1 PSY 321 Dr. Sanchez Perceiving People. 2 Person Perception The process by which people come to...

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PSY 321PSY 321Dr. SanchezDr. Sanchez

Perceiving PeoplePerceiving People

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Person PerceptionPerson Perception

• The process by which people come to The process by which people come to understand one another.understand one another.

• Today, weToday, we’’ll look at:ll look at:– Attributions: How we explain and analyze Attributions: How we explain and analyze

behavior.behavior.– Observation: The Observation: The ““raw dataraw data”” of social perception. of social perception.– Integration: How we integrate our observations Integration: How we integrate our observations

into coherent impressions of other persons.into coherent impressions of other persons.– How our impressions can subtly create a distorted How our impressions can subtly create a distorted

picture of reality.picture of reality.

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Attribution TheoriesAttribution Theories

• Attribution theories describe the Attribution theories describe the process by which we make process by which we make attributions for peopleattributions for people’’s behavior.s behavior.

• Understanding WHY?Understanding WHY?

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Understanding WHYUnderstanding WHY

Why did Jack win the prize?Why did Jack win the prize?

Why did Susie get arrested?Why did Susie get arrested?

Why was Jason late for his date?Why was Jason late for his date?

Why did Ross break up with Why did Ross break up with Rachel?Rachel?

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What functions What functions do attributions serve?do attributions serve?

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When do we make When do we make attributions?attributions?

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Classic Views on Classic Views on Attribution...Attribution...

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2 Basic Types of 2 Basic Types of Attributions:Attributions:

Heider (1958)Heider (1958)

Internal/Person/Personal/Internal/Person/Personal/

Dispositional AttributionsDispositional Attributionse.g., personality, ability, attitudee.g., personality, ability, attitude

External/Situational/Stimulus External/Situational/Stimulus AttributionsAttributionse.g., other people, luck, pressure, e.g., other people, luck, pressure,

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Understanding WHYUnderstanding WHY

Jack won the prize Jack won the prize because hebecause he’’s smarts smart..

Susie got arrested Susie got arrested because shebecause she’’s s aggressiveaggressive..

Jason was late for his date Jason was late for his date because because hehe’’s not interesteds not interested..

Pam broke up with Rachel Pam broke up with Rachel because shbecause shee ’’s a jerks a jerk..

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Understanding WHYUnderstanding WHYJack won the prize Jack won the prize because the competition because the competition

was easywas easy..

Susie got arrested Susie got arrested because she was in the because she was in the wrong place at the wrong timewrong place at the wrong time..

Jason was late for his date Jason was late for his date because his boss because his boss made him work overtimemade him work overtime..

Pam broke up with Rachel Pam broke up with Rachel because she had because she had to move to San Franciscoto move to San Francisco..

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JoneJone’’s Correspondence s Correspondence Inference TheoryInference Theory

• People infer from action whether the People infer from action whether the behavior corresponds to personality behavior corresponds to personality traitstraits– Is the behavior chosen?Is the behavior chosen?– Is the behavior unexpected?Is the behavior unexpected?– How many possible intended effects of How many possible intended effects of

behaviors?behaviors?

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KelleyKelley’’s Covariation Theorys Covariation Theory

• Dispositional or situational causesDispositional or situational causes– ConsensusConsensus: How are other people : How are other people

reacting to the same stimulus?reacting to the same stimulus?– ConsistencyConsistency: Is the person: Is the person’’s behavior s behavior

consistent over time?consistent over time?– Distinctiveness Distinctiveness : Does the person react : Does the person react

the same or differently to different the same or differently to different stimuli?stimuli?

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KellyKelly’’s Covariation Model: s Covariation Model: Malik Loves Malik Loves ““The Hangover The Hangover

22 ””If consistency is If consistency is lowlow, we do not make a , we do not make a

stimulus stimulus attribution.attribution.Malik sometimes talks about how great the Malik sometimes talks about how great the

new movie new movie ““ The Hangover The Hangover”” was, but was, but sometimes says he didnsometimes says he didn’’t like it.t like it.

If consistency is If consistency is highhigh, we look for , we look for consensus and distinctivenessconsensus and distinctiveness to help to help us explain the situationus explain the situation

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KellyKelly’’s Covariation Models Covariation Model

Given high consistency…...Given high consistency…...

If the behavior is If the behavior is lowlow on both on both consensus and distinctiveness, we consensus and distinctiveness, we make an make an internalinternal attribution attribution

e.g., If e.g., If no one else ravesno one else raves about about ““The The Hangover,Hangover,”” and Malik and Malik raves about many raves about many other filmsother films, then something about Malik , then something about Malik caused the behaviorcaused the behavior

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KellyKelly’’s Covariation Models Covariation Model

Given high consistency….Given high consistency….

