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![Page 1: 1 Review of Remote Sensing Fundamentals Allen Huang Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies Space Science & Engineering Center University.](https://reader030.fdocuments.in/reader030/viewer/2022032604/56649e605503460f94b5a587/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
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Review of Remote Sensing Fundamentals Allen Huang
Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite StudiesSpace Science & Engineering Center
University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
MODIS direct broadcast data for enhanced forecasting and real-time environmental decision making
IGARSS 2009 MODIS DB Short Course7-10 July 2009, Cape Town, South Africa
http://www.igarss09.org/SC04.asp
Selected Material Provided by Bill Smith, Paul Menzel, Paolo Antonelli, Steve Miller & Gerald van der Grijn
Topics:Visible & Infrared Measurement PrincipalRadiation and the Planck FunctionInfrared Radiative Transfer Equation
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Earth System Energy Balance
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Radiative Energy Balance
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Visible & Near IR Infrared (IR)
Remote Sensing of Natural Radiation
(Reflective Bands) (Emissive Bands)
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What do satellites actually measure ?
They measure TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, WIND, TRACE GASES, CLOUDS, AEROSOLS, OTHERS…, indirectly!
Instead, satellite observations are obtained using remote sensing techniques based on measurements of electromagnetic radiation
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Electromagnetic RadiationEvery object with a temperature larger than 0 K emits electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation therefore extends over a wide range of energies and wavelengths. The distribution of all radiant energies can be plotted in a chart known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
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Remote sensing uses radiant energy that is reflected and emitted from Earth at various “wavelengths” of the electromagnetic spectrum
Our eyes are sensitive to the visible portion of the EM spectrum
The Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum
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Electromagnetic RadiationIn the earth’s atmosphere, the radiation is partly to completely transmitted at some wavelengths; at others those photons are variably absorbed by interaction with air molecules.
Blue zones mark minimal passage of incoming and/or outgoing radiation, whereas, white areas denote atmospheric windows in which the radiation doesn’t interact much with air molecules.
Most remote sensing instruments operate in one of these windows by making their measurements tuned to specific frequencies that pass through the atmosphere. Some sensors, especially those on meteorological satellites, directly measure absorption phenomena.
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UV, Visible and Near-IR
Far-Infrared (IR)
UV, Visible and Near-IR and IR and Far-IR
Infrared (IR)
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H2O
H2OH2O
H2O
O2
CO2
H2O
O2
O3
H2O
O2
MODIS Visible and Near-infrared Bands
Visible Near IR
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MODIS Reflected Solar Bands
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Units: Wavelength (µm) vs. Wavenumber) (cm-1)
wavelength (µm) : distance between peakswavenumber (cm-1): number of waves per unit distance
=1/
d=-1/ 2 d Radiation is characterized by wavelength and amplitude a
(µm) = 10,000 / (cm-1)
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Terminology of radiant energy
Energy from the Earth Atmosphere
Flux
over time is
which strikes the detector area
Irradiance
at a given wavelength interval
MonochromaticIrradiance
over a solid angle on the Earth
Radiance observed by satellite radiometer
is described by
can be inverted to
The Planck function
Brightness temperature
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Terminology of radiant energy
Energy (Joules) from the Earth Atmosphere
Flux (Joules/sec or W)
over time is
which strikes the detector area
Irradiance (W/m2)
at a given wavelength interval
MonochromaticIrradiance (W/m2/micrometer)
over a solid angle on the Earth
Radiance (W/m2/micromenter/ster) observed by satellite radiometer
is described by
can be inverted to
The Planck function
Brightness temperature (K)
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Definitions of Radiation__________________________________________________________________
QUANTITY SYMBOL UNITS__________________________________________________________________
Energy dQ Joules
Flux dQ/dt Joules/sec = Watts
Irradiance dQ/dt/dA Watts/meter2
Monochromatic dQ/dt/dA/d W/m2/micron Irradiance
or
dQ/dt/dA/d W/m2/cm-1
Radiance dQ/dt/dA/d/d W/m2/micron/ster
or
dQ/dt/dA/d/d W/m2/cm-1/ster__________________________________________________________________
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Radiation is governed by Planck’s Law
In wavelength: B(,T) = c1
/{ 5 [e c2 /T -1] } (mW/m2/ster/cm)
where = wavelength (cm)T = temperature of emitting surface (deg K)c1 = 1.191044 x 10-8 (W/m2/ster/cm-4)c2 = 1.438769 (cm deg K)
In wavenumber:B(,T) = c13 / [e c2/T -1] (mW/m2/ster/cm-1)
where = # wavelengths in one centimeter (cm-1)T = temperature of emitting surface (deg K)c1 = 1.191044 x 10-5 (mW/m2/ster/cm-4)c2 = 1.438769 (cm deg K)
Brightness temperature is uniquely related to radiance for a given wavelength by the Planck function.
