1 The start of the Modern Age. The 15th and 16th...

24

Unit presentation

The study of the Modern Age begins with a presentation of the changes in the international panorama and in the political, economic, social, cultural and artistic aspects in relation to the previous medieval period. The unit opens with the geographical discoveries, focusing on their causes and the expansion of the world as it was known up until then. This is followed by the major changes in the Modern Age in Europe. These are the birth of the modern State; demographic growth; economic progress; changes in the society of the three estates; the breakdown of religious unity through the Protestant reformation and the reform of the Catholic Church; the features of the new humanist mentality; and the architectural, sculptural and pictorial contributions of the Renaissance. The technique of working with historical time and space helps students acquire this basic content, which has already been worked in previous years.

Transversal elements

■ Encouraging reading and reading comprehension

•At the beginning of each section, students should be allowed to read each of the headings to themselves. Then, one of them can read aloud for the whole class. These activities will promote reading comprehension and foster an interest in group reading.

•In order to promote knowledge about the ‘wars of religion’, you can suggest that students read The Merchant of Venice, by Riccardo Calimani (Grijalbo, 2009). This book is about a Jew who takes refuge in Venice for protection from the persecution that members of the Jewish religion suffered in the 16th century.

•Throughout the unit, teachers should highlight the basic terms and concepts related to the modern State, the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, the Renaissance and humanism.

■ Written and oral communication

•All the activities should be completed in the students’ notebooks. This is one more learning tool, so students should take great care in their written expression, always trying to correct any errors, with the goal of trying to learn from their mistakes. It is important to make summaries of the characteristics of the authoritarian monarchy, the religious reforms, humanism and the Renaissance. Writing is also important when students define terms, such as authoritarian monarchy, diplomacy, etc., as well as knowing how to summarise when creating comparative tables.

• As the topic develops, students must take special care to express the main ideas of the unit correctly. In order to achieve this objective, teachers can provide oral comments on the illustrations, encouraging students to participate orally in the group.

■ Encouraging ICT skills

•In order to develop ICT skills and take advantage of digital whiteboards and computing resources, interactive activities can

be carried out. This will reinforce the content that is being taught. Students can also do virtual tours of some of the places, or recreate spaces explained in the unit.

•Some interesting sites on the Internet for the unit are: www.anayadigital.com (interactive activities): timeline (1400-1600); the caravel; map of trade routes in the 16th century; map of Europe during the Reformation; and artistic expression.

•Europe in the 16th century: http://librosvivos.net/smtc/PagPorFormulario.asp?idIdioma=ES&TemaClave=1199&est=1

•Political, economic, social, religious, cultural and artistic changes: http://iris.cnice.mec.es/kairos/ensenanzas/eso/moderna/emoderno_00.html

•Discoveries of America: http://www.hiru.com/historia/descubrimiento-y-conquista-de-america

•Reformation and Counter-Reformation: http://www.hiru.com/historia/reforma-y-contrarreforma

•The Italian Renaissance in the 16th century: http://clio.rediris.es/n33/n33/arte/14RenaXVI.pdf

•Historical maps: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/map_sites/hist_sites.html

Videos on the Internet: América, un nuevo mundo (rtve.es); Colón y la era del descubrimiento – La travesía (rtve.es); Palacios renacentistas (Artehistoria); Michelangelo, a Superstar (Canal Historia); Leonardo da Vinci (Canal Historia); La Capilla Sixtina (Artehistoria).

■ Caring for and showing an interest in the environment

Although this teaching unit does not seem to have any direct link to the environment, you can include it in a multi-disciplinary way when working on the discoveries and their implications in colonised countries. In this way, the new forms of agriculture and animal husbandry or the scientific and technical advances brought to these new countries from the ‘old continent’ can show how human activity always produces an unwelcome side effect in environmental degradation.

■ Planning tasks

Use students prior knowledge as a starting point. Therefore, in order to get started on the unit, read out the title, and listen to students’ ideas about what ‘The start of the Modern Age’ brings to mind for them. You can ask questions such as the following: What is the Modern Age? To what does the term Age refer? If we make reference to the term ‘Modern’, what Age went before it? Why is this stage of history called Modern?

It is also a good time to recall the chronology. So you should limit study to the 16th and 17th centuries, making clear the dates these centuries begin and end.

The start of the Modern Age. The 15th and 16th centuries

24

1

25

Teaching resources

■ Cartography

•Globe and maps of the world in the 15th and 16th centuries (maps by Fra Mauro, Juan de la Cosa, etc.).

•Atlas del Mundo, Anaya, 1998.

•Fatás, G., and Borrás, G. M. : Diccionario de términos de arte y arqueología, Alianza Editorial, 1988.

■ Audiovisuals

•Videos and DVDs: Martin Luther (2 DVD. Áncora Audiovisual); Las guerras de religión (Vídeo. Áncora Audiovisual); El Renacimiento y la época de los descubrimientos (Vídeo. Áncora Audiovisual); Explorar el Renacimiento (Vídeo. Áncora Audiovisual); El Renacimiento. Grandes Épocas del Arte (Vídeo. Metrovídeo, Madrid); Renacimiento Historia Universal del Arte (Vídeo. MEC. 86 minutos); Los Médicis, padrinos del Renacimiento (4 DVD. Áncora Audiovisual); La Florencia de los Médicis. Las ciudades del arte (Vídeo-CD. Ediciones Dolmen); La Roma de Miguel Ángel y Rafael. Las ciudades del arte (Vídeo-CD. Ediciones Dolmen); Leonardo da Vinci/Durero. Genios de la pintura II (Ediciones Dolmen); Primitivos flamencos (Vídeo. MEC. 13 minutos); Van Eyck. Genios de la pintura II (Ediciones Dolmen).

•CD-ROMs: Artistas y mecenas: Los grandes momentos del Arte (Ediciones Dolmen). Sobre el Renacimiento italiano: El despertar de Europa. Los grandes momentos del Arte. (Ediciones Dolmen). Sobre el Renacimiento europeo: Botticelli. Genios de la pintura I (Ediciones Dolmen).

■ Bibliography for teachers

•Argán, G. C.: El arte moderno. Editorial Akal, 2004.

•Benassar, B.: La Europa del Renacimiento. Colección Biblioteca Básica de Historia. Editorial Anaya. Madrid, 2003.

•Burke, P.: Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe. Ashgate, 2009.

•Cameron; E. : The Sixteenth Century (Short Oxford History of Europe) Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006.

•Domínguez Ortiz, A.: Historia Universal. Edad Moderna. Editorial Vicens Vives. Barcelona, 1983.

•Gamarra Caballero, J. M.: Historia Moderna. Diputación Provincial de Madrid, 2008.

•Hinrichs, E.: Introducción a la Historia de la Edad Moderna. Editorial Akal, 2004. Barcelona, 2001.

•Ribot, L.: Historia del mundo moderno. Actas, 2006.

•Tallon, A.: La Europa del Renacimiento. Ed. Da Vinci, 2009.

•VV. AA.: Historia Moderna. Akal. Barcelona, 1991.

•VV. AA.: Manual de Historia Moderna. Ariel. Barcelona, 2000.

Unit outline

25

The Modern Age

Geographical discoveries

Birth of the modern State

Progress in the economy

Religious changes

Change in world view

Renaissance artistic style

Lutheran reform

Calvinist reform

Anglican reform

Wars of religion

Catholic Counter-Reformation

Council of Trent

Agrarian activities

Mercantile capitalism

Social transformations

Handicrafts

Trade

Authoritarian monarchies

Demographic changes

Increase of the population

Instruments

Periods Patrons

Humanism

Journeys

Academies

Printing press

Architecture Other European countries

Sculpture

Painting

Quattrocento Medicis

Cinquecento Popes

Causes

PoliticalEconomicScientific

TechniquesReligious

Ideological

Portuguese explorations

Discovery of America

Sharing out of the world

produced

reflected in which gave rise to reflected in

disseminated through

these ideas, applied to art, gave rise to

which emerged in Italy in the15th century

Provoked

It is divided into It is reflected in It spread toIt was driven by

which had brought about by

who reinforced their power using

led to

reflected in

26

■ Starting a new topic• This unit starts with the great changes in the 15th and 16th centuries: the

geographical discoveries that led to the discovery of America and sharing out the world; the introduction of the modern State with the birth of the authoritarian monarchies; economic transformations that affected agriculture, animal husbandry and trade; the demographic changes caused by an increase in population; the religious changes that gave rise to the Protestant reforms (Lutheran, Calvinist and Anglican); and finally, the change in world view expressed via humanism, which was spread through academies and the printing press, and which would bring about the artistic Renaissance.

• The illustrated timeline serves to exemplify some of these changes by comparing them with the previous historical period, the Middle Ages.

■ Exploring existing ideas • The explanation prior to the study of this unit should highlight the

political and economic maturity that Western Europe had reached in the second half of the 15th century.

• In order for students to show what they remember about this event, as an initial activity you could ask some brainstorming questions about the illustrations in the timeline. You could also ask students to define terms such as serfdom, the known continents, the society of the three estates, Romanesque and Gothic.

■ Learning difficulties and methodology• Students should learn to differentiate the change in historical age from

the Middle Ages to the Modern Age. This could cause difficulty in understanding the different chronology of both periods.

Therefore, we suggest you employ a methodology that makes use of maths skills in an initial review exercise, which convert years (for example those given in the timeline) into centuries.

• It would also be an opportune moment to identify some historical figures (e.g., Christopher Columbus) and understand the importance of biographies to the study of history.

• Finally, art is the subject of a very important section of this unit. Presenting the study of art through the artists (Brunelleschi, Donatello, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo) may facilitate the introduction of this new historical period.

■ Focus on English FOCUSon English

This activity develops student’s cultural knowledge.

■ Answer key1 In 1453 the Turks captured Constantinople.

In 1492 the discovery of America took place.

2 We suggest you perform this activity in pairs using the technique of cooperative work.

The change that can be seen is that in the map of 1407 only three continents are represented: Europe, Africa and Asia. In comparison, the Portuguese map of 1565 also shows America, as well as what seems to be an ice-free Antarctica. (Although, in reality, this could be the coast of Patagonia. This error is due to the fact that Diego Homen used earlier maps such as the Piri Reis map).

3 Answers to the questions are as follows.

a) The society of the three estates.

b) Other religions appear: Calvinism, Anglican, Lutheran and Catholic.

c) The Renaissance. It coexisted for about 100 years.

1200

GOTHIC ART RENAISSANCE ART

SOCIETY DIVIDED INTO THREE ESTATES

MODERN AGE

MIDDLE AGES AUTHORITARIAN MONARCHY

CALVINISTS

ANGLICANS

LUTHERANSCATHOLICS

FEUDAL MONARCHY

AR

TSO

CIE

TY

RE

LIG

ION

PO

LIT

ICS

DIS

CO

VE

RIE

S

1250 1300 1350 1400 14501500

16001550

1565Diogo Homem’s Portuguese Atlas

1541 Michelangelo completes the Last Judgment

Between 1503 and 1519 Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa

1440 Donatello sculpts David

1517 Martin Luther

begins the Lutheran

Reform

1534 Rupture between Henry VIII and Rome

1492 Discovery of America

1453 The Turks capture Constantinople

Serfdom

1407 Map showing the three known continents: Europe, Africa and Asia, and the Rivers Nile and Don (frontier between Europe and Asia)

1536 John Calvin begins to preach the Calvinist doctrine

1563 Conclusion of the Council of Trent

Formation of worldwide colonial empires

1420 Brunelleschi begins work on the dome of Florence Cathedral

Circa 1350, Maestre Pero sculpts The Virgin of the O

Cathedral of Notre Dame

(1163-1245), in Paris

Privileged: monarch, pope, high-ranking nobility, senior clergy,

hight-ranking nobility and junior clergy. Non-privileged: peasants,

artisans and servants.

The bourgeoisie becomes wealthier and exerts its influence over other urban social groups.

1The start of the

www.anayaeducacion.es

Modern Age. The 15th and 16th centuriesStarting a new topicThis first History unit is focused on the 15th and 16th centuries and the political, economic, social, cultural and artistic changes that took place during these centuries in relation to the Middle Ages.

Over the course of this chapter, you will learn to distinguish between the different historical periods that are used, develop an understanding of the geographical discoveries made by the Castilians and Portuguese and be able to assess their consequences.

It will also help you to understand the works and cultural legacy of the artists, humanists and scientists of the period.

Gothic is a word used to describe a type of art that appeared in the Middle Ages. At the beginning it had a negative connotation, as it was used to refer to the peoples that invaded the Roman Empire and destroyed many of its main buildings and other works of art.