If behavior is If behavior is highhigh on both consensus and on both consensus and distinctiveness, we make an distinctiveness, we make an stimulus stimulus attributionattribution

e.g., If everyone raves about the movie e.g., If everyone raves about the movie ““The The Hangover,Hangover,”” and Malik rarely raves about and Malik rarely raves about other films, then the movie caused the other films, then the movie caused the behaviorbehavior

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KelleyKelley’’s Covariation Theory s Covariation Theory (High Consistency Theory)(High Consistency Theory)

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KellyKelly’’s Covariation Theorys Covariation Theory

multiple observational pointsmultiple observational points

process for making external process for making external (stimulus), as well as, internal (stimulus), as well as, internal attributions (personal)attributions (personal)

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Cognitive HeuristicsCognitive Heuristics

• Mental shortcuts:Mental shortcuts:– Availability heuristicAvailability heuristic– Base-rate fallacy: Base-rate fallacy: – False-consensus effectFalse-consensus effect: : – Counterfactual thinkingCounterfactual thinking::

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Attribution Biases and Attribution Biases and ErrorsErrors

Fundamental Attribution Error Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)(FAE)

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Fundamental Attribution Fundamental Attribution ErrorError

the tendency to overestimate the extent the tendency to overestimate the extent to which peopleto which people’’s behavior is due to s behavior is due to

internal factors, and to underestimate internal factors, and to underestimate the role of situational factorsthe role of situational factors

Fundamental Attribution Fundamental Attribution Error and the TV Quiz ShowError and the TV Quiz Show

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Fundamental Attribution Fundamental Attribution Error:Error:

Jones & Harris (1967)Jones & Harris (1967) Ps read an essay written by a fellow Ps read an essay written by a fellow student about Castrostudent about Castro

free choice vs. no choice conditionsfree choice vs. no choice conditions

Ps were asked: What is the writerPs were asked: What is the writer’’s s position on Castro?position on Castro?

RESULTS???????RESULTS???????

What Does This What Does This Speechwriter Really Speechwriter Really Believe?Believe?

Culture and AttributionCulture and Attribution

• Language and culture can influence Language and culture can influence the way people think about…the way people think about…

• Also influences perception of social Also influences perception of social eventsevents

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FAE & Culture: FAE & Culture: Miller (1984)Miller (1984)

Two groups of various ages:Two groups of various ages:American participantsAmerican participantsIndian participantsIndian participants

Task: Task: Explain the causes of pos & neg Explain the causes of pos & neg

behaviors youbehaviors you’’ve seen in your lifeve seen in your life

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FAE & Culture: FAE & Culture: Miller (1984)Miller (1984)

Young children of both cultures:Young children of both cultures: no significant attribution differencesno significant attribution differences

As Ps ages increased:As Ps ages increased:Americans made more internal Americans made more internal

attributionsattributionsAsian Indians made more external Asian Indians made more external

attributionsattributions

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Figure 4.7: Fundamental Figure 4.7: Fundamental Attribution Error: A Western Attribution Error: A Western Bias?Bias?

From J.G. Miller (1984) "Culture and the Development of Everyday Social Explanation," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 961-978. Copyright (c) 1984 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.

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Attributions Within Cultural Frames: Attributions Within Cultural Frames: When you are both American and When you are both American and Asian?Asian?

From "Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition" by Y. Hong, M. W. Morris, C. Chiu, and V. Benet-Martinez (2000). From American Psychologist,55,709-720. Copyright (c) 2000 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.

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Demonstration TimeDemonstration Time

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Fundamental Attribution Error Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)(FAE)

Actor-Observer BiasActor-Observer Bias

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LetLet’’s imagine this…..s imagine this…..

You are behind someone in a car who is driving very You are behind someone in a car who is driving very slowly, who looks like s/heslowly, who looks like s/he’’s going to pull over but then s going to pull over but then does not. does not. ““DangDang”” you say, you say, ““This person canThis person can’’t drive! t drive! These These ‘‘old people/women/foreigners/southerners should old people/women/foreigners/southerners should not be allowed on the road.not be allowed on the road.””

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LetLet’’s imagine this…..s imagine this…..

