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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY

(7th Ed)

Chapter 7

States of Consciousness

James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University

Worth Publishers

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Ch. 7: Consciousness: Waking Consciousness: Consciousness: our awareness of ourselves & our environments Focused

concentration Novel (new) things

require more focus 3 Levels of info

processing:a.Consciousness, b.Subconscious: as

see something, we also process things we aren’t aware of (color, shape, etc.)

c.Unconscious: Freud

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Freud (“froid”): Personality Structure: Superego, Ego, and the Id

Freud’s idea of the mind’s structure: Iceberg analogy:

Conscious: what we are aware of

Preconscious (aka subconscious): just at or below the surface

Unconscious: below the surface…what we hide from ourselves

Id

Ego Conscious mind

Unconscious mind

Superego

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Freud’s “iceberg” of personality:

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Daydreams/fantasies: “Secret Life of Walter Mitty”

We identify w/ this b/c we all daydream

Daydreams can be adaptive…& can let out impulsive behavior in fantasy rather than real life

Fantasies:Young tend to have sex fantasies more…& men

do way more than women…& it is not “frustration”

Sleep & Dreams: Biological Rhythms: ANY periodic physiological

fluctuations (ups & downs)…annual…28 day…24 hr. …90 min. --see “PMS” p. 270

This keeps our “biological clock” ..& one kind is circadian rhythm

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Circadian Rhythm (“around a day”): regular bodily rhythms that occur on a

24-hour cycle, like in wakefulness & body temperature, eliminating wastes, etc.

2 major ways to disrupt cir. rhythm: 1) shift work & 2) long flights (jet lag)Entrainment: trained to follow schedules &

do things at certain times... “potty?” baby sleeping thru night? Suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN): neural

center of the hypothalamus: when light hits it, it alters production of chemicals like melatonin (mfgr. by pineal gland)

It affects our sleep patterns

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Premenstrual Syndrome: Many do have this, but many more seem to be perceiving it more than actually showing it…notice it more at that time

Premenstrual Menstrual Intermenstrual

Menstrual phaseActual Recalled mood

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2

1

Negative moodscore

Recalled mood isworse than

earlier reported

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Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep: periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep: a recurring sleep stage: vivid dreams, more frequent dreams a.k.a. “paradoxical sleep” b/c muscles

are generally relaxed, but other body systems are active

Although there’s more eye mov’t., there’s less physical mov’t. b/c of “paralysis”

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Sleep & Dreams: HOW sleep is studied Measuring sleep activity: *Eye mov’t. (REM) *EMG (neck/jaw muscle mov’t.) *EEG

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Brain Waves & Sleep Stages Alpha Theta

Waves slow waves of

a relaxed, awake brain

Sleep Spindles Delta Waves

large, slow waves of deep sleep

Hallucinations false sensory

experiences

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Stages in a Typical Night’s Sleep: Stg. 4 (then 3) decreases, REM increases as night goes on…

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4

3

2

1

Sleepstages

Awake

Hours of sleep

REM

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Another view of the sleep cycle:

Why Do We Sleep?

Variations in sleeping patternsCultural influencesSleep debt

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Stages in a Typical Night’s Sleep

Hours of sleep

Minutesof Stage 4 and REM

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 80

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15

20

25

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Decreasing Stage 4

Increasing REM

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Sleep Deprivation (sleep “debt” or dep.)