FOCUSon English

Playing with time1

2

3

27

10 11

1.1 A new historical periodThe Modern Age is the historical period from the 15th to the 18th century. The year in which this period began is a subject of debate amongst historians. The most widely accepted dates are either the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) or the discovery of America (1492). Its conclusion is marked by the French Revolution (1789).

The Modern Age is often divided into a number of sub-periods which have more or less homogeneous features: the 16th century, or Renaissance period; the 17th century, or Baroque period; and the 18th century, or Enlightenment and Absolutism.

1.2 Changes in the 15th and 16th centuriesFrom the mid-15th century and over the course of the 16th century, Europe underwent transformations that affected all areas of life.

•The international panorama changed due to these significant events:

– The disappearance of the Byzantine Empire; following the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Western Christianity felt increasingly under threat from the Muslim world.

– The geographical discoveries made by the Portuguese and Castilians in Africa, America and Asia extended the frontiers of the world known to Europeans. Thanks to these discoveries, some countries, such as Spain and Portugal, established extensive colonial empires whose wealth stimulated world trade.

– The struggle for European hegemony confronted the major states against one another; during the 16th century the Spanish state imposed its dominance.

• The feudal system entered a period of crisis. The feudal kingdoms were substituted by the modern State and authoritarian monarchies. The feudal economy, which had been focused on the possession of land, gave way to commercial capitalism, which was based on the accumulation of large amounts of capital through trade and colonisation. During this process, the bourgeoisie gained greater importance with the society of the three estates.

•Western religious unity collapsed. This rupture was prompted by the Protestant Reformation and gave rise to a number of serious armed conflicts known as the ‘wars of religion’.

•Medieval culture was replaced by a new world view, Humanism, which was focused on the human being, giving rise to a new artistic style: the Renaissance.

UNIT

1

Spanish territories

Portuguese territories

0 1500 3000 4500 km

KnownTerritories: Little known Unknown

PA C I F I C

O C E A N

PA C I F I C

O C E A N

AT L A N T I C

O C E A N I N D I A N

O C E A N

B R A Z I L

PHILIPPINES

C H I N A

INDIA

EASTINDIES

SPICEISLANDS

WESTINDIES

Canary Islands

Azores

CapeVerde

Madeira Islands

Sao Tomé

A S I A

EUROPE

A F R I C A

N O RT HA M E R I C A

S O U T HA M E R I C A

Worldwidechanges.Theextensionoftheknownworldandthemajorcolonialempires

1563

1453

Capture ofConstantinople

by the Turks

Leon BattistaAlberticompletesthe building ofSanta MariaNovella1469

1470

1479

1492

1494

1517

15181519

1522

1534

1540

1541

15431545

Treaty of Alcáçovas

Discovery of America

Treaty of Tordesillas

Luther rejects the sale of indulgencesand publishes his Ninety-FiveTheseson the Power and Ef�cacyof Indulgences

Henry VIIIdeclares himself

head of the Churchof England

Saint Ignatius of Loyolafounds the Society of Jesus

Copernicusdevelops theheliocentrictheory

Michelangelopaints the SistineChapel frescoes

FIRST VOYAGEAROUNDTHE WORLD

CATHOLIC MONARCHS

COUNCILOF TRENT

ThestartoftheModernAge

Skills progressDealing with temporal information

1 Relate these dates with an historical event and explain their significance in relation to the Modern Age: 1789, 1492 and 1453.

At the beginning of the Modern Age, the world known to Europeans was very limited (1): it was restricted to Western Europe and the Mediterranean region. Beyond this, people had heard vague references to African and Asian kingdoms and empires from medieval voyagers such as Marco Polo.

Exploratory voyages made it possible for other civilisations to be discovered and resulted in the creation of the Spanish and Portuguese colonial empires (2) during the 16th century. The exchange of goods between states and their colonies encouraged transatlantic trade and enabled people to discover new products.

2

1

Understanding historical reality

2Relate these terms to a century: Baroque, Renaissance, Absolutism.

3These terms refer to periods within the Modern Age. What is the difference between an age and a period?

Organising information

4Create a table showing the changes that took place at the start of the Modern Age in relation to the Middle Ages.

Skills progress

ChangeinEurope.Fromthefeudalsystemtothemodernworld

From the 15th century, the feudal system and traditional beliefs underwent a major crisis. Monarchs (A) ruled over the nobility and city governments. Commerce became very important and ever more widespread, so the bourgeoisie made considerable

fortunes. The Protestant Reformation questioned the authority of the papacy (B), as shown by this critique of Papal Indulgences. Humanism, lay culture and the renaissance of Greek and Roman culture and art (C) were developed and spread by intellectuals.

A B C

1 The Modern Agewww.anayaeducacion.es

■ Methodological suggestions•Begin by emphasising the definition of the new historical period being

studied: The Modern Age, identifying the term by its start and end date. For this, you can explain to the students about the importance of two historic events. The first event was in 1453, the date on which the Turks took the city of Constantinople, causing the end of the Byzantine Empire. This was a great shock to the West, as it was considered the beginning of the end of Christianity. The second important event occurred in 1492, with the discovery of America. This was associated with the name of Christopher Columbus, and would involve new geographical discoveries.

• The second section deals with the great transformations that occurred in Europe since the mid-fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. To facilitate understanding, these changes should be grouped into international, political, religious, artistic and cultural.

For the international changes, group together all the different events. The taking of Constantinople by the Turks stopped the trade routes of Europe with the Far East, forcing them to find alternative routes to transport the spices and luxury products from India and China. This led to the struggle for power between the major European states.

The other changes could also be grouped using the illustrations A, B and C, which show the changes in Europe.

■ Reinforcement activities1 Identify the continents that appear in the map showing Castilian and

Portuguese territories (on page 11 of the Student’s Book).

■ Extension activities1 Look for information on one of the following historical terms reflected

in the timeline: The Catholic Monarchs; first voyage around the world; the Council of Trent.

■ Answer key1 1789, the French Revolution, the end of the Modern Age; 1492, the

discovery of America, the beginning of the Modern Age; 1453, the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, the beginning of the Modern Age.

2 Baroque: 17th century; Renaissance: 16th century; Absolutism: 18th century.

3 The aim of this exercise is that students should understand the concepts and be able to explain their differences. An Age is a historical period covering several centuries, with its beginning and end determined by a date. A period refers to a section of time characterised by a few more or less homogeneous features (such as an artistic, literary, or philosophical movement), which falls within an Age. Historians divide the study of history into periods to distinguish or differentiate those common traits of a historic era that make it important enough to be different from other periods.

4 With this activity, you want to find out if students know about the changes that distinguish the Modern Age from the Middle Ages.

Middle Ages The Modern Age

International

Byzantine Empire

The known world: Europe, East Asia and North Africa

European kingdoms

Disappearance of the Byzanti-ne empire

The known world: Europe, Asia, Africa and America

Struggle for European hege-mony: Spain

Political Feudal kingdoms Authoritarian monarchies

Economical Feudal Mercantile capitalism

Religious Religious unityRupture: Protestant Reforma-tion

Cultural MedievalHumanism and the Renaissance

28

12 13

Old and new routes

The extension of European knowledge of the world and the exploration of new geographical spaces is due to a range of causes.

2.1 Political and economic causes•Political causes. Following the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula,

the Christian kingdoms continued their expansion by taking control of new territories. For the monarchs who were establishing their authority, the conquest of territories was an opportunity to acquire gold and silver to finance their rule as well as gain personal glory. It was a way to demonstrate their power over the medieval institutions.

•Economic consequences. The fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453) had closed the traditional European trade route that brought supplies of spices from Asia. Therefore, to bring them to Europe it was necessary to use a new route. There was also interest in finding a new sea route to India and China, in order to bring back luxury products (silk, precious stones), as well as a route giving direct access to Sudan’s gold mines and other North African products (slaves, ivory).

2.2 Scientific and technical causes•Scientific causes. During this period, books argued that the Earth

was round and much smaller that it really is (Ptolemy’s Geographia, Pierre d’Ailly’s Imago Mundi). As a result, curious sailors considered it feasible to reach India or China by sailing westwards.

•Technical causes. Sea navigation improved thanks to the widespread use of the compass and the improvement of the astrolabe, which enabled mariners to find their way by night, using the stars as a guide. The development of cartography provided new world maps and portolan charts, which set out the location of ports and enabled ships to navigate without needing to keep the coast in sight. Besides, in southern Spain and Portugal, new types of ship were built, such as the caravel and carrack, constructed to take advantage of the wind and withstand the big waves of the Atlantic thanks to their large sails and high gunwales.

2.3 Religious and ideological causes•Religious causes. The peninsular kingdoms maintained their desire

to fight against the infidel and to create alliances against them. This prompted the interest in finding the legendary Christian kingdom of Prester John, which was thought to be in Africa and surrounded by the infidel. There was also considerable interest in spreading Christianity to new lands.

•Ideological causes. The cultural attitude of the era encouraged a thirst for adventure, fame and wealth. Humanists and scholars were interested in checking the veracity of ancient texts and the accuracy of mathematical and astronomical methods.

UNIT

1

Spices and si lk were essential commodities in Europe during this period. They arrived via the Asian routes and Constantinople (A).

These routes were closed following the city’s capture by the Turks, and this encouraged the search for a route providing direct access to the products. The Castilians tried to get there by travelling west, but America stood in their way. The Portuguese achieved it by sailing along the coast of Africa until they reached India (B).

The word reconquest is widely used to refer to the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Christian kingdoms during the last part of the 15th century. However, this term is now obsolete.

FOCUSon English

B


1 Draw a diagram setting out the causes of the geographical discoveries.

Working with maps

2Looking at the traditional trade routes, which modern countries did spices and silk travel through before reaching Europe? Use an atlas as a guide.

Skills progress

The caravel was a lightweight vessel with three masts, enabling it to combine square and triangular sails and navigate even in adverse wind conditions. It also had a hold which could carry plenty of supplies for long journeys.

Portolan chart

Astrolabe

The caravel, a new type of ship

When far at out at sea, the sailors of the period used simple but efficient instruments.

With the Jacob’s staff and quadrant they could measure the sun’s height above the horizon at midday, or that of the North Star at night: they were thereby able to calculate which latitude they were in.

The portolan charts were maps which had a graphic scale and were marked with routes; they made it easier to use compasses to check the direction of the ship when out at sea.

The astrolabe enabled them to use the stars to measure distances and to check the ship’s latitude as well as the time. The nocturnal was used to measure time at night and also the tides.

High gunwale to withstand

powerful waves

Square sails to provide

greater speed

Triangular sail to tack with greater ease

Large hold to store merchandise

Three masts to sail faster

Quadrant

Compass

A

Nautical instruments and new ships

Skills progress

Obtaining information

3Find information and photographs of the Jacob’s staff and nocturnal. Write a summary of these two navigation tools.

2 The discoveries (I). Causes behind the process


■ Methodological suggestionsThe causes of the great discoveries are very varied. Because of their historical importance and because of what the topic involves for students, it would be useful to give some additional information on some of them. This is the case for what was involved in the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453.

«The fall of Constantinople was the birth of the Turkish-Ottoman empire. Greek intellectuals brought ancient culture to Italy. The Europeans no longer had access to the Black Sea and lost their means of communication with India, and began the search for a new form of communication. This would bring about the new discoveries».

For students to understand the importance of this historic event, you can watch a brief video / documentary on the fall of Constantinople, for example, on the the History Channel: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4virbaizxyo

You can also read and see texts in the Virtual Library of Miguel de Cervantes at: http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/bib/portal/constantinopla/pcuartonivel9aff.html?conten=periodos


This activity develops student’s cultural knowledge.

■ Reinforcement activities2 Define the following concepts:

– Imago Mundi.

– Ptolemy’s Geographia.

■ Extension activities2 Do some research on the ships that enabled the voyages to explore

new territories to take place.

3 Explain the differences between a caravel and carrack.

■ Answer key1 The diagram should contain the following causes:

– Policies: increase in the power of the kings.

– Economical: new trade routes.

– Scientific: geographical knowledge of the world.

– Techniques: new technical instruments such as the compass and the astrolabe, the progress in cartography (new world maps and portulan charts) and new vessels, such as the carrack and the caravel.

– Religious: the fight against the infidels and the extension of Christianity.

– Ideological: the thirst for adventure, fame and wealth and the veracity of the humanists.