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Using wavelengths
c2/T
Planck’s Law B(,T) = c1 / 5 / [e -1] (mW/m2/ster/cm)
where = wavelengths in cmT = temperature of emitting surface (deg K)c1 = 1.191044 x 10-5 (mW/m2/ster/cm-4)c2 = 1.438769 (cm deg K)
Wien's Law dB(max,T) / d = 0 where (max) = .2897/T
indicates peak of Planck function curve shifts to shorter wavelengths (greater wavenumbers) with temperature increase. Note B(max,T) ~ T5.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law E = B(,T) d = T4, where = 5.67 x 10-8
W/m2/deg4. o
states that irradiance of a black body (area under Planck curve) is proportional to T4 .
Brightness Temperature
c 1
T = c2 / [ ln( _____ + 1)] is determined by inverting Planck function
5B
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Spectral Distribution of Energy Radiated from Blackbodies at Various Temperatures
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Using wavenumbers
Wien's Law dB(max,T) / dT = 0 where (max) = 1.95T
indicates peak of Planck function curve shifts to shorter wavelengths (greater wavenumbers) with temperature increase. Note B(max,T) ~ T**3.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law E = B(,T) d = T4, where = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2/deg4.
ostates that irradiance of a black body (area under Planck curve) is proportional to T4 .
Brightness Temperature
c13
T = c2/[ln(______ + 1)] is determined by inverting Planck function
B
Brightness temperature is uniquely related to radiance for a given wavelength by the Planck function.
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B(max,T)~T5 B(max,T)~T3
Planck Radiances
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
wavenumber (in hundreds)
mW
/m2/
ster
/cm
(cm
-1)
B(,T)
B(,T)
B(,T) versus B(,T)
20 10 5 4 3.36.6100
wavelength [µm]
max ≠(1/ max)
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Using wavenumbers Using wavelengths
c2/T c2 /T
B(,T) = c13 / [e -1] B(,T) = c1 /{ 5 [e -1] }
(mW/m2/ster/cm-1) (mW/m2/ster/m)
(max in cm-1) = 1.95T (max in cm) = 0.2897/T
B(max,T) ~ T**3. B( max,T) ~ T**5.