Effects of Sleep Loss fatigue impaired

concentration depressed immune

system greater vulnerability

to accidents More susceptible to

drugs effects Extreme loss can =

hallucinations…& later death

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Sleep DeprivationNote the values not the same, but still statistically significant

2,400

2,700

2,600

2,500

2,800

Spring time change(hour sleep loss)

3,600

4,200

4000

3,800

Fall time change(hour sleep gained)

Less sleep,more accidents

More sleep,fewer accidents

Monday B4 time change Monday after time change

Accident frequency

Why Do We Sleep?The Effects of Sleep Loss

Why Do We Sleep?The Effects of Sleep Loss

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Sleep Disorders

Insomnia (279: how to treat) persistent problems in falling or staying asleep Usually get more than you think you do, but

those who complain do get less Narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks Usually genetic causes (heritable) Usually lasts less than 5 min. & often go

straight to REM sleep Sleep Apnea

temporary cessation of breathing momentary re-awakenings Causes: overweigt, heart, respiratory… &

alcohol use can trigger/contribute,

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Night Terrors (Stg. 4) & Nightmares (REM) Night Terrors

occur within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, usually during Stage 4

high arousal-- appearance of being terrified: sweating, crying out, shaking, etc

often very unclear

Sleep-walking (somnambulism) & talking also more likely in stg. 4

Both usually go away as we get older

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4

3

2

1

Sleepstages

Awake

Hours of sleep

REM

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Dreams sequence of images, emotions, and

thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

hallucinatory imagery discontinuities incongruities delusional acceptance of the content difficulties remembering

Nightmares: usually in REM sleep, more defined than night terrors stage 4

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Incubus & succubus in medieval beliefs:Stealing a soul in the nighttime

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Dreams: Freud Sigmund Freud—Famous book: The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)

wish fulfillment discharge otherwise unacceptable feelings accesses the unconscious hopes & desires

Manifest Content remembered story line

Latent Content underlying meaning Freud said most was erotic wishes…EX: guns

= ?

*Freud saw dreams as a gateway to the unconscious, that part of ourselves we hide from even us…

Dreams: What We Dream

Dreams Manifest content Latent content

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New theories as to why we dream: As Info Processing

Helps facilitate memories: sift, sort, & fix day’s experience into memory

Dreaming to remember…learned task better if you sleep

Students & “sleep bulimia” (binges): Why is it NOT an effective way to sleep? (Grades: A & B students vs. C, D, F?)

Physiological functions: random neural activity happens, & we try to “organize it” into some story-line…to make sense of it...

-This is activation synthesis …dreams are brains interpretation of its own activity

--since limbic system is involved in sleep, can get emotional & sexual also

Why Do We Sleep? Sleep Theories

Sleep theories Sleep protects: In prehistoric times, sleep meant we

would not be out at night-time…so we survived Sleep helps recuperation: Restores & repairs brain

tissues… resting neurons repair—& unused connections weaken

Memory storage: Restores/rebuilds experiences of the day into memories…LEARNING!

Sleep and creative thinking: Can sometimes solve issues and/or problems have been working on—”Sleep on it…”

Sleep and growth: pituitary’s growth hormone secreted during sleep

DreamsWhy We Dream

To satisfy our own wishesTo file away memoriesTo develop/preserve neural pathwaysTo make sense of neural staticTo reflect cognitive development

REM rebound

Critical Considerations: Does not address the neuroscience of dreams.

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REM Rebound: trying to catch up…

-REM sleep increases following REM sleep deprivation -causes & functions are deeply

biological -Researchers agree we need REM

sleep (which animals have REM…?) -biological vs. psychological? -dreams & the abstract?

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Sleep Across the Lifespan

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Hypnosis:

A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Un-hypnotized persons can also do this

Facts and FalsehoodsCan Anyone Experience Hypnosis?

Postural sway Susceptibility

Can Hypnosis Enhance Recall of Forgotten Events? Age regression

Can Hypnosis Force People to Act Against Their Will?Can Hypnosis Be Therapeutic?

Hypnotherapists Posthypnotic suggestion

Can Hypnosis Alleviate Pain?