2 (CHINA) The Chinese collected spices from the Eastern Islands and delivered them to the port of Malacca (MALASIA). Here, Arab merchants transported them to INDIA. They then transported the spices to the Mediterranean basin, following two routes: a sea route bordering ARABIA and the Red Sea, arriving at EGYPT, and an overland route through the Persian Gulf (PERSIA), that went to IRAN, IRAQ, the ports of Damascus (SYRIA) and Constantinople (TURKEY), where Italian merchants moved the goods to Venice, Genoa, and the rest of Europe.

3 The goal is for students to search for the information and explain it clearly in writing.

Open answer.

Jacob’s staff. You can see one at the Royal Academy of Mathematics, at the website of the National Science and Technology Museum (MUNCYT): http://www.muncyt.es/portal/site/MUNCYT/menuitem.5bea45bb8877d2f87d40f71001432ea0/?vgnextoid=3e6a57cbe6557310VgnVCM1000001d04140aRCRD

Nocturnal. You can see one at the website of the Virtual Museum of Science (CSIC): http://museovirtual.csic.es/salas/luz/luz12.htm

29

14 15

3.1 The Portuguese explorationsFrom the mid-15th century, the Portuguese prince, Henry the Navigator, encouraged the development of navigation skills and the exploration of the African coast. Portugal’s aim was to gain access to Sudan’s gold supplies and trade with India by following the African coast. There was considerable rivalry with Castilla in this region, but it was resolved with the signing of the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479. The treaty granted Castilla the right to conquer the Canary Islands, while Portugal was allowed to explore the African coast south of Cape Bojador.

Over the course of a series of exploratory journeys along the African Coast, the Portuguese occupied the Madeira, Azores and Cape Verde archipelagos. They reached Cape Bojador in 1431 and the Gulf of Guinea in 1460. Finally, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1487, then in 1498 Vasco da Gama reached India. Along the African and Asian coasts, the Portuguese founded colonies and built forts to oversee the trade in Sudanese gold and slaves and also monopolise the spice trade with India and the silk trade with China.

3.2 Castilla. The discovery of AmericaAmerica was discovered by Christopher Columbus, a sailor who may have been born in Genoa. His aim, based on his conviction that the world was round, was to sail westwards across the Atlantic to reach India. He first presented his project to King John II of Portugal in 1484, but the king rejected it. It was then offered to the Catholic Monarchs, who accepted it in their Capitulations of Santa Fe (1492).

Columbus set sail with three boats from the port of Palos (Huelva). He stopped at the Canary Islands and, on 12 October 1492, he landed on the Caribbean Island of Guanahani, which he renamed San Salvador. Before returning, he reconnoitred the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola and was struck by their potential wealth.

He returned to the New World on three further occasions before his death in 1506. He died believing that he had reached the Indies, which was the name used at the time to refer to Insulindia, South and Southeast Asia. These territories were given this name and their inhabitants were called Indians.

UNIT

1

Thevoyagesofdiscovery

1. Henry the Navigator (1394-1460). He founded the School of Sagres, which brought together the leading geographers, astronomers and navigation experts.

2. Vasco da Gama (1460-1524). In 1498, he became the first Portuguese explorer to reach India by sailing along the African coast.

3. Christopher Columbus (c. 1436-1506). The Capitulations of Santa Fe named him Admiral of the Ocean Sea and Viceroy of the lands that he discovered.

4. Juan Sebastián Elcano (1476-1526). Spanish mariner who took part in the first voyage around the world. He completed it in 1522.

In Portugal

In Castilla

1 2

3 4

Skills progressDealing with temporal information

1 Create a timeline with the main events linked to the discoveries.

Understanding information

2What was the aim of the Portuguese and Castilian voyages of exploration? Which of the two countries failed to achieve its aim and why?

The discovery of America

Principal voyages made by the Portuguese and Castilians

India

Javaminor

Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of Capricorn

Cape VerdeIslands

Azores

Canary Islands

Ireland

Madeira

Javamajor

Lisbon

Columbus had studied the map drawn up by the Florentine scholar Toscanelli. According to this map (A), there were only 120 000 km between Lisbon and Southeast Asia. This was the reason why Columbus, when he reached San Salvador on his first voyage (B), thought that he had found the Island of Chipango (Japan).

0 400 800 1200 km

AT L A N T I C

O C E A N

C a r i b b e a n S e a

Gulf ofMexico

Tropic of Cancer

Cuba

Hispaniola

San Salvador(Guanahani)

BA

HA

MA

S

To Lisbon

From theCanary Islands

A B

3.3 Sharing out the world and new expeditionsThe discovery of new lands beyond the ocean had an immediate impact across Europe. The Catholic Monarchs were granted sovereignty over the Indies by the Pope, and, to avoid conflict with the Portuguese crown, they agreed the areas of influence of their respective countries in the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). This treaty established a frontier 370 leagues to the west of the Cape Verde Islands: the lands located to the west of this line would belong to Castilla and those to the east, to Portugal. As a result, Portugal staked its claim to Brazil in 1500.

During the 16th century, the successors to the Catholic Monarchs granted a ‘licence to explore’ to other sailors, who then explored the American coasts. Then, in 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Southern Sea, which was later renamed the Pacific Ocean. Then, in 1519 and 1522, Magellan and Elcano completed the first voyage around the world and thereby demonstrated that the Earth was round.

Main Portuguese voyagesof discovery

Bartolomeu Dias (1487-1488)

Vasco da Gama (1497-1498)

Amerigo Vespucci (1501-1502)Christopher Columbus (1492)

Main Spanish voyages of discovery

Amerigo Vespucci (1499-1500)

Magellan and Elcano (1519-1522)0 1500 3000 4500 km

Arctic Circle

Tropic of Cancer

Equator

Tropic ofCapricorn

Antarctic Circle

I N D I A N

O C E A N

PA C I F I C

O C E A N

P A C I F I C O C E A N

AT

LA

NT

I C

OC

EA

N

Gulf ofGuinea

Canary Islands

Madeira

Cape Verde IslandsHispaniolaCuba

Bahamas

PhilippineIslands

SpiceIslands

Strait ofMagellan

Cape ofGood Hope

Cape Bojador

CalicutINDIA

Skills progressWorking with maps

3List the main places along the Portuguese route from Lisbon to Japan in order.

4Describe the route taken by Columbus on his first voyage.

5Explain the meaning of the lines which correspond to the treaties of Alcáçovas and Tordesillas.

Active learning

6Find out who America is named after and why.

The protagonists3The discoveries (II). Journeys and travellers


■ Methodological suggestions• This section is divided into three centres of interest that correspond to

the two great colonial powers of the 16th century, Portugal and Castilla, and to the sharing out of the known world agreed by them in the Treaty of Tordesillas.

– In the subsection ‘The Portuguese explorations’ it would be desirable for teachers to emphasise the terms highlighted in the text in bold as follows. Firstly, the Treaty of Alcaçovas, by which the Canary Islands became part of the kingdom of Castilla in exchange for the free exploration and conquest of Portugal along the African coast. Secondly, Bartholomew Diaz, a Portuguese sailor who rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and finally Vasco de Gama, the Portuguese sailor who arrived in India.

– In following subheading ‘Castilla. the discovery of America’ you could highlight the following content: the voyages of Christopher Columbus; the Capitulations of Santa Fe; the voyages and geographical discoveries; the names of the lands discovered: The Indies or America?

– Finally, students should be aware of the territorial conflicts arising between the two powers and the treaty signed to resolve them, as well as their consequences. To explain the Treaty of Tordesillas, you can show the RTVE video from the series ‘Isabel’ and the instalment in which it is covered: http://www.rtve.es/alacarta/videos/isabel/isabel-tratado-tordesillas-jugada-maestra-juan-ii-portugal/2687254

■ Reinforcement activities3 What were the Capitulations of Santa Fe?

4 How important was the arrival of Bartholomew Diaz at the Cape of Good Hope?

■ Extension activities 4 Look for information on the voyages of Columbus and write a report

on them.

■ Answer key1 Discoveries in chronological order: 1487 Bartholomew Diaz rounded

the Cape of Good Hope. 1492 Columbus arrived at the island of Guanahani (Bahamas). 1498 Vasco de Gama arrived in India. 1513 Vasco Nuñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. 1519-1522. Magellan and Elcano completed the first voyage around the world.

2 The Portuguese goal was to gain access to Sudanese gold and to trade with the Indies, sailing along the coast of Africa. The Castilian goal was to demonstrate that the earth was round and that it was possible to reach India by sailing westwards. This goal was not achieved, as Columbus arrived at the island of Guanahani (Bahamas). What he actually discovered was a continent that was located between Europe and Asia.

3 This activity is designed so that students read the map and find precise information from it. Sevilla-Sanlúcar (Cadiz), the Canary Islands, Rio de Janeiro, River Plate, Strait of Magellan, Mariana Islands, Philippine Islands, Brunei, Cape of Good Hope, Cape Verde islands, Sanlúcar de Barrameda.

4 This is designed to strengthen map-reading. On his first voyage (1492-1493), Columbus left the port of Palos in the direction of the Canary Islands. From there, he arrived at several islands in the Caribbean: Guanahani (which he renamed San Salvador), Cuba (which he called Juana) and Santo Domingo (Hispaniola). From here, he returned to Lisbon, stopping at the Azores.

5 The goal of this question is for students to express their knowledge in a clear and concise manner. The Treaty of Alcaçovas stated that Portugal would explore the African coast south of Cape Bojador. The Treaty of Tordesillas dealt with the discovery of the American territories. Castilla was to have lands located on the meridian 370 leagues (about 2 ,000 km) west of the Cape Verde islands. Portugal was to have land located to the east of this meridian.

6 The discoverer of America as a new continent was the Italian navigator Americo Vespucio. America was named after him.

30

16 17

4.1 The authoritarian monarchiesDuring the Modern Age, the feudal European monarchies became authoritarian monarchies. The king reinforced his power over the kingdom as a whole by imposing his authority over the nobility and limiting the autonomy of the municipalities. This new way of organising the state is referred to as the modern State.

In Europe, authoritarian monarchy took root in France, England and the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. However, Germany and Italy did not manage to create unified states.

4.2 The instruments of royal powerThe monarchs reinforced their power in a number of ways:

•Territorial unification. They unified their territories and extended the size of their state by waging wars and negotiating marriage alliances.

•Control of the state’s powers. Monarchs imposed their authority on the high-ranking nobility, restricted the autonomy of the municipalities, exerted influence over the allocation of positions of authority and summoned Parliament (Las Cortes, in Spain) as little as possible.

•Improved administration. The monarch’s courts would be established in one city, which became the capital city; a bureaucracy of professional civil servants was created to carry out the monarch’s orders and standard taxes were levied, which provided regular income without monarchs having to approach Parliament.

•Creation of a permanent army. Monarchs substituted the feudal troops, who were only called into service at times of war, with a permanent army that was basically made up of paid mercenaries.

•Organisation of international relations. Diplomatic relations were established with other countries. This diplomacy was based on permanent ambassadors, who were in charge of defending the monarchy’s interests and resolving conflicts in a peaceful manner.

UNIT

1

EuropeanstatesandauthoritarianmonarchiesTheartofgovernment

Machiavellian is an adjective used in English derived from the surname Machiavelli. This adjective is related to the content of his book The Prince, which describes a king as someone who does not have to have scruples or moral values when governing, this being the meaning of the adjective machiavellian.

FOCUSon English

Building vocabulary

1 Define authoritarian monarchy, diplomacy and ambassador.

Use a dictionary if necessary.

Understanding historical reality

2With regard to the Middle Ages, which changes were introduced by authoritarian monarchs?

Practising democratic values

3Machiavelli’s ideas are often summed up with the phrase: ‘the end justifies the means’. Do you agree with this view? Justify your answer.

Developing individual projects

4Plan an assignment on Louis XI of France, and explain why he is considered an authoritarian monarch.

Skills progress

In 1513, the Florentine Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) completed The Prince, which was intended as a book of instructions for rulers. The book advocates the view that the goal of government is to attain and maintain power, and that ‘national or state interest’ should have priority over the rights and interests of individuals.

England France Spain

1 2 3

The authoritarian monarchies above all became established in England, where the monarchs of the Tudor dynasty, such as Henry VII (1), dominated the nobility; in France, where the Valois rulers, such as Louis XI (2), put an end to the influence of the Dukes of Aquitaine, Brittany and Burgundy; and in Spain, where Ferdinand of Aragón and Isabella of Castilla (3) unified the peninsular territories, except Portugal, and took control over national interests.


5Study the map. Then name one kingdom that became a unified territory, another that became a kingdom divided into states and, finally, one that was a non-Christian empire.

6Which kingdoms did the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands belong to?