E = B(,T) d = T4, E = B(,T) d = T4, o o
c13 c1
T = c2/[ln(______ + 1)] T = c2/[ ln(______ + 1)] B 5 B
Wavelength (µm) vs. Wavenumber (cm-1)
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+ a + r = 1
+ a + r = 1
Energy conservation:
=B(Ts)
T
R=(a +r +) R
Reflected
Absorbed
Transmitted
+ a + r = 1
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Temperature sensitivity
dB/B = dT/T
The Temperature Sensitivity is the percentage change in radiance corresponding to a percentage change in temperature
Substituting the Planck Expression, the equation can be solved in :
=c2/T
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∆B11
∆B4
∆B11> ∆B4
T=300 K
Tref=220 K
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B=Bref(T/Tref)
B=(Bref/ Tref) T
B T
The temperature sensitivity indicates the power to which the Planck radiance depends on temperature, since B proportional to T satisfies the equation. For infrared wavelengths,
= c2/T = c2/T. __________________________________________________________________
Wavenumber Typical Scene Temperature Temperature Sensitivity
900 300 4.322500 300 11.99
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2
1
B (λ, T) / B (λ, 273K)
200 250 300 Temperature (K)
4μm
6.7μm
10μm
15μm
microwave
Temperature Sensitivity of B(λ,T) for typical earth scene temperatures
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B(10 um,T) / B(10 um,273) T4
B(10 um,273)= 6.1
B(10 um,200)= 0.9 0.15
B(10 um,220)= 1.7 0.28
B(10 um,240)= 3.0 0.49
B(10 um,260)= 4.7 0.77
B(10 um,280)= 7.0 1.15
B(10 um,300)= 9.9 1.62
1
200 300
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B(4 um,T) / B(4 um,273) T12
B(4 um,273)= 2.2 x 10-1
B(4 um,200)= 1.8 x 10-3 0.0
B(4 um,220)= 9.2 x 10-3 0.0
B(4 um,240)= 3.6 x 10-2 0.2
B(4 um,260)= 1.1 x 10-1 0.5
B(4 um,280)= 3.0 x 10-1 1.4
B(4 um,300)= 7.2 x 10-1 3.3
1
200 300
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B(0.3 cm, T) / B(0.3 cm,273) T
B(0.3 cm,273)= 2.55 x 10-4
B(0.3 cm,200)= 1.8 0.7
B(0.3 cm,220)= 2.0 0.78
B(0.3 cm,240)= 2.2 0.86
B(0.3 cm,260)= 2.4 0.94
B(0.3 cm,280)= 2.6 1.02
B(0.3 cm,300)= 2.8 1.1
1
200 300
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Reflection and Transmission of Plane-Parallel Layers
= 0
= t
Rt; µ,; µ00
F0
Tt; µ,; µ00reflectiontransmission
R(a, 0; µ, µ0, ) =where
µ = absolute value of the cosine of the zenith angle |cos|µ0 = cosine of the solar zenith angle cos0
= relative azimuth angle between the direction of propagation of the emerging radiation and the incident solar direction
I(0, –µ, )µ0F0
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Visible: Reflective BandsUsed to observe solar energy reflected by the Earth
system in the:• Visible between 0.4 and 0.7 µm • NIR between 0.7 and 3 µm
About 99% of the energy observed between 0 and 4 µm is solar reflected energy
Only 1% is observed above 4 µm
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Sensor Geometry
Sensor
Optics
Electronics
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Reflectance• To properly compare different reflective channels we
need to convert observed radiance into a target physical property
• In the visible and near infrared this is done through the ratio of the observed radiance divided by the incoming energy at the top of the atmosphere
• The physical quantity is the Reflectance i.e. the fraction of solar energy reflected by the observed target
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Soil
Vegetation
Snow
Ocean
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Before Atmospheric CorrectionValues Range [50 100] W/ster/cm2/ µm Radiance observed
In the Blue BandAt 0.41 µm
After A
tmospheric C
orrectionV
alues Range betw
een [0 25] W/ster/cm
2/ µm
More than 75% of the Observed energy Over OceanIn the blue bandsIs due to atmosphericScattering. Less than 25% is due to WaterLeaving Energy
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Band 4 (0.56 Micron)
Band 1Band 4Band 3
snow
clouds
sea
desert
Transects of Reflectance
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Band 201.38 micronStrong H20
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Only High Clouds Are Visible
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Ocean: Dark
Vegetated Surface: Dark
Clouds: Bright
NonVegetated Surface: Brighter
Snow: Bright
Sunglint
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Ocean: Dark
Vegetated Surface: Dark
Clouds: Bright
NonVegetated Surface: Brighter
Snow: Bright
Sunglint
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Ocean: Dark
Vegetated Surface: Dark
Clouds: Bright
NonVegetated Surface: Brighter
Snow: Bright
Sunglint
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MODIS Thermal Emissive Bands
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MODIS Infrared Spectral Bands
Short Wave IR Long Wave IR
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AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sounder)
& MODIS – IR only
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AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sounder)
