accomplished the task and

won the devotion of his troops. The entire nation expected great

things. In November 1861, Lincoln made McClellan general in chief

of the entire Union army. But while Lincoln kept urging him to

attack Richmond, McClellan kept drilling his troops.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

[S]oon as I feel that my army is well organized and well disciplined andstrong enough, I will advance and force the Rebels to a battle on a fieldof my own selection. A long time must elapse before I can do that.

General George McClellan, quoted in Civil War Journal: The Leaders

Lincoln said McClellan had “the slows.” While McClellan was stalling

in the East, another general was winning victories in the West.

The Civil War Begins 493

33

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW

No End in SightNo End in Sight TERMS & NAMESUlysses S. Grant

Battle of Shiloh

cavalry

Seven Days’ Battles

Battle of Antietam

Union Victories in the WestThat victorious Union general in the West was Ulysses S. Grant. Incivilian life, he had failed at many things. But Grant had a simple strat-egy of war: “Find out where your enemy is, get at him as soon as you can,strike at him as hard as you can, and keep moving on.”

In February 1862, Grant made a bold move to take Tennessee. Usingironclad gunboats, Grant’s forces captured two Confederate river forts.These were Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on thenearby Cumberland. (See map on next page.) The seizure of Fort Henryopened up a river highway into the heart of the South. Union gunboatscould now travel on the river as far as northern Alabama. When the peo-ple of Nashville, Tennessee, heard the forts were lost, they fled the cityin panic. A week later, Union troops marched into Nashville.

President Lincoln (right) meetswith General McClellan (left)on the Antietam battlefield in 1862.

In the first two years of the war,neither side gained a decisive victoryover the other.

A long war can cause much deathand destruction and leave a bitter legacy.

The Battle of ShilohAfter Grant’s river victories, Albert S. Johnston, Confederate commanderon the Western front, ordered a retreat to Corinth, Mississippi. Grant fol-lowed. By early April, Grant’s troops had reached Pittsburg Landing onthe Tennessee River. There he waited for more troops from Nashville.Johnston, however, decided to attack before Grant gained reinforcements.Marching his troops north from Corinth on April 6, 1862, Johnston sur-prised the Union forces near Shiloh Church. The Battle of Shiloh inTennessee turned into the fiercest fighting the Civil War had yet seen.

Commanders on each side rode into the thick of battle to rally theirtroops. One Union general, William Tecumseh Sherman, had threehorses shot out from under him. General Johnston was killed, and thecommand passed to General Pierre Beauregard. By the end of the day,each side believed that dawn would bring victory.

That night, there was a terrible thunderstorm. Lightning lit up thebattlefield, where dead and dying soldiers lay in water and mud. Duringthe night, Union boats ran upriver to ferry fresh troops to Grant’s camp.Grant then led an attack at dawn and forced the exhausted Southerntroops to retreat.

The cost of the Union victory was staggering. Union casualties atShiloh numbered over 13,000, about one-fourth of those who had fought.The Confederates lost nearly 11,000 out of 41,000 soldiers. Describing

Corinth

Vicksburg

MississippiR

.

O

hio R.

Gulf of Mexico

90°W

95°W110°

W

120°

W

115°

W 85W

ILLINOISINDIANA

MICHIGAN

OIOWA

MINNESOTA

WISCONSIN

MISSOURI

ARKANSAS

TEXASLOUISIANA

MISSISSIPPI

ALABAMA G

TENNESSEE

KENTUCKYFt. DonelsonFeb. 1862

Ft. HenryFeb. 1862

494 CHAPTER 16

A. Answer Grantwas a bold anddecisive leaderwhile McClellanwas slow and cau-tious.

A. ContrastingHow did Grantdiffer fromMcClellan as amilitary leader?

The Civil War, 1861–1862

Corinth

Mi s s i s sippi R. O

hio R.

35°N

90°W

ILLINOISINDIANA

MISSOURI

MISSISSIPPI

ARKANSASTENNESSEE

KENTUCKY

ALABAMA

Ft. HenryFeb. 1862

Ft. DonelsonFeb. 1862

Pea RidgeMarch 1862

Shiloh(Pittsburg Landing)

April 1862

Grant

A. Johnston

0

0

100 Miles

200 Kilometers

MISSISSIPPILOUISIANA

ALA.

