Nicole Miller

Languages Among UsProgressive Essay

By: Nicole Miller12/07/04

LLSS 493

Languages are all around us. Communication exists where ever beings exist. A whale

can speak to another whale, an ant to another ant, a lion to another lion. The communication

between species to same species is very important. Some species can even communicate

somewhat to a different species. A human can communicate to a dog with “Sit,” “Stay,” “Good

boy!” etc. As communication is very important to the world, language gives humans the ability

to communicate to one another on a much more organized way. In the human world, language is

all around us.

What is language?

What is a language? Language is a system for communication. According to Lessow-

Hurley (2000), language is organized and structured by a set of rules. These rules work toward a

function of communication. “Language is one of the most important means we have to

communicate with one another” (de Valenzuela, 2004, p. 126). Language gives us the ability to

let others know our thoughts and connect with various types of communication. “Language is an

orderly combination of conventional symbols. The symbols are the words we use to label the

objects, actions and ideas that we perceive in out reality” (Lessow-Hurley, 2000, p. 27). Society

decides the meaning of symbols and what they represent.

There are five systems that create the foundation of language. These systems include the

Phonological System, the Morphological System, Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics. The

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Phonological System is “the sound system of a language” (Lessow-Hurley, 2000, p. 28) such as

“c l a s s r o o m” or “e c h o e d” where each letter makes a sound (whether voiced or voiceless).

The Morphological System is the structure of a word like “Group + s = groups” which changes

the word. “Morphemes are meaningful units” (Lessow-Hurley, 2000, p.28) from a word. Syntax

is the construction of a sentence such as “The balloon blew in the air” vs. “The air blew the

balloon”. Semantics describe what any word means like “Bear” and “Bear”. Both words are

spelled the same but have two different meanings such as “Bear down the hatchet” or “The bear

attacked the people.” Pragmatics is the “use of language in social contexts” (Lessow-Hurley,

2000, p. 30). An example of pragmatics is the term “Shut up!” This term means, “To be quiet”

but can also mean “WOW!” or “Really!” among the younger generations in the United States.

Different social groups understand the meaning. Another example of pragmatics is the sentence

“Do you have the time?” When hearing this sentence, a person who knows the pragmatics of the

certain language might reply “6:30 pm” while a person unfamiliar with the pragmatics might

reply “Yes.” These systems make up language.

Language also includes paralinguistic mechanisms and nonlinguistic behaviors to

communicate thought. Paralinguistic mechanisms involve “intonation, stress, rate of speech, and

pauses or hesitations” (Lessow-Hurley, 2000, p. 30) while nonlinguistic behaviors involve

“gestures, facial expressions, and body language” (Lessow-Hurley, 2000, p. 30). It is challenging

to identify attitudes without these mechanisms and behaviors.

Language is very important to any society. People need to be able to communicate with

each other and language maintains this. I am using language right now to describe language.

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What does it mean to “know” a language?

What does it mean to “know” a language? A person knows a language when they

understand the language. “Children with limited English proficiency should eventually attain

proficiency after receiving adequate bilingual education or English as a Second Language (ESL

instruction,” (Schiff-Myers, Djukic, McGovern-Lawler, & Perez, 1993, p. 237). “Language

evolves within specific historical, social, and cultural contexts,” (American Speech Language-

Hearing Association, 1982). To understand a language, he/she must comprehend and appreciate

the culture of that language. The culture of a language includes values, beliefs, customs, etc.

Socialization plays a big role in grasping a language. “Through the process of socialization,

children take on the beliefs, feelings, and behaviors appropriate to their particular role in their

own culture” (Ely and Gleason, 1995, pp 251). They adapt to the culture so that they are

accepted in society as a citizen. We are “formatted” to act a certain way and speak a certain

way.

I could say that I understand sign language. I have studied it for two years and know

most of the vocabulary and sentence structure. I can comprehend the Deaf culture and what is

and is not acceptable. As I can say I “grasp” sign language, I cannot say that I “know” the

language. I can talk comfortable to a deaf person. I still get nervous though and I do not

recognize many signs while talking to a deaf person. I have to ask the person to slow down, sign

again, fingerspell it, etc. I can speak it and somewhat understand it. I have acquired it, but I am

not proficient in it until many more years of studying it. I do not know the language. This will

take much more time.