& MODIS
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Emissive BandsUsed to observe terrestrial energy emitted by the Earth
system in the IR between 4 and 15 µm
• About 99% of the energy observed in this range is emitted by the Earth
• Only 1% is observed below 4 µm• At 4 µm the solar reflected energy can significantly
affect the observations of the Earth emitted energy
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Spectral Characteristics of Energy Sources and Sensing Systems
IR
4 µm11 µm
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Observed Radiance at 4 micron
Range [0.2 1.7]
Values over landLarger than over water
Reflected Solar everywhereStronger over Sunglint
Window Channel:•little atmospheric absorption•surface features clearly visible
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Observed Radiance at 11 micron
Range [2 13]
Values over landLarger than over water
Undetectable Reflected SolarEven over Sunglint
Window Channel:•little atmospheric absorption•surface features clearly visible
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Brightness Temperature• To properly compare different emissive
channels we need to convert observed radiance into a target physical property
• In the Infrared this is done through the Planck function
• The physical quantity is the Brightness Temperature i.e. the Temperature of a black body emitting the observed radiance
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Observed BT at 4 micron
Range [250 335]
Values over landLarger than over water
Reflected Solar everywhereStronger over Sunglint
Window Channel:•little atmospheric absorption•surface features clearly visible
Clouds are cold
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Observed BT at 11 micron
Range [220 320]
Values over landLarger than over water
Undetectable Reflected SolarEven over Sunglint
Window Channel:•little atmospheric absorption•surface features clearly visible
Clouds are cold
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AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sounder)
& MODIS – IR only
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A lot of radiation is emitted from the dense lower atmosphere, but very little survives to the top of the atmosphere due to absorption.
At some level there is an optimal balance between the amount of radiation emitted and the amount reaching the top of the atmosphere.
High in the atmosphere very little radiation is emitted, but most will reach the top of the atmosphere.
K(z)K(z)
z
Real atmospheric weighting functions
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Longwave CO214.7 1 680 CO2, strat temp14.4 2 696 CO2, strat temp14.1 3 711 CO2, upper trop temp13.9 4 733 CO2, mid trop temp13.4 5 748 CO2, lower trop temp12.7 6 790 H2O, lower trop moisture12.0 7 832 H2O, dirty window
Midwave H2O & O311.0 8 907 window 9.7 9 1030 O3, strat ozone 7.4 10 1345 H2O, lower mid trop moisture 7.0 11 1425 H2O, mid trop moisture 6.5 12 1535 H2O, upper trop moisture
Weighting Functions
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Radiance measured by IR Sensor
RTE (no scattering) in LTE
suns
suns
sun
pss
p
Sss
rpR
pdpTBr
pdpTB
TBR
s
s
)()cos(
)())((
)())((
)(
0
0
Upwelling IR radiation from surface
Upwelling IR radiation from atm. layers
Reflected downwelling IR radiation
Reflected solar radiation
R…radiance, …wavenumber, s…surface, p…pressure, sun…solar,
T…temperature, B…Planck function, …emissivity,
…level to space transmittance, ...local solar zenith angle
r…reflectivity, with r = (1- )/,
*…level to surface (downwelling) transmittance [*= 2(ps)/ (p)]
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Solar Effects (Day Vs. Night) on Infrared Measurements
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Radiative Transfer Equation Summary
Radiative Transfer Equation in Infrared: models the propagation of terrestrial emitted energy
through the atmosphere by• absorption, • scattering, • emission and • reflection of gases, clouds, suspended particles, and surface.The modeled radiances can be converted to brightness
temperature and inverted to obtain atmospheric variables such as profile of temperature and water vapor profiles and clouds (height, fraction, optical thickness, size), aerosol/dust, surface temperature, and surface types etc…..
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Summary• Radiance is the Energy Flux (emitted and/or reflected by the
Earth) which strikes the Detector Area at a given Spectral Wavelength (wavenumber) over a Solid Angle on the Earth;
• Reflectance is the fraction of solar energy reflected to space by the target;
• Given an observed radiance, the Brightness Temperature is the temperature, in Kelvin, of a blackbody that emits the observed radiance;
• Knowing the spectral reflective (Vis) and emissive (IR) properties (spectral signatures) of different targets it is possible to detect: clouds, cloud properties, vegetation, fires, ice and snow, ocean color, land and ocean surface temperature ……