90°W

30°N

Vicksburg

New Orleans

FarragutM

is s i ss ip p i R .

Gulf ofMexico

0

0

50 Miles

100 Kilometers

A

B

A. Battles of the West

B. Fall of New Orleans

the piles of mangled bodies, General Sherman wrotehome, “The scenes on this field would have cured any-body of war.” Congressmen criticized Grant for thehigh casualties and urged Lincoln to replace him. ButLincoln replied, “I can’t spare this man—he fights.”

The Fall of New OrleansThe spring of 1862 brought other bad news for the Confederacy. OnApril 25, a Union fleet led by David Farragut captured New Orleans, thelargest city in the South. Rebel gunboats tried to ram the Union war-ships and succeeded in sinking one. Farragut’s ships had to run throughcannon fire and then dodge burning rafts in order to reach the city.Residents stood on the docks and cursed the Yankee invaders, but theywere powerless to stop them.

The fall of New Orleans was a heavy blow to the South. Mary Chesnutof South Carolina, the wife of an aide to President Davis, wrote in herdiary, “New Orleans gone—and with it the Confederacy. Are we not cutin two?” Indeed, after the victories of General Grant and AdmiralFarragut, only a 150-mile stretch of the Mississippi remained in Southernhands. The Union was well on its way to achieving its goal of cutting theConfederacy in two. But guarding the remaining stretch of the river wasthe heavily armed Confederate fort at Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Richmond

Washington, D.C.

Charleston

o

A T L A N T I C

O C E A N

30°N

25°N85°W

80°W

75°W

70°W

65°W

60°W

35°N

40°N

45°N

N

OHIO

A GEORGIA

FLORIDA

SOUTHCAROLINA

NORTHCAROLINA

NEWYORK

N.J.

CONN.

MASS.

MAINE

VT.

R.I .

N.H.

DEL.MD.

VIRGINIA

PENNSYLVANIA

Y

CANADA

n

Union

Block

ade

Ft. Sumter

Area controlled by UnionArea won by Union, 1861–1862Area controlled by ConfederacyUnion troop movementsConfederate troop movementsUnion victoryConfederate victoryFortCapital

0

0

300 Miles

600 Kilometers

The Civil War Begins 495

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Location Where did most of the

early Union victories take place?Where did early Confederatevictories take place?

2. Region Why did much of thefighting take place in the Virginia-Maryland region?

B. Answer It low-ered Southernmorale. It helpedthe North cut theSouth in two.

B. RecognizingEffects Why was the fall ofNew Orleans significant?

Sh

e n a n d o a hVa l l e y

0

0

50 Miles

100 Kilometers

76°W

40°N

VIRGINIA

MARYLAND

PENNSYLVANIA

Richmond

Washington, D.C.

Sharpsburg

Harpers Ferry

Manassas Jct.

Poto

mac R.

Rappahannock R.

Chesapeake

Bay

James R.

Monitor & VirginiaMarch 1862

McClellan

Lee 1862

Lee

Lee

Pope

McClellan

AntietamSept. 1862

Bull Run: 1st, July 1861 2nd, Aug. 1862

Seven Days’June 1862

FredericksburgDec. 1862

Burnside

“I can’t sparethis man–he fights.”

Abraham Lincoln,describing General Grant

SkillbuilderAnswers1. Early Union victories took placein the West; earlyConfederate victories took placein the East.2. because it wasnear Union andConfederate capitals

C

C. Battles of the East

Lee Claims Victories in the EastMeanwhile, also in the spring of 1862, McClellan finally made his move totry to capture Richmond. He planned to attack the Confederate capital byway of a stretch of land between the York and James rivers. McClellan suc-ceeded in bringing his troops within a few miles of Richmond.

But in June 1862, Robert E. Lee took charge of the Army of NorthernVirginia and proceeded to turn the situation around. Lee sent Jeb Stuartand his cavalry—soldiers on horseback—to spy on McClellan. Withabout 1,000 men, Stuart rode around the whole Union army in a few daysand reported its size back to Lee. Lee then attacked McClellan’s army.The two sides clashed for a week, from June 25 to July 1, 1862, in whatbecame known as the Seven Days’ Battles. The Army of NorthernVirginia suffered heavier losses, but it forced McClellan’s army to retreat.