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When interviewing my Second Language Learner Betty previous in class, I asked her

what she thought it meant to know a language. She replied that to her, knowing a language

meant being able to speak about anything, anytime, anywhere, without any trouble. I believe

that Betty is right. Knowing a language means knowing more than the language itself.

“Effective use of language for communication requires a broad understanding of human

interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and sociocultural

roles,” (American Speech Language-Hearing Association, 1982). Besides the grammar and

syntax and morphemes, social and world understanding must also be present.

How do children develop their first language? How does the information you have learned

from the readings and class presentations differ from commonly held beliefs about how

children develop their first language?

How do children develop their first language? There are many theories about how a child

develops his/her first language. These theories are: the Behaviorist theory, the Nativist theory,

and the Language Socialization theory. These theories are very different from one another and

not one is proven wrong. Each theory has its good points.

The Behaviorist theory hypothesizes that children learn language after watching,

observing, and imitating behavior. “Speaking (and understanding speech) must be brought under

the control of stimuli in the environment by imitation, reinforcement, and successive

approximations of mature performance (known as shaping)” (Bohannon III and Bonvillian,

2001, pp. 259). This theory is supported by many people.

Behaviorists believe that language is learned by classical conditioning or “the process of

forming such associations” (Bohannon III and Bonvillian, 2001. p. 259) comparable to Pavlar’s

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experiment on dogs. Pavlar conditioned the dogs so that every time he would ring a bell, they

would be feed. Then, he would ring the bell, and the dogs would salivate because they knew

they were going to be fed. Language is learned by environmental stimulus. Operant

conditioning focuses on positive reinforcement. Behaviorism has a strong claim.

Another theory in “knowing” a language is the nativist theory. This theory states that a

baby is born with the ability to learn a language. “All infants come into the world with linguistic

skills” (Pinker, 1994, p. 263). Pinker goes on to state that children follow speech patterns

naturally. Every two hours vocabulary gains a word. Pinker states, “Words are usually produced

in isolation” (Pinker, 1994, p. 266). Nativism is supported by the belief that “Wherever humans

exist, language exists” (from Fromkin & Rodman, 1988, p. 18-19, as cited in de Valenzuela,

1998, pp. 125-126). Nativism was supported awhile ago but fans, but also has a strong

argument.

The third theory is Language Socialization. Children learn language and respect in their

society. The primary influence on a child’s behavior and values in a child’s language is parents.

Parents teach pragmatics by teaching what a child should say and not say such as asking an older

woman how old she is. Children are told what to say through instructions and guidance. “In

addition to children being told what to say (and later what to write) in the classroom, they are

socialized indirectly in ongoing verbal interactions with teachers,” (Ely and Gleason, 1995, p

266). Ely and Gleason go on to state, “Socialization through language is ubiquitous. In verbal

interactions with parents, siblings, teachers, and peers, and through observing media such as

television, children are exposed to and absorb many of the important values and beliefs of their

communities,” (Ely and Gleason, 1995, p 270).

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I agree with aspects of all three theories. I cannot choose to agree with one or the other

because they all make compelling thoughts. “These theories have influenced how we teach

second/foreign languages. They have influenced theories of second language development,” (de

Valenzuela, 2004, class-notes 09/28/04). Children do have the ability to learn language when

they are born, but to develop this ability, the child must imitate and observe to learn. Children

are involved in their own language development. Children cannot learn language without

interacting and cooperating with others. They are “active participants” in learning a language.

Language is learned by understanding its society and culture. It teaches children to be members

of society.

What are some important concepts/notions/theories that you have learned about second

language development? How do they influence your ideas about practice? Refer to both

assigned readings and class presentations in your answer.

There are many important concepts/notions/theories about second language development.

Every child has the ability to learn a second language at the young age. After age three, it gets

harder and harder to learn a second language. Many people are second language learners. The

theories on second language learners are interesting.