Limit of the Holy Roman Empire

Europe at the endof the 15th century

Habsburg possessions

Polish-Lithuanian Union

0 200 400 600 km

Kalmar Union

Teut

onic

Ord

er

PskovKhanate

ofKazan

Great Khanate

Khanate ofCrimea

Ryazan

Brandenburg

SwitzerlandNavarra

Order ofSaint John

Venetianpossessions

Genovesepossessions

Savoy

Rep. ofGenoa

Rep. ofVenice

Milan

Rep. ofFlorence

Naples

CyprusPapalStates

Wallachia

Moldova

Bohemia

(Vassals ofthe Ottoman Empire)

S PA I N

PORTUGAL

FRANCE

GRAND DUCHYOF

MOSCOW

POLAND

H U N G A RY

IRELAND

WALES

SCOTLAND

D E N M A R K

KALMAR UNION

S W E D E N

LAPLAND

NORWAY

ENGLAND

O T T O M A N

M U S L I M W O R L D

M U S L I M

W O R L D

E M P I R E

HOLYROMANEMPIRE

L I T H U A N I A

Madeira Is.

Azores

Canary Is.Crete

Sardinia

Sicily

4 The birth of the modern State


■ Methodological suggestions• In this section we shall explain the political changes identified with a

new form of organisation of the State. We suggest comparting the power of the feudal monarchy, which you might have to review (the hereditary monarchies were based on a relationship of serfdom), with the power exercised by the authoritarian monarchy. This represents an increased concentration of power that will continue into the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

• The picture of Niccolò Machiavelli can serve as a theoretical benchmark for the authoritarian monarchy. In his work The Prince, which aimed to be a book of instructions for rulers, he advocated the theory that the acquisition and retention of power were the ultimate goals of the monarchy. Machiavelli said that the people should be governed by a dictator or as strict a ruler as possible, since he would be intelligent, and would know what was best for the people. On the other hand, he said that to let “ignorant society govern itself alone would lead to the destruction”. As a leading proponent of the authority of kings and princes over their territories, he admitted that they could commit amoral actions if those actions were in the interest of the State. His thoughts in this regard can be summarised in the phrase: ‘The end justifies the means’.


This activity develops student’s cultural knowledge and linguistic competence.

■ Reinforcement activities5 What are the distinguishing characteristics of authoritarian

monarchies?

■ Extension activities 5 Look for information on The Prince by Machiavelli, and indicate which

features a ruler needs to have.

■ Answer key1 Authoritarian monarchy: a form of government in which the king

exercises power and is supported by a bureaucracy of professional civil servants, with a tax system, a diplomacy, a permanent army, and a centralised economic system. Diplomacy: the establishment of relationships with other countries through negotiations. Ambassador: a figure responsible for relations between the country he represents and the country with which a relationship is desired; the permanent ambassador is responsible for defending the interests of the monarchy and for peacefully resolving conflicts; and the temporary ambassador is the person sent out to conclude alliances and treaties.

2 The feudal monarchs had broad powers, such as making laws, dispensing justice, and defending the kingdom. However, their powers had certain limitations, because they were considered by the nobility as ‘first among equals’.

The authoritarian monarchs have been considered as a transitional form of monarchy towards the absolute monarchy. This consideration is due to the fact that, to some extent, they made concessions to certain institutions of the previous era. Even so, they centralised power by subjecting all their subjects to the authority of the king.

3 ‘The end justifies the means’ is stating that, according to Machiavelli, princes must rely on cunning and can perform any type of actions, even amoral ones, in order to obtain and retain power. Indeed, the adjective ‘Machiavellian’ means cunning and unscrupulous.

4 This exercise promotes autonomous learning by planning an assignment and finding the information to do so. Open answer. You can suggest some specialised websites on biographies and the lives of historical characters: http://www.buscabiografias.com/bios

5 Territorially unified kingdoms: Spain and England; divided into states: The German Empire and the Italian states; non-Christian empire: The Ottoman Empire.

6 The Azores and Madeira: Portugal; the Canary Islands: Spain.

31

18 19

5.1 Demographic growthDuring the 15th and 16th centuries, population growth was favoured by improved harvests, the eradication of the plague and relative peace. However, the population increase was slow, as a result of the high death rate due to infectious diseases, the limited development in medical practice and the lack of hygiene.

The population increase gave rise to higher demand for agricultural and handicraft products, and stimulated trade.

5.2 Economic growth•Agrarian activities continued to account for most professional

activity. In the 16th century, the agricultural sector was encouraged by good harvests and the clearing of new land.

•The handicrafts sector avoided guild control by developing a system of homeworking, in which businesspeople provided the peasantry with raw materials and tools to make products at home. They would then collect them and sell them on.

•Trade grew as a result of geographical discoveries; trade routes were diversified and new products from America were incorporated (tobacco, wood, coffee). The importance of the Atlantic and North Sea trade had a positive impact on the ports of Lisbon and Seville, as opposed to the Mediterranean trade, which focused on Italian ports.

•The emergence and early development of the capitalist economic system. At its outset, it was mercantilism or merchant capitalism, based on the accumulation of capital acquired from trade. The first banks were founded, both official ones (Taula de Canvi in Barcelona) and private ones (Fugger, Medici); there was also greater circulation of money, mercantile and banking operations were simplified (cheques, promissory notes), and the first trading companies were established.

5.3 Social changesAlthough the society of three estates continued to exist, the economy developed more complex forms during the period.

•The nobility and the clergy accepted the increased power of the monarch, yet they continued to be the privileged estates and maintained both their economic power and privileges.

•The bourgeoisie grew wealthier with the transoceanic trade, business dealings and banking. Thereby they established their social status over the other commoners and especially the urban groups consisting of minor artisans, merchants and waged workers.

•The peasantry made up the majority of the commoners. Their living conditions improved in Western Europe, as they were freed from servitude and worked their own land, or else were paid a wage to work the land of the nobility. In Eastern Europe, the peasantry were more closely tied to the land.

UNIT

1

Mediterranean route

Transoceanic tradein the 16th century

Muslim merchantsPortuguese merchantsSpanish merchants

Slaves

Gold

Spices

Silver

Mercury0 1500 3000 4500 km

Arctic Circle

Tropic ofCancer

Equator

Tropic ofCapricorn

Antarctic Circle

Arctic Circle

Tropic ofCancer

Equator

Tropic ofCapricorn

I N D I A N

O C E A N

AT L A N T I C

PA C I F I C

O C E A N

P A C I F I C

O C E A N

O C E A N

Manila Galleon CapeVerde

Azores

Ascension

Timor

Moluccas

SaoTomé

Acapulco

Veracruz La Habana

Sto. Domingo

Cartagenade Indias

Panama

Lima

Callao

Potosí

Santiago

Río de Janeiro

Salvador

Recife

Lisbon

Sevilla

SofalaMozambique

Zanzibar

Alexandria

Constantinople

Hormuz

Diu

Goa

Colombo

Manila

Nagasaki

MacaoAmoy

Ningbo

VeniceAntwerp

Amsterdam

San Jorge de Mina

Transoceanic trade in the 16th centuryTheartofgovernmentEuropeancountriesinthe16th century

Millionsofinhabitants

Austria 2.3

Spain 8.0Italian States 12.5France 18.0British Isles 4.5Netherlands 2.5Poland 4.5Portugal 1.5Russia 13.0Holy Roman Empire 18.0Sweden 2.3

Plague is a word used in English to refer to a type of infectious disease. However, the Plague, also known as the Black Death, refers to a specific outbreak of the bubonic plague that took place in the late period of the Middle Ages and killed almost one third of the population of Europe.

FOCUSon English

Building vocabulary

1 Define the following terms: guild, homeworking, promissory note, mercantile capitalism and the three estates. If necessary, use other sources to find the information.

Working with texts and graphs

2Answer the following questions using the information in the text and the table: a) What were the causes and consequences of the 16th century population increase? b) What factors limited the population increase? c) Which European countries had the largest populations, and which had the smallest?

Skills progress

Following the geographical discoveries, the Atlantic Ocean trade routes gradually became more significant than the Mediterranean trade routes. The spice route was controlled by the Portuguese; it left from Malacca, Guangzhou (Canton) and India, followed the African coast and ended in Lisbon, from where the spices were redistributed across Europe. The gold and silver route, which was controlled by the Castilians, left from Peru and Mexico and ended in Sevilla. Soon, others were added, such as the slave route, which was used to ship black Africans from Africa to the Antilles; and the Pacific route, which linked Mexico and the Philippines.

The continuity of the three estates

The nobility (1) and the clergy formed the two privileged estates, who did not have to pay taxes. The bourgeoisie (2), who were commoners, grew wealthier through trade, business dealings and banking. The peasantry (3), who were also commoners,

worked the land and had to pay taxes to the monarch, the landowners and the Church, amounting to ten per cent of their total produce every year.

1 2 3

Working with maps

3Use the map to answer the following questions: a) With which countries did the Portuguese and Castilians trade? b) What products did they trade in, and where did these products come from?

Working with texts and pictures

4Create a pyramid showing the social structure of the period. Put each of the three estates in their relevant place, and explain the situation of each estate during the 16th century.

Skills progress

5 Economic transformations and social changers


■ Methodological suggestionsTo analyse economic and social changes, study the illustrations of the three estates, the European population table and the trade map on the next page.


This activity develops student’s cultural and linguistic competence.

■ Reinforcement activities6 Answer the following questions: a) What allowed the development of

agrarian activity in the 16th century? b) How did the handicrafts sector avoid guild control? c) Why did trade grow in this period?

■ Extension activities 6 Look for information on the first official and private banks.

■ Answer key1 Guild: artisans of the same trade organised into associations, whose

objectives were to control production in order to avoid competition; regulate hours, feast days, the price and the quality of products; and to protect their members, paying dues to help the sick, widows and orphans. Homeworking: the production of craft products by the peasantry at home using the raw materials and tools provided by an employer. Employers would collect the finished products and sell them on. The advantages were: for the peasantry, to get some extra income, and for the employer, to get rid of the strict control of the guilds over urban industries. Promissory note: a commercial document by which a person (the payor) promises another (the payee) to pay an amount in favour of a beneficiary or payee, within a specific period of time (maturity). Mercantile capitalism: a system based on the accumulation of capital from trade that gives way to the capitalist economic system, with the creation of the first official and

private banks, the increase of the circulation of the currency, with new systems for commercial and banking operations, such as cheques, promissory notes, etc. The three estates: the structure of society established by levels or closed social groups to which people belonged from birth.

2 a) The causes of population growth were an improvement in the harvests, the disappearance of the plague, and relative peace. This resulted in a slow increase in the population, which managed to boost the demand for agricultural and handicraft products, and stimulated trade. b) The high rate of mortality was caused by infectious diseases, the limitations in medicine, and the lack of hygiene. c) The most populous countries: The Holy Roman Empire and France. The least populated countries: Portugal, Sweden, Austria and the Netherlands.

3 a) The Portuguese traded in Brazil in South America, with what is now Nigeria, Sao Tomé and Angola, on the Atlantic coast of Africa; with Mozambique and Zanzibar, in East Africa, and with India, Malaysia and China in Asia. The Castilians traded with Cuba and Santo Domingo in the Caribbean, with Mexico, Panama, Peru and Chile on the Pacific coast of America, and with the Philippines in Asia. b) The Portuguese traded in spices from Asia, and in gold and slaves from Africa. The Castilians traded in mercury, gold and silver from America, and in spices from Asia.

4 Students extract the information from the text to create the social pyramid. The pyramid should be in two parts with the king at the top. The first, small part in the upper section, would consist of the privileged classes: first the clergy and then the nobility. In the lower part, there would be the bourgeoisie, and below that the urban groups and the peasantry, who lacked privileges.

The king increased his power; while the nobility and the clergy retained their economic power and privileges. The bourgeoisie established their social status over other urban groups; the peasantry improved their living conditions in Western Europe, but maintained serfdom in Eastern Europe.

32

20 21

During the 16th century Protestant Reformation spread across Europe. It caused a collapse of the religious unity that the Catholic Church had upheld in Western Europe. As a result, the Catholic Church launched the Counter-Reformation.

6.1 The causes of the Reformation•Disdain for the papacy and clergy. The Roman Catholic Church was

very powerful in Europe. However, many believed that popes were mainly concerned with their own interests; bishops lived a life of luxury and did not reside in their dioceses; the lower-ranking clergy lacked education, did not preach and failed to set a moral example; and many religious orders did not adhere to the established rules.

