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1
Material Science Structures and Properties of
Metallic Materials Ceramics Polymers Composites
Encompasses - Electronic, Magnetic, Optical, Mechanical, and Chemical Properties
FE/EIT Exam - Two Major Areas - Fundamentals of 1. Strength, Deformation, Plasticity of Crystalline
Solids 2. Phase Equilibrium in Metallic Systems
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Mechanical Properties of Metals and Alloys
Experimental Techniques - Response to Applied Stress
Capacity to withstand static load (Tension / Compression)
Resistance to permanent deformation (Hardness)
Toughness under shock loading (Impact)
Useful life under cyclic loading (Fatigue)
Elevated temperature behavior (Creep and Stress Rupture)
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Tension Testing Two distinct stages of deformation Elastic Deformation (Reversible Change in
Volume) Plastic Deformation (Irreversible Constant
Volume)
Elastic Deformation Hooke’s Law = E = Stress = Strain E = Young’s Modulus / Modulus of Elasticity
Plastic Deformation
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Plastic Deformation (Non-Linear)
Yield Stress = y
Off-Set Yield = 0.2%
Ultimate Tensile Strength = uts
Fracture Stress = f (f < uts)
Ductility
Work Hardening / Strain Hardening
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3-4
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Nature of Plastic Flow For Crystalline Material (including metals and
alloys)
Plastic deformation involves sliding of atomic planes called slip deformation, analogous to shear.
Slip System - Combination of a close-packed plane and a close-packed direction.
Slip occurs along planes and are restricted in crystallographic directions that are the most densely packed. The greater the planes and directions, the easier it is to produce plastic slip without brittle fracture.
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Slip Deformation - continued
Slip occurs when the resolved component of
Shear Stress R = P/A cos cos exceeds the critical value
Critical Resolved Shear StressR)crit
Dislocation Edges (Rcrit < 1/5 Theoretical) Dislocation Lines & Frank-Reed Source
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7-8
Figure 3.9
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Compressive Strength
Compressive Stress similar to Tensile Stress (except no necking in pure compression) quite useful for materials which are brittle in
tension, but have significant compressive load bearing capabilities (concrete, cast iron, etc).
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Hardness Test
Determines resistance to penetration of a stylus.
Useful for qualitative estimate of service wear, strength, and toughness.
Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, MicroHardness
Table 3.1
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Fatigue Test
Cyclic Load - Fatigue Life
Number of Cycles (N) to Failure with Cyclic Stress Amplitude (S)
Steel - Critical Value of Stress = Scrit
Endurance Limit
Aluminum - No Endurance Limit
Figure 3.10
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Fatigue Testing - continued
Fatigue fractures are progressive. Fatigue Strength
Maximum Cyclic Stress Amplitude for a specified number of cycles until failure.
Fatigue is a surface active failure. Surface defect (notch) can initiate crack. Rough surface reduces fatigue strength by
25%. Cold rolling/shot peening increases by 25%.
Corrosive Fatigue important cause of service failure.
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Fatigue Testing - continued
Fatigue Life / Fatigue Strength improved by Highly Polished Surface Surface Hardening
Carburizing, Nitriding, etc. Surface Compression Stresses
Shot Peening, Cold Rolling, etc.
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Toughness and Impact Testing
Impact Value Simple evaluation of the notch toughness.
Toughness A measure of energy absorption before
failure.
