1 Review Descriptive Statistics –Qualitative (Graphical) –Quantitative (Graphical) –Summation...
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1
Review• Descriptive Statistics
– Qualitative (Graphical)– Quantitative (Graphical)– Summation Notation– Qualitative (Numerical)
• Central Measures (mean, median, mode and modal class)
• Shape of the Data
• Measures of Variability
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Outlier
A data measurement which is unusually large or small compared to the rest of the data.
Usually from:– Measurement or recording error– Measurement from a different population– A rare, chance event.
3
Advantages/Disadvantages Mean
• Disadvantages– is sensitive to outliers
• Advantages– always exists– very common– nice mathematical properties
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Advantages/Disadvantages Median
• Disadvantages– does not take all data into account
• Advantages– always exists– easily calculated– not affected by outliers– nice mathematical properties
5
Advantages/Disadvantages Mode
• Disadvantages– does not always exist, there could be just one
of each data point– sometimes more than one
• Advantages– appropriate for qualitative data
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Review
A data set is skewed if one tail of the distribution has more extreme observations than the other.
http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/SkewDistribution/
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Numerical Measures of Variability
These measure the variability or spread of the data.
Relative Frequency
0 1 3 4 52
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.1
Mx
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Numerical Measures of Variability
These measure the variability or spread of the data.
Relative Frequency
0 1 3 4 52
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.1
Mx
13
Numerical Measures of Variability
These measure the variability or spread of the data.
Relative Frequency
0 1 3 4 52
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.1
6 7
Mx
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Numerical Measures of Variability
These measure the variability, spread or relative standing of the data.
– Range– Standard Deviation– Percentile Ranking– Z-score
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Range
The range of quantitative data is denoted R and is given by:
R = Maximum – Minimum
In the previous examples the first two graphs have a range of 5 and the third has a range of 7.
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Range
R = Maximum – Minimum
Disadvantages: – Since the range uses only two values in the
sample it is very sensitive to outliers.– Give you no idea about how much data is in the
center of the data.
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What else?
We want a measure which shows how far away most of the data points are from the mean.
One option is to keep track of the average distance each point is from the mean.
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Mean Deviation
The Mean Deviation is a measure of dispersion which calculates the distance between each data point and the mean, and then finds the average of these distances.
n
xx
n
xx ii
sumDeviation Mean
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Mean Deviation
Advantages: The mean deviation takes into account all values in the sample.
Disadvantages: The absolute value signs are very cumbersome in mathematical equations.
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Standard Deviation
The sample variance, denoted by s², is:
The sample standard deviation is
The sample standard deviation is much more commonly used as a measure of variance.
.2ss
1
)( s
22
n
xxi
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Example
Let the following be data from a sample:
2, 4, 3, 2, 5, 2, 1, 4, 5, 2.
Find:
a) The range
b) The standard deviation of this sample.
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Sample: 2, 4, 3, 2, 5, 2, 1, 4, 5, 2.
a) The range
b) The standard deviation of this sample.
2 4 3 2 5 2 1 4 5 2
x
R
ix
)( xxi 2)( xxi
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Sample: 2, 4, 3, 2, 5, 2, 1, 4, 5, 2. a) The range
b) The standard deviation of this sample.
2 4 3 2 5 2 1 4 5 2
310
30
10
2541252342
x
415R
ix
)( xxi 2)( xxi
27
Sample: 2, 4, 3, 2, 5, 2, 1, 4, 5, 2. a) The range
b) The standard deviation of this sample.
2 4 3 2 5 2 1 4 5 2
-1 1 0
310
30
10
2541252342
x
415R
ix
)( xxi 2)( xxi
28
Sample: 2, 4, 3, 2, 5, 2, 1, 4, 5, 2. a) The range
b) The standard deviation of this sample.
2 4 3 2 5 2 1 4 5 2
-1 1 0 -1 2 -1 -2 1 2 -1
1 1 0 1 4 1 4 1 4 1
310
30
10
2541252342
x
415R
ix
)( xxi 2)( xxi
29
Sample: 2, 4, 3, 2, 5, 2, 1, 4, 5, 2. 2 4 3 2 5 2 1 4 5 2
-1 1 0 -1 2 -1 -2 1 2 -1
1 1 0 1 4 1 4 1 4 1
ix
)( xxi 2)( xxi
1
)( s
22
n
xxi
30
Sample: 2, 4, 3, 2, 5, 2, 1, 4, 5, 2. 2 4 3 2 5 2 1 4 5 2
-1 1 0 -1 2 -1 -2 1 2 -1
1 1 0 1 4 1 4 1 4 1
ix
)( xxi 2)( xxi
110
1414141011
1
)( s
22
n
xxi
31
Sample: 2, 4, 3, 2, 5, 2, 1, 4, 5, 2. 2 4 3 2 5 2 1 4 5 2
-1 1 0 -1 2 -1 -2 1 2 -1
1 1 0 1 4 1 4 1 4 1
ix
)( xxi 2)( xxi
2110
1414141011
1
)( s
22
n
xxi
32
Sample: 2, 4, 3, 2, 5, 2, 1, 4, 5, 2.
2110
1414141011
1
)( s
22
n
xxi
41.12 ss 2
Standard Deviation:
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More Standard DeviationLike the mean, we are also interested in the population variance (i.e. your sample is the whole population) and the population standard deviation.
The population variance and standard deviation are denoted σ and σ2 respectively.
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More Standard DeviationThe population variance and standard deviation are denoted σ and σ2 respectively.
****The formula for population variance is slightly different than sample variance
nn
xx
n
xxi
ii
2
22
2 )(
2
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Example – Using Standard Deviation
35, 59, 70, 73, 75, 81, 84, 86.
The mean and standard deviation are 70.4 and 16.7, respectively.
We wish to know if any of are data points are outliers. That is whether they don’t fit with the general trend of the rest of the data.
To find this we calculate the number of standard deviations each point is from the mean.
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Example – Using Standard Deviation
To find this we calculate the number of standard deviations each point is from the mean.
To simplify things for now, work out which data points are within
a) one standard deviation from the mean i.e.
b) two standard deviations from the mean i.e.
c) three standard deviations from the mean i.e.
) ,( sxsx
)2 ,2( sxsx
)3 ,3( sxsx
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Example – Using Standard Deviation
Here are eight test scores from a previous Stats 201 class:
35, 59, 70, 73, 75, 81, 84, 86.
The mean and standard deviation are 70.4 and 16.7, respectively. Work out which data points are within
a) one standard deviation from the mean i.e.
b) two standard deviations from the mean i.e.
c) three standard deviations from the mean i.e.
)1.87 ,7.53()7.160.47 ,7.164.70(
)8.301 ,0.37())7.16(20.47 ),7.16(24.70(
)5.021 ,3.21())7.16(30.47 ),7.16(34.70(
38
Example – Using Standard Deviation
Here are eight test scores from a previous Stats 201 class:
35, 59, 70, 73, 75, 81, 84, 86.
The mean and standard deviation are 70.4 and 16.7, respectively. Work out which data points are within
a) one standard deviation from the mean i.e.
59, 70, 73, 75, 81, 84, 86
b) two standard deviations from the mean i.e.
59, 70, 73, 75, 81, 84, 86
c) three standard deviations from the mean i.e.
35, 59, 70, 73, 75, 81, 84, 86