•The abuses of the Church. These included nepotism, or favouritism by the high-ranking clergy towards members of their own family when allocating ecclesiastic positions; nicolaism, or common-law marriage as practised by many priests; and simony, or the sale of ecclesiastical posts. The pope, bishops and cardinals also sold forgiveness for sins to whoever bought a document of indulgences.

6.2 Reforms and reformers

The Lutheran Reformation

The renewal of the Church began in Germany, where the Augustinian monk Martin Luther rejected the sale of indulgences carried out by Pope Leo X to pay for the building work being undertaken at the Vatican. In 1517, Luther displayed his 95 theses against the sale of indulgences and other aspects of Catholicism. The pope condemned and excommunicated Luther in 1521. Lutheranism was based on justification by faith and a free interpretation of the bible. Luther rejected papal infallibility, accepted only two of the sacraments (Baptism and the Eucharist), supressed the cult of the Virgin Mary and the saints, and simplified the liturgy. Lutheran doctrine spread through a number of German states and central and northern Europe.

The Calvinist Reformation

The Calvinist doctrine was preached by John Calvin from 1536 onwards in Geneva (Switzerland). It was based on the belief in predestination, according to which people are destined by God to be saved or condemned. This doctrine was popular amongst the bourgeoisie of the Netherlands, Switzerland, Scotland, France and England. The Calvinists were known as Huguenots in France and Puritans in England.

The Anglican Reformation

The Anglican doctrine emerged in England. In 1534, King Henry VIII declared himself head of the Church of England following the papal rejection of his request for a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragón.

UNIT

1

ThereligiousdivisionofChristianity

The new religious map of Europe

Reformers Counter-Reformation supporters

Dealing with temporal information

1 Create a timeline for the most significant events of the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation.


2Using a table like the one below, compare the doctrines of each reformer.

Authorofthe

Reformation

Reformistdoctrine

Geographicalspread

Skills progress

War between Catholics and Huguenots

Between 1524 and 1697, religious differences provoked a number of conflicts in Europe, which were known as the ‘wars of religion’. During the 16th century, the most significant conflicts were in France, between Catholics and Huguenots (1562-1598); in the German Empire, the Peasants’ War (1524-1525) and the Schmalkaldic War (1546-1547); and in the Netherlands, the Eighty Years’ War (1568-1648).

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Black Sea

NorthSea Baltic

Sea

Adriatic Sea

MediterraneanSea

TeutonicOrder

UnitedProvinces

Naples

PapalStates

S P A I N

PO

RTU

GA

L

F R A N C E

R U S S I A

P O L A N D

SWITZERLAND

IRELAND

SCOTLAND

DENMARK

S W E D E N

ENGLAND

O T T O M A N

E M P I R E

H O LY R O M A NE M P I R E

London

Paris

Venice

Trento

FlorenceGenoa

GenevaMilan

KievWarsaw

Vienna

Moscow

Lisbon Madrid

Dublin

Edinburgh

Oslo

Copenhagen

Wittenberg

Stockholm

Rome

Constantinople

Catholics Limit of the HolyRoman Empire

Catholics

Centres for disseminationof the Reformation andCounter-Reformation:

Protestants

0 200 400 600 km

Lutherans

Calvinists

Anglicans

Puritans

Huguenots

Orthodox Christians

Muslims

Europe after the Reformation

1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)

2. John Calvin (1509-1564)

3. Paul III (1534-1549)

4. Saint Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556)

6.3 The Catholic Counter-ReformationTo halt the spread of the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church began its own reform, known as the Counter-Reformation. It had two principal features:

•The Council of Trent (1545-1563). The Council was created by Pope Paul III, and it defined Catholic doctrine, which was disseminated in the form of the catechism: good deeds were needed to attain salvation; only the Church could interpret the bible; the pope was infallible; there were seven sacraments; the saints and Virgin were subjects of devotion, etc. The council also set out rules to halt disdain for the clergy, such as requirements for bishops to live in their dioceses. The creation of seminaries to train priests was also promoted, amongst other measures.

•The Society of Jesus. It was founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola in 1540 and was an important source of support for the Counter-Reformation. Its members had to swear a special vow of obedience to the pope. They received sound theological training and dedicated themselves to preaching and education.

Active learning

3Find out about one of the 16th-century religious wars. Write down its causes, the opposing groups and how it ended.

Working with maps

4Study the map and answer: a) In what regions did Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism predominate? b) Where did Catholicism remain strong?

Skills progress

1 2

43

Thewarsofreligion

Following the Reformation, Christianity was divided into three main branches: Catholic or Roman, Orthodox or Eastern and Protestant.

Within the latter, there were various faiths, such as the Lutherans, Anglicans and Calvinists.

6Change and religious conflicts. Reformation and Counter-Reformation


■ Methodological suggestions• To begin the study of this section, teachers need to remind students

about the Schism of 1054, which took place between Miguel Cerulario, the Patriarch of Constantinople, and Leo IX, Pope of Rome. As a result, the Christian religion was divided into Catholic and Orthodox. The goal is that students understand that, at this historical moment, a new religious schism in Western Europe came about. Teachers should highlight the causes that led this division, which gave rise to the rupture of Catholic unity with the emergence of new religious doctrines: Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism.

• The term religious intolerance will be key for students to understand the religious differences which, throughout the Reformation, would lead to bloody armed clashes in some countries and between different European states. You can work on this concept by reinforcing the value of tolerance, using ideas that express respect for the views of others.

•Comment on the new religious map in Europe and point out the religious division that occurred in the continent after the Protestant Reformation. This took place at the beginning of the 16th century as a result of the loss in prestige of the Catholic Church and the vices from which it suffered. In order to analyse the map, it should be borne in mind that the main reformist currents were Lutheranism, which spread throughout the north of the German empire, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and the shores of the Baltic; Calvinism, which spread through Switzerland and the Netherlands in the north; and Anglicanism, which spread throughout England and the northeast of Ireland. As a result, students should be able to see how it ruptured the Catholic unity of Europe.

■ Reinforcement activities7 Def ine these concepts : Nepot i sm, n ico la i sm, s imony,

excommunication, indulgence, predestination and Huguenot.

8 Answer the following questions: Why did the Church convene the Council of Trent? What consequences did it have?

■ Extension activities 7 Look for information on the life of Martin Luther, John Calvin, Pope

Paul III and Ignatius of Loyola.

■ Answer key1 The timeline should show the following dates. 1517: Martin Luther

displayed his 95 theses; 1521: Excommunication of Luther by Pope Leo X; 1536: John Calvin preached the Calvinist doctrine; 1534: Henry VIII proclaimed himself head of the Church of England; 1540: Ignatius of Loyola founded the Society of Jesus; 1545-1563: The Council of Trent.

2 We suggest this activity as evidence for the students’ portfolios (measurable learning standard 31.2 ).

Author of the Reformation

Reformist doctrine Geographical spread

Martin Luther Lutheran reform

German States, central and northern Europe

John Calvin Calvinist reform

The Netherlands, Switzerland, Scot-land, France (Huguenots) and England (Puritans)

Henry VIII Anglican reform

England and the northeast of Ireland

3 Open answer.

4 a) Lutheranism extended to the north of the German empire, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and the shores of the Baltic; Calvinism spread through Switzerland and the Netherlands of the north; and Anglicanism spread through England and northeast of Ireland; b) Catholicism remained in Portugal, Spain, France, southern Ireland, the Italian States, Poland, and the south of the German empire.

33

22 23

Scientificadvances

7.1 The characteristics of HumanismDuring the 15th century, Humanism emerged in Italy. It was an intellectual movement that gave rise to a change in world view in contrast to that of the Middle Ages. It had two basic features:

•Classical antiquity was taken as a model. The philosophical, literary, scientific and artistic works produced by the Greeks and Romans were studied, disseminated and used as a source of inspiration.

•Mankind was conceived as being at the centre of the world. In the medieval period, a theocentric view of life prevailed in which God was conceived as being at the centre. The Humanists or intellectuals, in contrast, advocated an anthropocentric view along with human values such as freedom and reason. They also defended the values of the classical world, individualism, the search for earthly honour, success, fame, prestige and power.

7.2 The areas of Humanistic thoughtHumanism was a complex movement that encompassed all areas of life:

•Literary and philosophical. Humanists translated and wrote commentaries on classical writings, but they did so using the original texts. Pico della Mirandola and Niccolò Machiavelli were two leading Italian Humanists.

•Religious. It sought to combine admiration for the classical thinkers with the gospel’s message. The Dutchman Erasmus of Rotterdam and the Englishman Sir Thomas More were two key representatives of this area.

•Scientific. It sought to explain natural phenomena through the use of reason, observation and experiment. Its principal figures were Nicolaus Copernicus, Paracelsus and Andreas Vesalius.

7.3 The spread of HumanismHumanistic thought spread all across Europe between the 15th and 16th centuries. A contributing factor were the journeys undertaken by Humanists, which permitted the exchange of ideas between intellectuals from different countries; the foundation of academies, which disseminated knowledge about classical culture and the invention of the printing press, which meant books could be produced in greater numbers and at lower prices.

UNIT

1

Skills progress

2

1

2

6

4

5

3

ThespreadofHumanisminEurope

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) was the first person to formulate the theory of heliocentrism, according to which the Sun was located at the centre of the universe and the Earth revolved around it. Copernicus’ theory contradicted the Ptolemaic theory of geocentrism, which was the current theory at the time and affirmed that the Earth was at the centre of the universe.

1. Paracelsus (1493-1541), a Swiss alchemist and physician, is considered to be the first modern doctor thanks to his studies of a range of illnesses and ways of curing them.

2. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) is considered to be the father of modern anatomy because he based his studies on first-hand observation.

Astronomy

Medicine

Skills progressBuilding vocabulary

1 Find out the etymology of the words heliocentrism and geocentrism. Explain how they are related to the ideas defended in each theory.


2Copy and complete this table in your notebook:

AreaofHumanisticthought

Characteristicsofthearea

Mainrepresentatives


3 In which cities were the main Humanistic schools founded? Which centre developed the printing press?

Working with pictures

4Using the information provided in the picture, describe the phases of printing a book.

The main Humanistic schools and the development of the printing press

A printing press with moveable type

The Platonic Academy was founded by Cosimo de’ Medici in 1459 in the city of Florence; it was the main Humanistic centre in Italy. This academy served as a model for the rest of Italy and other European countries.

The printing press is a mechanical means of reproducing texts that also allowed them to be made in series. It was invented in around 1448 by Gutenberg, a German goldsmith who perfected Chinese printing techniques by using moveable metallic type for each letter, which could then be reused. Thanks to the printing press, there was an increase in book production, paper was used instead of parchment and the content was adapted to the tastes of a growing readership.

Jupiter

Firmament

Saturn

PlanetTrajectory of stars

Mars

Venus

Mercury

Sun

EarthMoon

1 2

1. Manuscripts to be copied and reproduced.

2. Composition of the page using moveable type.

3. The prepared text block is covered in ink.

4. The text block is pressed down onto a sheet of paper with a screw press.

5. The paper is left to dry.

6. The sheets of paper are placed in order so they can be bound.

The main humanisticschools

1480

Centres of printing

Centres of printingwith an output of morethan 1300 copies

Dissemination ofthe printing press

Date of arrivalof the printing press

0 200 400 600 km

Sevilla 1477

Zaragoza1473

Salamanca1480

Valencia1474

Barcelona1475

Genoa 1516Venice 1469

Rome1470

Naples 1470

Subiaco 1464

Milan 1471

London1499

Paris 1470

Tours1496

Frankfurt 1462

Augsburg1475

Nuremberg 1470

To Moscow1560

Mainz1455

Oxford

Strasbourg1470

Florence 1471Ferrara

Mantua Verona 1471

Deventer1471

Cologne1464

Leuven1472

HUNGARY1473

DENMARK1493

PORTUGAL1489

SWEDEN1483

TOICELAND

1531

BOHEMIA1476 MORAVIA

1500

7 Humanism. The new vision of mankind


■ Methodological suggestionsStudents should be able to define the term humanism clearly, and understood it as an intellectual movement characterised by the rediscovery of Greek and Latin Classical Antiquity and by the importance given to the human being, as a free and rational person.

It might be interesting to show the different events, figures, and scientists in a timeline. This can be found on the following website http://www.biografica.info/linea-de-tiempo.php

Humanists worked as scholars and historians to revive the ancient world. For them, therefore, classical Antiquity was a means of achieving a different life to that of the Middle Ages, which they considered the ‘dark ages’. Humanism, however, was quite diverse. Even so, the most well-known humanists were the Italian Lorenzo Valla, the Dutchman Erasmus of Rotterdam and the Englishman Sir Thomas More.