A few days later, you are driving around a suburb a few A few days later, you are driving around a suburb a few miles away from your normal stomping grounds, lookingmiles away from your normal stomping grounds, lookingfor the house of a friend of a friend, who is holding a party. You for the house of a friend of a friend, who is holding a party. You cancan’’t read the house numbers because there are lots of bushes in t read the house numbers because there are lots of bushes in the way. You drive slowly so you wonthe way. You drive slowly so you won’’t miss the house. You t miss the house. You almost pull over a couple of times, thinking youalmost pull over a couple of times, thinking you’’ve found the ve found the house. You think house. You think ““why is that @#?* behind me giving me the why is that @#?* behind me giving me the finger?finger?””

Taken together, these scenarios demonstrate the Actor-Observer EffectTaken together, these scenarios demonstrate the Actor-Observer Effect

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Actor-Observer Effect: Actor-Observer Effect: Dear AbbyDear Abby

Dear Abby:I’m writing you in desperation, hoping you can help me with

a problem I’m having with my mother.A little over a year ago, I moved in with my boyfriend despite

my mother’s protests. She has never liked “Kevin.” I’ll admit he’sfar from perfect and we’ve had our problems. He’s an alcoholic, hasa bad temper, is mentally abusive, is a compulsive liar and cannot hold a job. I am in debt over my head because of him but my biggest problem is that my mother is obsessed with my situation. I understand her concern, but I can take only so much….

OVER-MOTHERED IN MICHIGAN

(i.e., my biggest problem is my mother)

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Fundamental Attribution Error Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)(FAE)CultureCulture


Self-Serving Attribution BiasesSelf-Serving Attribution Biases

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Self-Serving Attribution Self-Serving Attribution BiasesBiases

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Self-Serving Attribution Bias: Self-Serving Attribution Bias: Lau & Russell (1980)Lau & Russell (1980)

Examined explanations made by Examined explanations made by athletes & coaches for why their athletes & coaches for why their team won or lostteam won or lost

victories explained in terms of things victories explained in terms of things internal to team (e.g., skills) internal to team (e.g., skills)

losses explained in terms of things losses explained in terms of things external to the team (e.g., weather)external to the team (e.g., weather)

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Self-Serving Bias & CultureSelf-Serving Bias & Culture

The self-serving bias is The self-serving bias is pervasive in the West but pervasive in the West but much less so in Eastern much less so in Eastern culturescultures

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Where do the Attributional Where do the Attributional Biases & Errors come from?Biases & Errors come from?

Cognitive RootsCognitive Rootsperceptual salienceperceptual salience

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Perceptual Salience:Perceptual Salience:Taylor & Fiske Taylor & Fiske

(1975)(1975) varied the seating arrangement participants varied the seating arrangement participants

who observed a conversationwho observed a conversation faced actor A, faced actor B, or bothfaced actor A, faced actor B, or both

who played a more dominant role in the who played a more dominant role in the conversation?conversation?

Results:Results: Whichever actor the participant faced was Whichever actor the participant faced was

the one the observers judged to be the the one the observers judged to be the more dominant member of the dyadmore dominant member of the dyad

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Why Are Personal Why Are Personal Attributions Automatic?Attributions Automatic?

• Heider: People see dispositions in Heider: People see dispositions in behavior because of a perceptual behavior because of a perceptual bias.bias.

• So people attribute events to factors So people attribute events to factors that are perceptually conspicuous or that are perceptually conspicuous or salient.salient.

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Where do the Attribution Where do the Attribution Biases & Errors come from?Biases & Errors come from?

Cognitive RootsCognitive Rootsperceptual salienceperceptual saliencecognitive misers – cognitive misers –

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Where do the Attribution Where do the Attribution Biases & Errors come from?Biases & Errors come from?

Cognitive RootsCognitive Rootsperceptual salienceperceptual saliencecognitive misers – people conserve cognitive misers – people conserve

their limited cognitive resourcestheir limited cognitive resources

Motivational RootsMotivational Rootsself-esteem concernsself-esteem concernscoherent understanding of the coherent understanding of the

worldworld

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Figure 4.6: Two-Step Model Figure 4.6: Two-Step Model of the Attribution Processof the Attribution Process

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ObservationObservation

The elements of social The elements of social perceptionperception

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How are impressions of How are impressions of others influenced by others influenced by superficial aspects of their superficial aspects of their appearance?appearance?

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The influence of superficial The influence of superficial featuresfeatures

• First impressions are subtly First impressions are subtly influenced by a person’s appearance.influenced by a person’s appearance.

• We prejudge people based on facial We prejudge people based on facial features.features.– We read traits from faces.We read traits from faces.– We judge “baby-faced” adults differently We judge “baby-faced” adults differently

than “mature-faced” adults.than “mature-faced” adults.

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Effect of Facial Features on Effect of Facial Features on Election Outcomes Election Outcomes (Todorov et al., (Todorov et al., 2005)2005)

• Participants viewed photos of all pairs of Participants viewed photos of all pairs of Senate and House of Reps candidates Senate and House of Reps candidates before 2004 elections – for 1 second!before 2004 elections – for 1 second!