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Hypnosis

Posthypnotic Amnesia: supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion

Posthypnotic Suggestion suggestion to be carried out after the subject is no

longer hypnotized

Post-hypnosis amnesia? Used by some clinicians to control undesired

symptoms & behaviors…pain control & “gate-control” theory

Memory & hypnosis? = a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

What hypnosis is …and what it is NOT…What it CAN help…& what it CANNOT

help…

DOES works well w/ pain control AND DOES work well for some in controlling eating to help

w/ obesity It will NOT lead ppl to act uncontrollably & be

dangerously manipulated by others Is NOT generally dangerous (Some ppl have believed “get

there” & cannot “get back…”)

NOT particularly good with controlling alcohol, nicotine, & other drug addictions

Does NOT increase accuracy of memory …& in fact can lead ppl to accept “false memories”

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Major theories of Hypnosis

First to study & try to scientifically sort thru hypnosis was Hilgard at Stanford Univer. (1930’s)

“Hidden Observer:” Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis

Divided Consciousness Theory: “Dissociation” of consciousness…we separate ourselves out..

Think of day-dreaming in a class…you KNOW you are in class…but you “go” somewhere else

Dissociation & pain: a split in consciousness This allows you to “close out” the pain & stop feeling

it on one level allows some thoughts & behaviors to occur

simultaneously w/ others Selective Attention & pain? Remember this aspect?35

Hypnosis & Social Roles or Social expectations: We respond as we think a “hypnotized subject” would

respond Social Influence Theory: Just like “demon

possession” & D.I.D. instances, a strong expectation of behavior CAN affect ppl psychologically

(Think of the Zimbardo Stanford Prison study)

Orne & Evans (1965): control group instructed to “pretend” Un-hypnotized subjects performed same acts as the

hypnotized onesBiopsychosocial Aspect of Hypnosis: The social aspects (expected behaviors)--suggestiveness

of a social role….how we should act… + Psychological aspects… EX: selective attention+ Biological aspects of pain (gate control theory?

Endorphins block pain sensation?) 36

Explaining the Hypnotic State:

Hypnosis as Divided Consciousness Hilgard: Hypnosis & Dissociation Unified account of hypnosis

Hypnosis as a Social Phenomenon “Good hypnotic subjects” Social

influence

theory

Levels of Analysis for Hypnosis

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Explaining Hypnosis

Psychoactive drugs A chemical substance that alters

perceptions & mood

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Drugs and Consciousness

Physical Dependence physiological need for a drug marked by unpleasant, physical withdrawal

symptoms Psychological Dependence

a psychological need to use a drug for example, to relieve negative emotions

like depression, anger, anxiety, etc.

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Dependence & Addiction Tolerance

diminishing effect with regular use

So you need more to get the same effect as b4

Withdrawal discomfort &

distress that follow discontinued use

Can be physical or psychological

Small Large

Drug dose

Littleeffect

Bigeffect

Drugeffect

Response tofirst exposure

After repeatedexposure, moredrug is neededto produce same effect

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Psychoactive Drugs (p. 301, t)

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Categories of Psychoactive Drugs

Depressants drugs that reduce neural activity slow body functions

alcohol, barbiturates (Valium, etc.), opiates alcohol is the single most abused drug in

western cultures Stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity speed up body functions…heart, breathing, etc.

caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine Hallucinogens

psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions & evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input (hallucinations)

HallucinogensPsychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that … distort perceptions evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory

input (hallucinations)Marijuana: A mildly hallucinogenic drug from the cannabis

plant

THC: the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.

(tetrahydrocannabinol)

LSD: = a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

Peyote: a hallucinogenic plant, a cactus; sometimes used in religious ceremonies for certain Native American culture groups

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Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants

Stimulants

Amphetamines

Methamphetamine (speed)Crystal meth

Caffeine

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Psychoactive Drugs

Amphetamines : drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing

speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

Methamphetamine: a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

Over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.