■ Reinforcement activities9 Who invented the printing press, in what year, and what was its

importance?

10 List the causes that favoured the rapid spread of humanism in Europe.

■ Extension activities 8 Look for information on the first book printed by Gutenberg, and the

importance of that work in the historic period being studied.

9 Write a brief biography of Nicholaus Copernicus.

■ Answer key1 The word heliocentrism is composed of the Greek words helios (the

sun) and kentron (centre). Heliocentrism is a theory formulated by

Nicolaus Copernicus (1475-1543), according to which the Sun is located at the centre of the universe and the earth revolves around it. The word geocentrism is composed of the Greek words geo (Earth) and kentron (centre). Geocentrism is a theory according to which the Earth was the centre of the universe and the Sun and the other planets revolved around it.

2 We suggest this activity as evidence for the students’ portfolios (gradable learning standard 31.2 ).

Areas of Humanistic

thought

Characteristics of the area Main Representatives

Literary and philosophical

Translate and comment on classic writings, using the original texts

Pico della Mirandola and Nicolò Machiavelli

ReligiousCombine the admiration for the ancient thinkers with the gospel’s message

Erasmus of Rotterdam and Sir Thomas More

ScientificExplain natural phenome-na using reason, observa-tion and experimentation

Nicolaus Copernicus, Paracelsus and Andreas Vesalius

3 The main humanistic schools were located in Oxford, London, Deventer, Paris, Strasbourg, Verona, Mantua, Venice, Ferrara, Florence and Rome. The main centre for the dissemination of printing was Mainz (Germany).

4 Open answer. The tasks consisted of fitting the metal types to compose the page (each type was a moveable letter used to form the words of a text); the covering of the metal types in ink; the printing of the sheets using a screw press that exerted pressure on the inked metal plate; correction of the printed sheets; and the ordering of the sheets for binding into a book.

34

■ Methodological suggestions• The study of the Renaissance must be understood by students as the

application of humanistic ideas to the field of art. As a result, artists were inspired by the works of classical Antiquity, and art recovered its anthropocentrism. Use this analysis to emphasise the characteristics that define the Renaissance: classical Antiquity, nature, anthropocentrism and the social consideration of the artist in this period.

■ Reinforcement activities11 Answer these questions: a) Who were the patrons? b) What is linear

perspective?

12 Name the creators of the following architectural works: a) Dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria de las Flores. b) Palazzo Rucellai. c) San Pietro in Montorio. d) Saint Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican.

■ Extension activities 10 Alberti developed a model for façades, which had a major impact in

the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence. Find this building, analyse what you see, and write an artistic commentary.

■ Answer key1 This task aims to help students express these concepts

accurately. Support: any element that sustains another; classical orders: an architectonic style; an element consisting of the column and the entablature, designed according to the models and canons of the Graeco-Roman world; semicircular arch: semicircular underpinning element that discharges the thrust laterally; pediment: triangular gable of a portico, window, etc.; flat roof: horizontal closure at the top of a building; vaulted roof: closure between walls, with a vault or prolongation of lengthwise arcs; dome: closure of a hemispherical square space; Greek cross plan: architectural drawing of a work

represented in longitudinal section in the shape of a cross with four equal arms; centralised plan: a plan organised around a closed geometric shape, either circular or square.

2 Open answer.

3 Ideal beauty: the Renaissance had a canon of beauty similar to that of the classical world, which was mainly based on harmony and proportion. Harmony of proportions: harmony is the desirable proportion and correspondence of some things to others, integrated into a whole; proportion is orderly relationship; so the harmony of proportions is the measurement that relates parts of a work to themselves and to the whole.

4 The dome of Florence Cathedral is the first architectural work of the Renaissance. When Brunelleschi won the competition to build it, the dome was already constructed as far as the cylinder. The Florentine master had the honour of resolving the construction problems derived from its huge dimensions. To solve these, he made a double-shell octagonal design; that is, two overlapping domes, inspired by Agrippa’s Pantheon in Rome. Begun in 1420 and completed in 1436, it weighed 36 500 tons, and was built using lifting machines and cranes designed by Brunelleschi. You can find additional information on it from this website: http://www.italyguides.it/es/italia/toscana/florencia/cupola_del_brunelleschi/cupula_de_brunelleschi.htm

Palazzo Rucellai was constructed between 1446 and 1451 by Leon Batista Alberti. It is a typical Renaissance thanks to the sobriety and harmony of its proportions, becoming the reference point for civil architecture of this period. It inspired, among others, Michelozzo and Rossellino. See: http://www.artehistoria.com/v2/monumentos/1155.htm

The templetto of San Pietro in Montorio, the work of Bramante, commemorates the spot where Saint Peter suffered martyrdom, and it is an exponent of the search for harmony and classical order during the Renaissance of the Cinquecento. See: http://es.wikiarquitectura.com/index.php/Templete_de_San_Pietro_in_Montorio

24 25

Modulartheoriesofproportionandlinearperspective

The application of Humanistic ideas in the field of art led to the development of the Renaissance artistic style. It arose in Italy in the 15th century (quattrocento), and extended across the rest of Europe during the 16th century (cinquecento).

8.1 Characteristics of the Renaissance•Classical antiquity provided the artistic model.

This led to artists using the materials and forms employed by Greek and Roman artists.

•Art was inspired by nature and sought to represent reality. It used mathematical methods such as modular theories to calculate proportions, and linear perspective to represent pictorial depth.

•Art returned to anthropocentrism. Buildings were made on a human scale and the human being was the protagonist of sculptures and paintings in which ideal beauty, serenity and equilibrium were sought after.

•Artists gained a better social status, and fame in various disciplines. They signed their works, and were supported by wealthy patrons, such as the Medicis in Florence and the papacy in Rome.

8.2 Architecture and its periodsArchitects were inspired by classical models. They used stone as a building material and they used the Greek and Roman architectonic orders, semicircular arches and both flat and vaulted roofs. The most celebrated buildings were churches, which were built on a Latin or Greek cross plan, while palaces were constructed with a variety of floor levels and doors and windows completed with pediments.

•During the 15th century, Florence provided the birthplace of the new style. Brunelleschi inaugurated the Renaissance with the dome he built for Florence Cathedral. Subsequently, he established the models for Renaissance churches and palaces (the church of San Lorenzo and the Pitti Palace). Alberti designed the façade of the Church of Santa Maria Novella and the Palazzo Rucellai.

•During the 16th century, the centre of Italian architecture moved to Rome, where the popes commissioned many buildings, for example, San Pietro in Montorio and Saint Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican, which was designed by Bramante and continued by other architects including Michelangelo.

UNIT

1

Significantbuildings.Churchesandpalaces

Linear perspective is used to create a sense of depth. It consists of a series of lines that converge at a single point (the line of sight or vanishing point) located at the limit of viewer’s field of vision (1). This type of perspective was applied in paintings and many types of buildings. For example, in the Church of San Lorenzo, built by Brunelleschi in Florence, all the lines converged at a single point: the altar (2).

Skills progressLearning about art

1 Remind yourself of the definitions of the following architectonic terms: support, classical orders, semicircular arch, pediment, flat roof, vaulted roof, dome, Greek cross plan, centralised plan.

2Find examples of the terms listed in the previous question in pictures included in this section.

Assessing cultural contributions

3The search for ideal beauty and a harmonious use of proportion were central concerns for Renaissance artists. Find out more about these concepts.

Mathematical modules

The quattrocento. Florence

Working with pictures

4The buildings shown in the illustrations have become celebrated examples in the history of architecture. Why is this? If necessary, use the Internet to find further information about them.

Skills progress

Line of sightViewer

Line of sight

The Rena issance r e v i v e d t h e importance of the human figure and its proportions. A return was made to the ideal canon of proportions, which was a module that measured the length of eight heads, while the module for ideal human height was the length of the arms held out wide.

The latter module was represented by Leonardo da Vinci in his Vitruvian Man.

Linear perspective

1

2

The cinquecento. San Pietro in Montorio. Rome

Ribs

Lantern

Drum

Outer dome

A. Dome of Florence Cathedral, by Filippo Brunelleschi. It was built between 1420 and 1426, and the architect overcame the challenge of covering the enormous space of 41.7 metres. To do so, he invented a system of a double dome, an interior semicircular dome and an outer pointed dome. They were linked and offered a contrast to one another.

B. Palazzo Rucellai, by Leon Battista Alberti. It was built between 1446 and 1455, and follows the model used for Renaissance palaces: blocks of stone are used for the different floors of the building and their projection decreases the further up the building they are; the windows are framed by Doric, Ionic and Corinthian pilasters and there is a large cornice. The interior of the building is arranged around a patio.

A BPilasters

Cornice

Vertical axis

Rectangle

Cylinder

Hemisphericaldome

This tempietto is built within a patio on the place where Saint Peter is believed to have been crucified. Bramante’s design for this building was based on a centralised plan located at the top of a flight of steps, and it has a portico completed by a balustrade that surrounds the central space, which is crowned by a dome.

Balustrade

Portico

Frieze

Flight of steps

Dome

Drum with pilasters and niches

8 The Renaissance in Italy (I). Architecture


35

■ Methodological suggestions• In order to introduce students to the sculpture and painting of the

Renaissance, you should begin the study with an overview of the characteristics of these fine arts. You could discuss the material (marble and bronze); presentation (the nude and ideal beauty); techniques (using multiple planes and symmetrical compositions) and themes (religious, mythological and portraits). This can be accomplished using the visual dictionary of art terms.

• Subsequently, and relating the study chronologically according to the two periods of artistic Renaissance, we will look at the work of Ghiberti and Donatello in sculpture, and Masaccio and Botticelli in painting (from the Quattrocento period). We will also look at the following works that appear in the text: Ghiberti (Gates of Paradise); Donatello (David, St. George and the Condottiero Gattamelata); Masaccio (Trinity), and Botticelli (Primavera and The Birth of Venus).

The Cinquecento sculpture focuses on the figure of Michelangelo Buonarroti. You need to comment on his life and work in this section.

• The study of the painting of the 16th century is done through the great masters: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael. Their works represent one of the collections of greatest artistic value in the whole of history. Some of them are masterpieces of universal art, and their influence reaches to the present time, causing the admiration of those who contemplate their art. In order to explain to the students about their contributions, it would be best to comment on the works of art in the double-page spread.

■ Reinforcement activities13 What are the general characteristics of the sculpture during the

Renaissance?

14 Cite the creators of the following works: a) Gates of Paradise in the baptistery of Florence Cathedral. b) Moses. c) The equestrian statue, Condottiero Gattamelata. d) Frescoes of the Sistine Chapel. e) Mona Lisa. f) Last Supper. g) The School of Athens. h) The Birth of Venus.

■ Extension activities 11 Search for images of David by Michelangelo and Donatello and

compare these two works.

■ Answer key1 We suggest this activity as evidence for the students’

portfolios (gradable learning standard 32.1 ).

Artistic Period Artists Significant Works

Quattrocento

Ghiberti (sculptor)Gates of Paradise at the baptistery of Florence Cathedral

Donatello (sculptor)David, St. George and Condotiero Gattamelata equestrian statue

Masaccio (painter) Trinity and The Tribute Money

Botticelli (painter) Primavera and The Birth of Venus

Cinquecento

Michelangelo (sculptor)David, Moses, Piety. The carved Medici Tombs

Leonardo da Vinci (painter)

Last Supper, Mona Lisa and The Virgin of the Rocks

Michelangelo (sculptor)Frescoes of the Sistine Chapel (Vatican)

Raphael (painter)The School of Athens, several depictions of the Virgin and Child

2 Open answer.

3 Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael are regarded as the great masters of Italian Renaissance painting. Their works represent one of the collections of greatest artistic value in the whole of history. Some are masterpieces of universal art, and their influence reaches to the present day, arousing admiration in all who contemplate them. The great contribution of Leonardo was the technique of sfumatto or blurring the contours of figures. The painting of Michelangelo is characterised by the importance of drawing, movement, the nude, the variety of poses, and the depiction of volume. Raphael reached great perfection in his drawing, in the use of colour and in composition.

26 27

Thequattrocento

Under the influence of classical art, sculptors and painters took an interest in the naked human body, ideal beauty and symmetrical and balanced compositions. The preferred subjects were religious and mythological as well as portraits.

9.1 QuattrocentoThe most celebrated 15th century sculptors were Ghiberti, for his reliefs of the Gates of Paradise at the Baptistery of Florence Cathedral; and Donatello, for sculptures such as David, Saint George, and the Condottiero Gattamelata, the first equestrian statue made in Italy since the Roman period.