• Rated the competence of each Rated the competence of each candidatecandidate

• Competence ratings Competence ratings – predicted winners of 70% of the electionspredicted winners of 70% of the elections– correlated with margin of victorycorrelated with margin of victory

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Baby-facednessBaby-facedness

• Babyfaced people – very large eyes Babyfaced people – very large eyes relative to size of face, small nose, relative to size of face, small nose, small chin – elicit positive feelings small chin – elicit positive feelings

• WHY??WHY??

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• Three possible explanations:Three possible explanations:

– Genetic programming.Genetic programming.

– Positive associations of babies.Positive associations of babies.

– Physical appearance actually predicts Physical appearance actually predicts behavior.behavior.

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ObservationObservation

• Superficial featuresSuperficial features– e.g. Babyfacednesse.g. Babyfacedness

• Nonverbal behaviorsNonverbal behaviors

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Silent Language of Silent Language of Nonverbal BehaviorNonverbal Behavior

• Behavioral cues are used to identify Behavioral cues are used to identify a person’s inner states, as well as his a person’s inner states, as well as his or her actions.or her actions.

• What kinds of nonverbal cues do What kinds of nonverbal cues do people use?people use?

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Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal Communication

• Nonverbal communication- how Nonverbal communication- how people communicate, intentionally or people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without wordsunintentionally, without words

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Nonverbal Cues Serve Many Nonverbal Cues Serve Many FunctionsFunctions

1.) Expressing emotion 1.) Expressing emotion

““I’m angry” I’m angry”

- eyes narrow - eyes narrow

- eyebrows lower - eyebrows lower

- stare intently- stare intently

- mouth set to thin, - mouth set to thin,

straight linestraight line

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2.) 2.) Conveying attitudesConveying attitudes

““I like you” I like you” - smiles - smiles - extended eye contact- extended eye contact

or “I don’t like you” or “I don’t like you” - averted eyes - averted eyes - flat tone of voice- flat tone of voice- body turned away- body turned away

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3.) Communicating one’s personality 3.) Communicating one’s personality traitstraits

““I’m outgoing”I’m outgoing”

- broad gestures- broad gestures

- changes in inflection when speaking- changes in inflection when speaking

- energetic tone of voice- energetic tone of voice

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4.) Facilitating verbal communication4.) Facilitating verbal communication

- to convey “I’m finished talking”- to convey “I’m finished talking”

- lower voice- lower voice

- look away as you finish a - look away as you finish a sentencesentence

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How Good are People at How Good are People at Identifying Emotions in the Face?Identifying Emotions in the Face?

Insert Figure 4.1: How Good are People at Identifying Emotions in the Face? about here

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Elfenbein & Ambady (2003)Elfenbein & Ambady (2003)

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Distinguishing Truth from Distinguishing Truth from DeceptionDeception

• Freud: “No mortal can keep a secret… Freud: “No mortal can keep a secret… betrayal oozes out of him at every betrayal oozes out of him at every pore.”pore.”

• Channels of communication differ in Channels of communication differ in terms of ease of control. terms of ease of control. – Face is easy to control, while body is Face is easy to control, while body is

harder.harder.

Distinguishing Truth and Distinguishing Truth and DeceptionDeception

Why Do We Have Why Do We Have Difficulty Detecting Difficulty Detecting Deception? Deception? • Mismatch between the behavioral Mismatch between the behavioral

cues that actually signal deception cues that actually signal deception and the ones used to detect and the ones used to detect deception.deception.

• Four channels of communication Four channels of communication provide relevant information:provide relevant information:

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IntegrationIntegration

From Dispositions to From Dispositions to ImpressionsImpressions

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Information Integration: Information Integration: The ArithmeticThe Arithmetic

• How do we combine personal attributions How do we combine personal attributions into a single coherent picture of the into a single coherent picture of the person?person?– Summation model or averaging model?Summation model or averaging model?

• Information Integration Theory: Impressions Information Integration Theory: Impressions formed of others are based on:formed of others are based on:

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Perceiver CharacteristicsPerceiver Characteristics

• We differ in the kinds of impressions we form of We differ in the kinds of impressions we form of others.others.

• Our current, temporary mood can influence the Our current, temporary mood can influence the impressions we form of others.impressions we form of others.

• Embodiment studiesEmbodiment studies

• To some extent, impression formation is in the eye To some extent, impression formation is in the eye of the beholder.of the beholder.