Lily Wong’s theory states, “The more sociable the child the greater the time spent

interacting with peers,” (Wong Fillmore, 1991a, p 50). There are three major components for

second language learning: learners, speakers of the target language, and a social setting.

Learners are trying to learn the target language; speakers of the target language can help the

learners in a suitable social setting like a classroom. “Variable such as personality, social style,

social competence, motivation, and attitudes in both learners and speaker of the target language

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can affect language learning,” (Wong Fillmore, 1991a, p 66.). She states that there are three

types of process: social, linguistic, and cognitive, (Wong Fillmore, 1991a, p. 52-53). The learner

also needs to be motivated to learn the second language.

Research shows that “students acquire their second language better when they have a

firm foundation in their native language,” (de Valenzuela & Niccolai, 2004, p. 138). There are

two categories that second language is divided into. These categories are concurrent language

(the infant develops two languages at birth) and sequential language (the person develops his/her

second language after age three, plus or minus). Both languages are equal; one will not be in risk

in losing the other language, (de Valenzuela & Niccolai, 2004, p. 139). All languages are equal.

Stephen Krashen had some theories on second language development. He has three ideas

for bilingual education. Submersion (sink or swim) is the process where “non-English proficient

children are simple placed in the same classroom as native English speakers and the regular

curriculum is followed,” (Krashen, 1994, p 49). This process can “drown” the child. The child

is overcome with English and it is too much for him/her. The second process is Submersion +

ESL. This is the process where non-English proficient children are put in a separate class to

learn English for an hour a day or so. The rest of the day they are in the classroom with native

English speakers. This still drowns the child. Submersion kills the child’s native language

because there is not enough support for it. All day they learn English and risk the chance of

losing their native language. By the fourth grade, most students in the U.S. lose their native

language and English takes over, (de Valenzuela, 2004, classnotes 11/23/04. Also,

“The dilemma facing immigrant children, however, may be viewed as

less a problem of learning English than of primary language loss. While

virturally all children who attend American schools learn English, most of

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them are at risk of losing their primary languages as they do so,” (Wong

Fillmore, 1996, p 203).

Krashen’s third theory is immersion:

“Immersion typically refers to programs in which majority language

children are instructed in a second language, that is, programs in which

subject matter is taught in a second language such as Spanish or French…

Typically, immersion students receive all instruction in the second

language, with exception of language arts in the first language,” (Krashen,

1994, p. 50).

With this process, there is no threat on losing the native language.

Earlier I had stated that I have acquired sign language for 2 years but I am not proficient

in it. This goes for the same with non-English proficient learners. Jim Cummins states, “There

is little doubt that many language minority students can develop a relatively high degree of

English conversational skills within about two years of exposure to English-speaking peers,

television, and schooling,” (Cummins, 1994, p. 7). “Cummins (1981b) also reported that five to

seven years were required for immigrant students form non-English-speaking background to

catch up academically in English proficiency,” (Cummins, 1994, p. 12). A person can have a

language acquired and can speak the language in a conversation in two years but cannot be

proficient in it for another three to five years. This is often the misconception about the nature of

language proficiency.

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How are the processes of first and second language development different and how are they

similar? (Make sure to include in your answer a discussion of how first and second

language learners are different and how they are similar.)

The process of first and second language development are different and similar. Both

first and second language learners know a language. According to Valdes and Figueroa, they

both have a functional ability of incipient bilingualism to acquire language, receptive

bilingualism to comprehend spoken and written language, and productive bilingualism to speak

and/or write in language. Both learners can lead to proficiency, (Valdes & Figueroa, 1994, p.

11). Both depend of factors other than age: Level of development of language, type of

educational development program available, support of first and second language in

environment, and student motivation, (de Valenzuela, 2004, class-notes 09/28/04).