The most prestigious painters of the period were Masaccio, who applied his special interest in perspective to works such as the Trinity and The Tribute Money; and Botticelli, who created mythological paintings filled with movement, such as Primavera and The Birth of Venus.

9.2 CinquecentoThe most acclaimed sculptor of the 16th century was Michelangelo, who created works in marble that combined powerful effect with anatomical perfection. Amongst these are the sculptures of David, Moses, a number of pietàs, and the tombs he carved for two members of the Medici family.

16th-century painters were considered to be great masters by their contemporaries.

•Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) produced few works, but they are of very high quality. His major technical contribution was the sfumato technique, which he applied in works such as Last Supper, Mona Lisa and The Virgin of the Rocks.

•Michelangelo (1475-1564), as a painter, displayed special interest in nudes, movement, variety of poses, drawing and the depiction of volume. His main work was the series of frescoes that decorate the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican; the ceiling is decorated with scenes from the Old Testament and the altar wall displays his Last Judgement.

•Raphael (1483-1520) achieved great perfection in his use of drawing, colour and composition. His principal works were the School of Athens, which is a work he painted in fresco to decorate a series of rooms in the Vatican; numerous portraits as well as depictions of the Virgin and Child.

UNIT

1

Thecinquecento.Thegrandmasters

Skills progressOrganising information

1 Complete this table in your notebook:Artisticperiod Artists Significant

worksQuattrocento

Cinquecento

Analysing styles and works

2Choose one sculpture and one painting, and write a commentary on them: name and artist, dates, artistic style, material or support, subject and characteristics.

Ghiberti

Renaissance sculptors and painters sought to represent an ideal of beauty, which they considered to be the result of harmony and proportion. To do so, they returned to the concept of the canon, which established the proportions of the human figure according to a module or unit of measurement.

Masaccio

The Tribute Money

Detail of the Gates of Paradise: Isaac with Esau and Jacob

Leonardo da Vinci

Michelangelo. Sculptor and painter

Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio)

Michelangelo’s sculpture is centred on grandiose and monumental figures. The David (1) is a perfect anatomical study of controlled passion and strength. The Vatican Pietà (2) is striking due to the Virgin’s youthfulness and the triangular composition. The Moses (3), which forms part of the tomb of Pope Julius II, is renowned for its sense of movement and its ‘awe-inspiring’ gaze.

1 2 3

Michelangelo ’s paint ing i s characterised by the importance given to drawing and movement. In the vault of the Sistine Chapel with a frame of illusionistic architecture, he created nine scenes from The Book of Genesis, which are surrounded by naked youths, prophets and sibyls.

The fo l lowing scenes are represented:

1. Division of light from darkness.

2. Division of the Earth and the waters.

3. Creation of Adam.

4. Creation of Eve.

5. Expulsion from paradise.

6. The sacrifice of Noah.

7. Flood.

The School of Athens

Last Supper. Leonardo achieved a sense of pictorial depth by using a combination of linear perspective with sfumato or softening the outlines of the figures.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Learning about art

3Do some research and answer: What have Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael contributed to the universal history of art?

Skills progress

9The Renaissance in Italy (II). Sculpture and painting


36

■ Methodological suggestions• Before you begin this section, explain, using definitions, some terms that

students may not be familiar with. For example: oil painting, self-portrait, polyptych, to caricature. Oil painting is a painting technique that consists of dissolving the colours in linseed oil. Self-portrait is a portrait done of the artist himself. Polyptych is a painting composition composed of more than three panels. To caricature is to exaggerate or distort the characteristics of something for satirical or entertainment purposes.

• The Renaissance in the Netherlands is exemplified in the painting of the so-called ‘Flemish Primitives’, whose success is due, in part, to the introduction of a technical novelty: the oil painting technique. The discovery of this technique is traditionally attributed to the Van Eyck brothers, although the truth is that it had been known since ancient times. What the van Eyck brothers and the other Flemish painters did was to perfect the technique, producing a substance based on linseed oil and walnut oil and adding a drying agent that caused rapid drying of the oil and a great fluidity. We recommend you show the students the central table. The polyptych Adoration of the Mystic Lamb reflects the characteristics of the school of the Flemish Primitives really well, and also shows the advantages of the oil painting technique perfected by the Van Eyck brothers. The colour, the thoroughness of the detail, the realism of the figures and the sensation of volume are its dominant aspects, together with a careful distribution of the characters in space.

Mention Roger Van der Weyden, commenting on the work shown in the book, and highlighting his expression of feeling and his attention to detail. Bosch was a visionary painter whose work students often appreciate. However, the complexity of his work requires an explanation.

• The German Renaissance is exemplified in the figure of Albrecht Dürer, painter, draughtsman, engraver and art theorist. The following website: http://www.epdlp.com/pintor.php?id=237 has a biography of the artist and a collection of reproductions of his most important works.

• Finally, the French Renaissance led to unique buildings such as the Château of Chambord with a blend of traditional medieval forms and

Italian Renaissance structures. It is built in the shape of a quadrilateral with six large towers.

■ Reinforcement activities15 Name the creators of the following works:

a) The Descent from the Cross.

b) Adam and Eve.

c) The polyptych Adoration of the Mystic Lamb.

d) The Garden of Earthly Delights.

e) The Arnolfini portrait.

16 By what are the paintings of Bosch characterised?

■ Extension activities 12 Look for information on Albrecht Dürer, and write up his biography.

■ Answer key1 a) In the brilliant colouring, the great luminosity, the use of

transparencies, and the precision and degree of detail.

b) They portray a powerful, wealthy bourgeoisie that commissioned works of art to decorate their homes.

2 The figure of the artist was seen as something greater than the ordinary medieval artisan.

3 Open answer. The goal is for students to appreciate the vision of the nude body depicted in the classical style, as seen in Greek and Roman sculpture. The nudes show the concept of ideal beauty, and they stand out against the dark background, thus attracting the viewer’s attention. By contrast, in the Middle Ages, Adam and Eve were often represented on yellow or white backgrounds, with a simple linear drawing in straightforward and easy compositions.

28 29

TheFlemishPrimitives

10.1 The Flemish schoolIn the Netherlands, the most significant artistic medium of the period was painting. It was mainly developed in Ghent and Bruges, where there was a powerful and wealthy bourgeoisie who commissioned many works of art to decorate their houses.

The Flemish school, whose painters are known as ‘Flemish Primitives’, had its own characteristics. The principal one was the introduction of oil painting technique, which involved dissolving pigments in linseed oil; and using canvas as a support. Therefore, Flemish paintings achieved brilliant effects of colouring and great luminosity. It became possible to produce transparencies and the paintings included an increasing degree of detail.

The van Eyck brothers initiated this regional school of painting with the polyptych of the Ghent Altarpiece, which included the Adoration of the Mystic Lamb. One of the brothers, Jan van Eyck, also produced excellent portraits, such as The Arnolfini Portrait.

Rogier van der Weyden introduced the expression of feelings into works such as the Descent from the Cross and the Crucifixion, with the Virgin and Saint John the Evangelist Mourning. Bosch criticised and caricatured the society of his day through scenes and fantastical beings, such as those included in The Garden of Earthly Delights and The Temptations of Saint Anthony Abbott.

10.2 The Renaissance in Germany and FranceItalian Renaissance art spread across Europe during the 16th century. Many kings and nobles commissioned Italian artists to come and paint at their courts, or bought Italian works of art that provided a model for local artists. Some European artists went to Italy to study and, on their return, introduced the new style to their respective countries.

•In Germany, the most important artistic figure was the painter Albrecht Dürer, who was a great draughtsman and engraver. His most celebrated works are his self-portraits and Adam and Eve.

•In France, the Renaissance was established during the reign of Francis I, who built numerous castle-palaces along the Loire Valley, for example, the Château of Chambord.

UNIT

1

Germany.AlbrechtDürer

France.TheChâteauofChambord

Skills progressAnalysing styles and works

1 Study the reproductions of Flemish paintings. Then, answer the following questions: a) In what aspects of these paintings can the new oil painting technique be seen? b) What information do these paintings provide about society at the time they were painted?

Analysing artworks

2What aspects of the Renaissance world view and Renaissance art may be detected in the work of Dürer?

3Find a medieval representation of Adam and Eve and compare it to the work of Dürer. What differences can you detect?

Rogier van der Weyden

Bosch

Jan van Eyck

The oil painting technique enabled them to produce paintings with rich colours, luminosity and great detail. Many of these represented the wealthy bourgeoisie of the region who were the patrons of the artworks.

The Arnolfini Portrait (detail)

Pietà

The Temptations of Saint Anthony Abbott

A B

A.Self-portrait. Dürer painted his self-portrait as an elegant gentleman and member of the nobility. He thereby sought to promote the figure of the artist as someone worthy of greater consideration than an ordinary artisan, which is the way painters had been seen during the medieval period.

B.Adam and Eve. In this work, Dürer demonstrated his interest in painting the nude body, and he drew upon the inspiration provided by the classical sculptures he had seen in Italy. Adam and Eve display an ideal beauty and are painted against a dark background, so that all the attention is focused on their bodies. Eve holds the branch of the apple tree in which she had encountered the serpent, and Adam holds the prohibited fruit.

50 m

Pediment

TowerEntrance

Decorative lantern

Decorative lantern

Moat

Plan

View

Keep

Sculpted chimneys

Keep

Gallery

EntranceTower

10 The Renaissance beyond Italy


37

■ Techniques. Working with historical time

•Historical time is the backbone of History. Educators such as Piaget argue that students in secondary school have developed the capacity for abstraction and for mathematical understanding of time. Thus, students are ready to learn that history comes together gradually, and are ready to start learning about historical time based on chronology, a causal series of events and temporal continuity. For students to learn this concept, one of the most useful teaching resources is the creation of timelines and the writing of a timeline commentary.

• This teaching resource should be used by teachers in a systematic manner, throughout the study of History. However, in order to be useful, timelines should be made to scale, and students should write them up in their own words by means of a commentary.

■ Learning and acting. Answer key

1 a) The chronological timeline ‘The Start of the Modern Age’ represents in years the most important world events that took place between 1453 (with the taking of Constantinople by the Turks) and 1563 (with the Council of Trent); that is, a period of 110 years. During this timespan there are three different periods: the reign of the Catholic Monarchs (1469-1518), the first voyage round the world (1519-1522) and the Council of Trent (1545-1563). The events listed above relate to both the European and American continents. The periods mentioned include various historical moments referring to artistic, religious and scientific aspects. So, having dated the beginning of the Modern Age with the fall of Constantinople (1453), reference is made to the government of the Catholic Monarchs. During this time, in Florence (Italy) Leon Batista Alberti completed the façade of the Renaissance church of Santa Maria Novella (1470); in 1479 the Treaty of Alcaçovas was signed between Castilla and Portugal, in which Portugal gave the Canary Islands to Castilla, and it was agreed that Portugal should explore the African coast to the south

of cape Bojador. It also shows the date on which Columbus came to America (1492); then two years later was the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas, which used an imaginary meridian of 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands, with Castilla taking possession of the land to the west of this line and Portugal taking land to the east of it; and finally, it shows the end of the period with the 95 theses displayed by Luther against the use of indulgences, which gave rise to the Protestant Reformation. Other important times are: 1534, with the emergence of the Anglican Reformation, when Henry VIII proclaimed himself the head of the Church of England; 1540, with the founding of the Society of Jesus by Ignatius of Loyola; 1541, the date when Michelangelo decorated the Sistine Chapel; and 1543, with the formulation of the heliocentric theory of Copernicus.

b) This timeline shows the most important events of the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation; that is, the religious conflicts produced in Europe during the sixteenth century. They began in 1517 with the 95 theses displayed by Luther, and ended in 1540 with the founding of the Society of Jesus by Ignatius of Loyola, that is, a period of 23 years. In the next group there are three Protestant reforms: Lutheran (1517), Calvinist (1536), and Anglican (1534), as well as the foundation of the Society of Jesus (1540). The last period of time, the Counter-Reformation of the Catholic Church and the Council of Trent, is part of a chronological interval: 1545-1563. By way of concluding the commentary, students should highlight the rupture of the religious unity of Western Europe during the first half of the 16th century and the beginning of a process of renewal initiated by the Catholic Church with the Counter-Reformation.

2 Open answer. Search for images on Google: ‘chronological timeline’.

3 In this task, students will engage with interactive timelines and will create one of their own personal history, which will enhance their creativity.

30 31

How to comment on a timeline•Identify the time represented and indicate the

units used to measure it (millennia, centuries, years, etc.) and also identify the periods or eras the timeline is divided into, if they have been used.