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Priming EffectsPriming Effects

• The tendency for recently used words to The tendency for recently used words to come to mind easily and influence the come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information.interpretation of new information.

• Motivations, as well as social behaviors, Motivations, as well as social behaviors, can be influenced by priming.can be influenced by priming.

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Priming EffectsPriming EffectsBargh & Chartrand (1999)Bargh & Chartrand (1999)

• Participants completed word find Participants completed word find puzzlespuzzles

• IV: Primed with achievement-related IV: Primed with achievement-related words, or not primedwords, or not primed

• DV: How long they worked on the DV: How long they worked on the puzzles when the experimenter told puzzles when the experimenter told them to stopthem to stop

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Bargh & Chartrand (1999)Bargh & Chartrand (1999)

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Bargh, Chen, & Burrows Bargh, Chen, & Burrows (1996)(1996)

Trait Characteristics: Universal Trait Characteristics: Universal Dimensions of Social CognitionDimensions of Social Cognition

Target CharacteristicsTarget Characteristics

• All traits are not created equal.All traits are not created equal.

• Whether a trait is considered good or Whether a trait is considered good or bad affects its impact on our bad affects its impact on our impressions.impressions.– Trait Negativity BiasTrait Negativity Bias

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Implicit Personality TheoriesImplicit Personality Theories

• Implicit Personality TheoryImplicit Personality Theory: A : A network of assumptions that we network of assumptions that we make about the relationships among make about the relationships among traits and behaviors.traits and behaviors.

• Central TraitsCentral Traits: Traits that exert a : Traits that exert a powerful influence on overall powerful influence on overall impressions.impressions.

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Asch (1946)Asch (1946)Is this person generous?Is this person generous?

Warm ConditionWarm Condition IntelligentIntelligent SkillfulSkillful IndustriousIndustrious WarmWarm DeterminedDetermined PracticalPractical CautiousCautious Generous? 91%Generous? 91%

Cold ConditionCold Condition IntelligentIntelligent SkillfulSkillful IndustriousIndustrious ColdCold DeterminedDetermined PracticalPractical CautiousCautious Generous? 9%Generous? 9%

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The Primacy EffectThe Primacy Effect

• The tendency for information The tendency for information presented early in a sequence to presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions have more impact on impressions than information presented later.than information presented later.

Asch (1946)Asch (1946)

• IntelligentIntelligent

• IndustriousIndustrious

• ImpulsiveImpulsive

• CriticalCritical

• StubbornStubborn

• EnviousEnvious

• EnviousEnvious

• StubbornStubborn

• CriticalCritical

• ImpulsiveImpulsive

• IndustriousIndustrious

• IntelligentIntelligent

One group read this description: Other group read this description:

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Primacy Effect: Explanation Primacy Effect: Explanation #1#1

• Once we think we have formed an Once we think we have formed an accurate impression of someone, we accurate impression of someone, we pay less attention to subsequent pay less attention to subsequent information.information.

• People differ in their People differ in their need for need for closureclosure..

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Primacy Effect: Explanation Primacy Effect: Explanation #2#2

• Change of Meaning HypothesisChange of Meaning Hypothesis– Once we have formed an impression, we Once we have formed an impression, we

start to interpret inconsistent start to interpret inconsistent information in light of that impression.information in light of that impression.

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Confirmation BiasesConfirmation Biases

From Impressions to RealityFrom Impressions to Reality

Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias

• Once we make up our mind about Once we make up our mind about something, how likely are we to something, how likely are we to change it, even when confronted change it, even when confronted with new evidence?with new evidence?

• Confirmation Bias: Our tendency to Confirmation Bias: Our tendency to seek, interpret, and create seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing information that verifies existing beliefs.beliefs.

The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy as a Three-Step Processas a Three-Step Process

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968)Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968)

• Teachers were told that, on the basis of Teachers were told that, on the basis of an IQ test, a certain group of students an IQ test, a certain group of students was on the verge of an intellectual spurt was on the verge of an intellectual spurt

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• Teachers were told that, on the basis of an IQ test, a certain group of students was on the verge of an intellectual spurt

• This group of students was randomly chosen

Test was bogus

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• 8 months later, this group of students 8 months later, this group of students actually outperformed others on an IQ actually outperformed others on an IQ testtest

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• Teacher forms initial impression – Teacher forms initial impression – based on reputation, appearance, based on reputation, appearance, initial performance, etc.initial performance, etc.

• Teacher adjusts behavior in ways Teacher adjusts behavior in ways that encourage this behaviorthat encourage this behavior– more praise, attention, challenges for more praise, attention, challenges for

“good” students; “good” students; – less for “bad” studentsless for “bad” students

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