In late August, the Confederates won a second victory at Bull Run,and Union troops withdrew back to Washington.Within just a few months, Lee had ended the Unionthreat in Virginia.

Lee Invades the NorthRiding a wave of victories, General Lee decided toinvade the Union. He wrote to tell President Davis of hisplan. Lee thought it was a crucial time, with the Northat a low point. Without waiting for Davis’s response, Leecrossed the Potomac with his army and invadedMaryland in early September 1862.

Lee had several reasons for taking the war to theNorth. He hoped a victory in the North might forceLincoln to talk peace. The invasion would give Virginiafarmers a rest from war during the harvest season. TheConfederates could plunder Northern farms for food.

Lee hoped the invasion would show that theConfederacy could indeed win the war, which might con-vince Europe to side with the South. By this time, bothBritain and France were leaning toward recognizing theConfederacy as a separate nation.They were impressed byLee’s military successes, and their textile industry wasnow hurting from the lack of Southern cotton.

Bloody AntietamSoon after invading Maryland, Lee drew up a plan for hiscampaign in the North. A Confederate officer acciden-tally left a copy of Lee’s battle plans wrapped around threecigars at a campsite. When Union troops stopped to restat the abandoned campsite, a Union soldier stumbled onthe plans. The captured plans gave McClellan a chance tostop Lee and his army.

496 CHAPTER 16

JEFFERSON DAVIS

1808–1889

Jefferson Davis expected to begiven a military command whenthe Confederacy was formed in1861. But Davis was chosenPresident of the Confederacyinstead, which stunned and saddened him.

Because of his strong sense ofduty and loyalty to the South,Davis accepted the unwelcomepost. He had to immediately forma national government and pre-pare for war at the same time.Davis found it hard to compro-mise or accept disagreement withhis opinions.

How do the qualities requiredin a military leader differfrom those required in apolitical leader?

C. MakingInferences Howwas Lee’s appoint-ment fortunatefor the South?C. Answer Itcame at a timewhen the Southappeared to belosing; Lee turnedthe situationaround.

D. Reading a MapUse the map onpage 495 to fol-low Lee’s move-ments into theNorth.

McClellan went on the attack, though he moved slowly as always. OnSeptember 17, 1862, at Antietam Creek near Sharpsburg, Maryland,McClellan’s army clashed with Lee’s.The resulting Battle of Antietam wasthe bloodiest day in all of American history. A Confederate officer laterdescribed the battle.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

Again and again . . . by charges and counter-charges, this portion of the fieldwas lost and recovered, until the green corn that grew upon it looked as if ithad been struck by a storm of bloody hail. . . . From sheer exhaustion, bothsides, like battered and bleeding athletes, seemed willing to rest.

John B. Gordon, quoted in Voices of the Civil War

After fighting all day, neither side had gained any ground by nightfall.The only difference was that about 25,000 men were dead or wounded.Lee, who lost as much as one-third of his fighting force, withdrew toVirginia. The cautious McClellan did not follow, missing a chance to fin-ish off the crippled Southern army. Lincoln was so fed up that he firedMcClellan in November, 1862. In the next chapter, you will learn aboutthe historic action Lincoln took after the Battle of Antietam.

The Civil War Begins 497

2. Taking NotesReview the section and findfive key events to place on atime line as shown.

Which of these events do youthink was most important?

3. Main Ideasa. Why were Union victoriesin the West and the fall ofNew Orleans significant tothe Union cause?

b. Why did Lee go on theoffensive against the North?

c. How did the South’s for-tunes change after Lee tookcommand of the Army ofNorthern Virginia?

4. Critical ThinkingMaking Inferences Whatdoes Lee’s invasion of theNorth suggest about hisqualities as a general and a leader?

THINK ABOUT• Lee’s military skills

and style• the North’s resources

1. Terms & NamesExplain the

significance of:• Ulysses S. Grant• Battle of Shiloh• cavalry• Seven Days’ Battles• Battle of Antietam

Section Assessment

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

GEOGRAPHYART

Develop a new military strategy for either the North or the South. Show yourstrategy on a map or in a diagram of troop movements.

3

Confederateartillery soldierslie dead after the Battle ofAntietam.

18631860

event

event event

event event