They are different because their lives are much different. First language learners are

usually babies while second language learners are any age. First language learners are highly

motivated to learn the language in their culture while second language learners vary with

motivation. Also, first language learners have an accessible learning environment while second

language learners’ environment varies from situation to situation. First language learners are

learning a language for the first time, are learning about the world, and are also developing

cognitive skills. Second language learners can language and the world because of previous

experience with their first language and already have cognitive skills to help in the process of

learning a language, (de Valenzuela, 2004, class-notes 09/28/04).

There are two types of bilinguals: “Simultaneous bilinguals (those who acquired two

languages simultaneously as a first language) or sequential bilinguals (those who acquired the

second language (L2) after the first language (L1) was acquired” (Valdes & Figueroa, 1994,

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p.10). Simultaneous learners are often upper middle class while sequential learners are often a

variety, usually immigrants (Valdes & Figueroa, 1994, p.14). When a person learns a second

language at infant age (simultaneous bilinguals) and the other person learns a second language at

age 3 and on (sequential bilinguals), this presents many differences. The forty-five year old is

usually learning the second language for a purpose to further their career, be prepared for a trip

to another country, change their life by moving to another country, or a want to learn the

language. The simultaneous infant uses both the first and second languages in everyday life

while the sequential learner uses his/her second language for a limited period. The infants learn

the second languages when they are young. It was not that they “wanted” to learn the language;

it was that they “happened” to learn the language. The forty-five year old usually learns the

second language with its correct grammar usage and rules while the infant grows up to know the

grammar and does not have to think about it. The infant grows up to know the grammar when

they speak, but it is a little more difficult for them to write down the grammar.

Simultaneous learners often do better on tests and are advanced in ability to reflect on

language. They have a highly motivated external input. (Valdes & Figueroa, 1994, pp.15-23).

Sequential learners can be circumstantial bilingual (“must learn language to survive”) or elective

bilingual (learn “in foreign language classes” by choice (Valdes & Figueroa, 1994, p.12).

First and second language development is quite similar because of the process. Both can

have hypothesis testing, a silent period, simple grammatical forms before more complex, and

comprehension preceding production,” (de Valenzuela, 2004, class-notes 09/28/04). Both have a

necessity for useful contact among others and there is a significance of understanding the

context.

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Discuss at least three misconceptions about second language learning and second language

learners? Explain how/why each of these misconceptions are false.

There are many misconceptions about second language learning and second language

learners but these misconceptions are all false. These misconceptions are: one language is better

than another, people who speak one pronounce words differently with different dialects and

different cultures are not wrong with their pronunciation or how they say a word, and students

can learn language quick and easy where everyone learns the same. These misconceptions are

fictitious.

Every language is equal to one another. “There are no ‘primitive’ languages – all

languages are equally complex and equally capable of expressing any idea in the universe. The

vocabulary or any language can be expanded to include new words for new concepts,” (Fromkin

& Rodman, 1998, p. 18-19, as cited in de Valenzuela, 1998, pp. 125-126). In addition, each

language has the ability to change with time. The significance of language is communication

and all languages serve that purpose. “While all languages may be inherently capable of serving

all purposes humans may ask of them, specific languages evolve differentially through processes

of variation, adaptation, and selection,” (Saville-Troike, 1982, p. 82, as cited in Lessow-Hurley,

2000, p 31). “A language difference is not a language deficit!” (de Valenzuela, 2004, classnotes

11/23/04). All languages are equal to one another despite what some people may think.

Pronunciation differs from one person to another. Just because people speak differently

from each other does not mean that they are not “lower” than the other person. This is often a

misconception among some people. There is Prescriptive language (taught in classroom that

“should be” the way to talk), but this is not the case in the world. Descriptive language “is” the

language that really exists among people; there are no guidelines. Non-standard dialects, cultural

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differences in narratives, and code switching all play an important role in language. An example

of non-standard dialects is when some people say “Rio Grande” while others pronounce it “Rio

Grandee.” This is not wrong because they both mean the same thing; it is just a different way to

say it. Cultural differences in narratives can be shown when some people refer to “home” as

“crib.” Again this is not wrong because it is just another way to say it. “Code-switching may be

defined as the alternating, or switching, of two different languages at the word, phrase, clause, or

sentence level (Valdex, 1981, p. 95). This alteration is not random or chaotic,” (Valdex, 1991, p.