Barbiturates drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous

system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment…aka tranquilizers

Opiates: opium & its derivatives (morphine and heroin)

opiates depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain & anxiety

Which neurotransmitter do they mimic? (& that makes it an a___?___)

Opiates:Opium & its derivatives (especially morphine and

heroin)

Opiates depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain & anxiety (depressant)

Which neurotransmitter do they mimic? (& that makes it an a___?___)

Newer and very addictive forms: prescription derivatives drugs like …

Hydrocodone (Lorcet, Lortab, Norco, Vicodin), Codeine (only available in generic form)Fentanyl (Actiq, Duragesic, Fentora)Hydromorphone (Dilaudid, Exalgo)Meperidine—used to treat schizophrenia (Demerol) Methadone—used to treat heroine addiction (Dolophine,

Methadose), Morphine—used by hospitals to eleviate major pain like

post-surgery (Avinza, Kadian, MS Contin, Ora-Morph SR), Oxycodone (OxyContin, Oxyfast, Percocet, Roxicodone)

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Cocaine Euphoria & Crash

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Ecstasy: MDMA, or “X”, or

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine, Produces a euphoric state without

hallucinations. Not a substitute for anti-depressants, because

of its ability to lift the user's mood—but may have more intense depression after taking it

mild hallucinogen; releases dopamine

You Can Die! Usually from heat stroke brought on by extended periods of dancing without replenishing body fluids.

Other dangers liver damage, irregular heartbeat, decreased memory and learning ability—some research shows 1 use = “holes” in brain, i.e., damage

“mixing” = worse effects

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LSD: lysergic acid diethylamide, a.k.a. acid

a powerful hallucinogenic drug…euphoria, detachment, panic?

THC delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol

the major active ingredient in marijuana (most abused illegal drug)…& teen use is up somewhat

triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

May allow your body to become addicted faster to coke or heroin…gate-way drug..

Psychoactive DrugsStimulants - Cocaine

Dependence & Addiction Misconceptions About Addiction

Addiction: physiological or psychological dependence on a drug

Compulsive craving, despite adverse consequences

Worldwide, over 90 million are addicted to alcohol &/or other drugs

Myths Addictive drugs quickly corrupt: Not all ppl have same

tendency to become addicted Addictions cannot be overcome voluntarily without therapy:

If seen as a disease, some may feel they cannot overcome it

some benefit greatly from therapy and/or support groups, but some CAN

The concept of addiction applies to all pleasure-seeking behaviors: addicted to working out?

Nah…. But for some gambling…& playing even video games ….show dysfunctional resistance to control

Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants - Alcohol Disinhibition: An angry person becoming aggressive…

“big spenders” may leave excessively high tips….risky behaviors increase

Slowed neural processing: Reaction time Memory disruption Expectancy effects—we allow ourselves to “be drunk” Reduced self-awareness & self-control Alcohol + Sex = The Perfect Storm: Men become more

sexually aggressive & women more prone to casual sex

Regarding SEVERAL of these aspects: More than 50% of convicted rapists who were surveyed admitted to using alcohol before committing the rapes.

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Trends in Drug Use: Some good news… & some not so good…(p. 302)

1975 ‘77 ‘79 ‘81 ‘83 ‘85 ‘87 ‘89 ‘91 ‘93 ‘95 ‘97 ‘99Year

80%

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

High schoolseniors

reportingdrug use

Alcohol

Marijuana/hashish

Cocaine

Influences of Drug Use Perceived Marijuana Risk: Those who have used tend to see less risk…Rationalization? p.303

Biological InfluencesPsychological and Social-Cultural

Influences

Psychoactive Drugs

Psychoactive DrugsHallucinogens

Hallucinogens (psychedelics) LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)

AcidNear-death experience

MarijuanaTHC

Levels of Analysis for Drug Use

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Near-Death Experiences Near-Death Experience:

an altered state of consciousness reported after a very close brush with death often similar to

drug-induced hallucinations

Dualism: the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

Monism: the presumption that mind & body are different aspects of the same thing

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Writing assignment: Why do we dream?

p. 282-284: DISCUSS the following:1) Information processing theory2) New studies & memory:3) Benefits for learning:4) Dreams as a physiological function:5) Activation synthesis theory:6) What do ALL the researchers seem

to agree on? 7) Biological vs. psychological?