•Define the geographical space that is being referred to: the world, a continent, or one or several countries, etc.

•Describe the periods or sub-periods. This should be done in an ordered manner, working from the oldest to the most recent; for each of these, the chronology covered should be identified along with the main dates and events.

•Comment on the timeline. To do so, the data contained in the timeline has to be explained using your knowledge about the period represented.

Let’s comment on a timelineLet’s apply our skills to timeline (B).

•The time covered is a period of ninety years, which is divided into decades or periods of ten years. The timeline is divided into three periods: the Portuguese discoveries, the Castilian expeditions and the conquest of America.

•The geographical space is not explicitly indicated. However, analysis of the historical events represented shows that it is limited to the African and American continents.

•The periods are given the following titles as headings: Portuguese discoveries (1460-1500); Castilian expeditions (1480-1520) and the conquest of America (1520-1540). The first two were partly simultaneous. The timeline begins with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in (1453), and concludes with the beginning of silver mining in the mines of Mexico and Potosí. In the intervening period, key historical events are highlighted: the discovery of America and the Pacific Ocean, the Treaty of Tordesillas and the first voyage around the world.

•The commentary would then go on to explain the beginning of the Modern Age, and this would focus on the geographical discoveries and their political, economic and social consequences.

UNIT

1

1 Following the steps explained above, write a commentary on. a) the timeline in section 1; b) the timeline you created for task 1 in section 6.

2Find other examples of timelines in this book or on the Internet. In what ways are they different?

3There are also apps that allow users to create interactive timelines, for example, Dipity, Timetoast, SimileTimeline, Rememble or TimeRime. Download one of these apps and make an interactive timeline for your life. You can include images, videos, texts, etc.

Put into practice

and actingLearning

Techniques

Space and time in historyAs you already know, history is concerned with the description, analysis and explanation of events that occurred in the past. Historical events are those that are considered relevant for an understanding of the past. They are characterised by the fact that they all occurred at a specific time and in a specific place.

Time and place are two fundamental concepts for historians.

•Time enables us to establish a succession of events (what happened before and after); simultaneity (what happened at the same time in two different places), and whether an event lasted a short, medium or long period of time (depending on whether they are isolated events, or lasted for decades or centuries).

•Place refers to the location where historical events occurred. This allows various scales of analysis to be distinguished: global, continental, national and local.

Understanding timeIn order to make time comprehensible, historians use chronology and timelines.

•Chronology enables historical events to be located in time. It includes dates, such as centuries and years; and periodisation, such as ages, periods and eras.

•Timelines are used to order historical events in a graphic form and in a temporal sequence. They consist of a graduated line or rectangle along which the events and their chronology are shown. Timelines are usually horizontal (A) or vertical (B), and either simple or composite.

The study of time allows historians to better understand society. This involves understanding the changes, or processes of transformation that society undergoes; its continuities, or the aspects that remain the same over time; and its temporal relationships, or the cause-effect relationships between two or more historical phenomena.

Working with historical time What are historic events?Human events must have specific characteristics in order to be considered historic:

– To have been socially relevant; or, in other words, to have caused progressive change or a break with the past.

– To have been part of a political, economic, political and cultural context.

– To be distant from the present; or at least to a sufficient degree so they can be explained with a degree of objectivity.

SpaceTim

e

Subject

Historic event

17891492AD 476

ANCIENT AGE MIDDLE AGES MODERNAGE

CONTEM-PORARY

AGE

Up tothe present

Discovery ofAmerica

Fall ofthe Western

Roman Empire

FrenchRevolution

Emergence ofthe �rst hominids

4.4 millionyears ago BC

Invention ofwriting

3250 BC

H I S T O R YP R E H I S T O R Y

1540 Start of silver mining at the minesin Mexico and at Potosí

Francisco Pizarroconquers the IncaEmpire

Hernán Cortésconquersthe Aztec

EmpireVascoNúñezde Balboadiscoversthe Paci�cOcean

Vasco da Gama reaches India.Columbus’ third voyage to America

Treaty of Tordesillas

Columbus’ second voyageto America

Christopher Columbusreaches America

Bartolomeu Diasrounds the Capeof Good Hope

The Portuguese reachthe Gulf of Guinea

Capture of Constantinopleby the Turks

Magellan and Elcanomake the �rst voyage

around the world

PO

RT

UG

UE

SE

DIS

CO

VE

RIE

S(1

46

0-1

500

)C

AS

TIL

IAN

EX

PE

DIT

ION

S

(14

80

-15

22

)C

ON

QU

ES

T O

F A

ME

RIC

A(1

519

-154

0)

1535

1450

1453

1460

1492

1487

1493

1494

1498

1513

151915211522

B

A

38

■ Check your progress. Answer key1 The conceptual graph refers to the changes that have occurred from

the mid-fifteenth century and during the sixteenth century in Europe that affected all areas of life. This included the geographical discoveries in Africa, America and Asia, which increased the world known to Europeans; the substitution of feudal kingdoms by the modern State with authoritarian monarchies; the new world view, humanism, which replaced medieval culture with concepts such as anthropocentrism; the rediscovery of classical Antiquity and the emergence of a new artistic style, the art of the Renaissance, which replaced medieval art with a more open-minded approach; the expansion of transatlantic trade and the knowledge of new products through commercial development; and the end of medieval wars.

2 a) Through the occupation of Constantinople, the Muslim threat increased against western Christianity. In addition, new routes to trade were opened up after the traditional route that ran through Asia was closed.

b) Columbus thought he had found Chipango (Japan) because he was convinced of the roundness of the Earth and that he could reach India by crossing the Atlantic and navigating westward. What he did not know about was the existence of a continent in the middle (America).

c) Both countries undertook journeys of exploration through America, Africa and Asia. In order to resolve the rivalry between them, they signed several treaties (Alcaçovas in 1479 and Tordesillas in 1494).

d) When Columbus returned from the New World, he thought he had reached the Indies (the Indonesian archipelago that corresponded to south and southeast Asia). Therefore, the new territories were named the West Indies, and their inhabitants were called Indians.

3 a) Ferdinand Magallan, together with Juan Sebastián Elcano, achieved the first voyage around the world, thereby demonstrating that the earth was round. It was started by Magellan and completed

by Elcano. b) Vasco de Gama was the first Portuguese navigator who reached India by sailing along the coast of Africa, in 1498. c) In 1513 Vasco Nuñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Southern Sea, later renamed the Pacific Ocean.

4 a) Authoritarian monarchy and the modern State both replaced the feudal kingdoms.

b) The permanent army replaced the feudal troops or militias.

c) Through commerce (trade) with the colonies, commercial capitalism was developed.

d) They are all forms of abuse carried out by the Church and were the cause of the religious Reformation.

e) Patrons were wealthy bourgeoisie who supported and improved the lives of artists during the Renaissance.

5 We suggest this activity as evidence for the students’ portfolios (gradable learning standard 31.2 ).

Lutheran doctrine Calvinist doctrine

Justification by faith

Free interpretation of the Bible

Rejection of papal infallibility

Only two of the sacraments ac-cepted: Baptism and the Eucharist

Deletion of the cult of the Virgin Mary and the saints

Simplification of the liturgy

Predestination

People are destined by God to be saved or condemned regard-less of their actions

Life is religion

Sovereign grace

The five points of Calvinism

6 a) Pietà (Vesperblid): Quattrocento; The Vatican Pietà: Cinquecento. b) The first is rigid and archaic, the second is natural and classical. c) Naturalism, treatment of the figures, anatomical study, strength and passion.

Check your progress Check your skills

UNIT

1

1 Give a brief explanation of what is represented in the illustration below:

ANTHROPOCENTRISMHUMANISM

END OF MEDIEVAL WARS

RENAISSANCE ART

REDISCOVERY OF ANTIQUITY

DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCE

GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES

AUTHORITARIAN MONARCHIES

OPEN-MINDEDNESS

2Explain the reasons for these historical facts:

a) The capture of Constantinople by the Turks was of great importance for the period.

b) Columbus thought he had reached Cipango.

c) Castilla and Portugal signed treaties to share out the land that had yet to be discovered and the land that had already been discovered.

d) The Spanish territories in America were named the West Indies.

3For each person, explain: a) Their relationship to the geographical discoveries. b) Why they have become a part of history.

Ferdinand Magellan

Vasco da Gama

Vasco Núñez de Balboa

4What is the relationship between these concepts?

a) Authoritarian monarchy and the modern State; b) Militias and permanent army; c) Commerce and capitalist commerce; d) Nepotism, nicolaism and simony; e) Artists and patrons.

5 Using a table such as this one, write in your notebook two foundations of each doctrine:

Lutherandoctrine Calvinistdoctrine

6The pietà has been a recurring subject in the history of art. It emerged at the end of the Gothic period. During the Renaissance, Michelangelo produced four different versions, which include the one in Saint Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican. It was then developed during the Baroque, which was the characteristic style of the 17th century.

Analyse the images below and answer the following questions:

a) To which period do they each belong?

b) What differences can you detect between the two pietàs?

c) What characteristics of Renaissance sculpture do you note in sculpture B?

Pietà (Vesperbild) c. 1400.

Limestone. 38.1 x 39.1 x 14 cm.

Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York).

Vatican Pietà (1498-1499).

Marble. 174 x 195 cm.

Saint Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican (Rome).

A

B3332

1. Copernicus’ masterpiece, entitled De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, was published in 1543.

2. The geocentric theory, set out by Ptolemy in the 2nd century in his work Sintaxis matematica, or Almagest, (a name derived from the Arabic word al-Magesti, the Greatest), was the most important theory of the time. According to this theory, the Earth was the centre of the universe.

Jupiter

Firmament

Saturn

Mars

Venus

MercuryEarth

Moon

PlanetTrajectoryof stars

Sun

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473 in the city of Thorn (today Toruń). In 1491, he began studying a degree in Humanities at the University of Cracow. However, he soon moved to Italy where he studied Law, Astronomy and Medicine.

In 1497, he began studying Cannon Law at the University of Bologna; in 1500 he received a doctorate in Astronomy in Rome, and in 1501 he was given permission to study Medicine in Padua (the university were Galileo would give classes almost a century later).

During this time, he translated into Latin the letters of Theophylact Simocatta (1509); he studied Finance and in 1522 wrote a memorandum on monetary reform.

He was a great student of the classical authors and he admitted to being a great admirer of Ptolemy, whose Almagest he studied conscientiously. After many years’ work he completed his masterpiece on the theory of heliocentrism.

His detractors swiftly made themselves known: the first were Luther and Calvin, who argued against him for biblical reasons; and then in 1616, the Catholic Church included his work on the index of prohibited books.

However, Copernicus’ work provided the basis for the creation of the current Gregorian calendar, and later for the work of Galileo, Brahe and Kepler, who together established the foundations for modern astronomy.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus

A humanist’s perspective 1 List the following events referred to in the text on the left in chronological order, from the oldest to the most recent:

a) Memorandum on monetary reform; b) Start of a degree in Humanities; c) Doctorate in Astronomy; d) Translation of the letters of Theophylact Simocatta; e) Study of Medicine; f) Study of Cannon Law; g) Publication of his masterpiece.

2Nicolas Copernicus is considered to be a Humanist. Explain why, using quotations from the text as part of your argument, along with references to the core aspects of this cultural movement.

3The text states that Copernicus ‘admitted to being a great admirer’ of another astronomer. Which one? In which century did this author publish his work and what was its title? How many centuries were there between the two astronomers?

4Past, present and future are always related to one another. If you were a contemporary of Copernicus, where would you place the other individuals listed in the text? To answer this question, copy and complete this table in your notebook:

Past Present Future

1

2

■ Check your skills. Answer key1 The aim of this question is for students to work with

chronological sequences: b), e), f), c), d), a) and g).

2 In addition to ‘studying the career of humanities’, in his studies Copernicus covered almost all the strands of this movement. That is, he studied ‘canon law’, the religious strand; gained a doctorate in ‘astronomy’, the scientific strand (which he broadened through his study of medicine); and, by translating ‘the letters of Tehophylactus from Greek to Latin’, the literary and philosophical strands (which he also extended by being a ‘great scholar of classical authors and an admirer of Ptolemy’).

3 Ptolemy.

In the second century The Geocentric Theory was published. For 13 centuries.

4 Past Present Future

Ptolemy

Theophylactus

Luther

Calvin

Galileo

Brahe

Kepler

Notes

1 The start of the Modern Age. The 15th and 16th...

Documents

Transcript of 1 The start of the Modern Age. The 15th and 16th...