95, as cited in Timm, 1993, p. 94). Code-switching can also be thought as “Spanglish” when

using a mixture between Spanish and English. It is a misconception when “a first opinion

formed by many who hear code-switched dialogue is that those who do this must not have very

good command of either or both of the languages involved,” (Timm, 1993, p. 96). These code-

switchers are just using both of their languages together many times for social purposes; they do

not lack linguistic ability. People speak differently and in different contexts like in a social

gathering with friends versus at a religious ceremony, (de Valenzuela, 2004, classnotes

11/09/04). Every person speaks differently from one another.

Many people think that children can learn a second language quick and easily. This is

not true. “A close examination of studies relating age to language acquisition reveals that age

differences reflect differences in the situation of learning rather than in capacity to learn,”

(Marinova-Todd, Marshall, & Snow, 2000, p. 9). Research has shown that “it is normal for

bilingual individuals to have different levels of proficiency in their different languages at

different times in their lives. An adequate language assessment must take this into

consideration,” (de Valenzuela, 2004, classnotes 11/23/04). People cannot learn a second

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language quick and easy because it really depends on the individual, the dedication, a proper

learning environment, and the ways of teaching it the child.

Conclusion

Language is very important to life. I know I need it. I have used language to express my

thoughts about language in this paper. Communication is such an intricate part of the world.

Society takes it for granted, but society needs language. Society exists because language exists.

References

Bohannon III, J. N., & Bonvillian, J. D. (2001). Theoretical approaches to language

acquisition. In J. Berko Gleason (Ed.), The development of language (pp. 254-

314). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Cummins, J. (1994). Primary language instruction and the education of language minority

students. In C. F. Leyba (Ed.), Schooling and language-minority students: A

theoretical framework (2nd ed., pp. 3-46). Los Angeles: Evaluation, Dissemination

and Assessment Center, California State University.

de Valenzuela, J. S. (2004). Classnotes (Fall 2004). LLSS 493 (Sec: 002): First and Second

Language Development in Cultural Contexts. UNM, Albuquerque, NM.

http://www.unm.edu/~devalenz/LLSSF04/593home.html.

de Valenzuela, J. S., & Niccolai, S. L. (2004). Language development in

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culturally and linguistically diverse students with special education needs. In L.

Baca & H. Cervantes (Eds.), The bilingual special education interface (4th ed., pp.

124-161). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Ely, T., & Berko Gleason, J. (1995). Socialization across contexts. In P. Fletcher & B.

MacWhinney (Eds.), The handbook of children language (pp. 521-270).

Cambridge, MN: Blackwell.

Krashen, S. D. (1994). Bilingual education and second language acquisition theory. In B. E.

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(2nd ed., pp. 47-75). Los Angeles: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment

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Lessow-Hurley, J. (2000). The foundations of dual language instruction (3rd ed.). New

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Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York:

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Schiff-Myers, N. B., Djukic, J., McGovern-Lawler, J., & Perez, D. (1993). Assessment

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Exceptional Children, 60(3), 237-248.

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Timm, L. A. (1993). Bilingual code-switching: An overview of research. In B. J. Merino & H. T.

Trueba & F. A. Samaniego (Eds.), Language and culture in learning: Teaching

Spanish to native speakers of Spanish (pp. 94-112). Washington, DC: The Falmer

Press.

Valdes, G., & Figueroa, R. (1992). Bilingualism and testing: A special case of bias.

Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Wong Fillmore, L. (1991a). Second-language learning in children: A model of language learning

in social context. In E. Bialystok (Ed.), Language processing in bilingual

children (pp. 49-69). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Wong Fillmore, L. (1996). What happens when languages are lost? An essay on language

assimilation and cultural identity. In D. I. Slobin & J. Gerhardt & A. Kyratzis & J.

Guo (Eds.), Social interatction, social context, and language (pp. 435-446).

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Progressive Essay

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Nicole Miller12/07/04

LLSS 4931st and 2nd Language Development

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