Charpy and Izod Machines Swinging pendulum loading with notched-
bar samples. Figure 3.11
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Creep at High Temperature (Stress Rupture)
Creep - Progress deformation at constant stress
Negligible below 40% absolute melting point
Andrade’s Empirical Formula = 0(1 + t 1/3)e kt
= Strain 0 = Initial Elastic Strain and k Material Constants t = Time
Figure 3.13
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Stress Rupture Test
Stress Rupture Test similar to creep test but carried out to
failure Design Data Reports include
Elongation, Applied Load, Time to Failure, and Temperature
Grain Boundary Sliding Failure mode for polycrystalline metals Creep rate lower for large-grain material
Note: Oxides influence creep and stress rupture
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Metallurgical Variables
Microstructural Conditions
Effects of Heat Treatment
Effects of Processing Variables
Effects of Service Conditions
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Microstructural Conditions
Grain Size Effect - Ordinary temperature - fine grain, more strength High temperature - larger grain, greater strength
Single Phase vs Multiphase Alloys Second phases many add profound differences
Porosity & Inclusions - Poor mechanical properties Directionality -
Rolling direction vs transverse direction affect mechanical properties, introduce anisotropy
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Effects of Heat Treatment Annealing - Softening, ductile behavior Quenching of Steel -
Martensite formation, strong but brittle Tempering of Martensite -
Hardness decreases, toughness increases Strength is sacrifice to avoid brittle failure
Age Hardening - Fine scale precipitation, increased strength
Case Hardening - Hard case, soft core by carburizing and nitriding Increased strength, better wear-resistance
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Effects of Processing Variables
Welding - Heat-affected zone, larger grain size, poorer mechanical properties. Local chemical changes, including loss of carbon in steel, quenching cracking due to rapid quenching.
Flame Cutting - Drastic changes of microstructure near the flame-cut surface, affects properties.
Machining and Grinding - Cold working results in stain hardening, may produce surface cracks.
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Effects of Service Conditions
Extreme Low Temperature Ductile-brittle transition occurs in steel.
Extreme High Temperature Causes corrosion and surface oxidation Surface cracks may form Results in corrosion fatigue, creep, and
rupture Impact Loading
Notch sensitivity, surface scratches, corrosion pits can initiate brittle failure
Corrosive Environment - Stress corrosion, pitting corrosion, corrosion fatigue
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Equilibrium Phase Diagrams
Alloy composition expressed as weight (wt.%) or atomic (at.%) percentage.
Determining equilibrium phase diagrams - X-Ray Diffraction, Optical Microscopy,
Calorimetric Analyses, and Thermal Analyses.
Phase - Bounded volume of material of uniform chemical composition, with fixed crystalline structure, and thermo-plastic properties at a given temperature.
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Equilibrium
Equilibrium between Phases Gibb’s Phase Rule P + F = C + 2 P = number of phases, C = number of
elements F = degrees of freedom, 2 = external
variables (temperature and pressure).
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Analysis of Phase Diagrams
Thermal Arrest (Freezing/Melting Point) Lever Rule Solid Solution Alloy Eutectic Notation = primarily A, small amount of dissolved
B = primarily B, small amount of dissolved
A
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Eutectics
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Atomic Bonding and Solids Three Forms of Matter
Gaseous, Liquid, Solid Solid - Amorphous, Crystalline, Mixture
Amorphous Molecules randomly without any
periodicity Crystalline
Molecules organized in distinct three dimensional patterns (motif = unit cell)
Atomic Bonding Ionic, Covalent, Metallic
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Electronic Structure of Atoms
Quantized = Orbiting (Shell) Electron Energy Levels
Quantum Numbers (Three Indicators) Quantum Number n = Energy Level
# of electrons per shell = 2n2
Sub-Levels l = 0, 1, … , n-1 l = 0, 1, 2, 3 = s, p, d, f for n=1, l =0 and shell = 1(s) for n=2, l =0,1 and shell = 2(s) and 2(p)
Magnetic Quantum Number m = -l to +l (0) Spin Quantum Number s = + 1/2 or -1/2
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Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Each quantum state can accommodate 2 electrons
of opposite spin (- 1/2 & + 1/2 {up & down})
No more than 2 electrons per state Applies to states, not energy levels
Valence Electrons = Outermost s & p states
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Ionic Bonding
Electropositive and Electronegative Elements Example: Due to “exchanged” electrons
Sodium (Na+) and Chlorine (Cl-)
Opposite charges attract Electron clouds repel Potential energy minimum at balance
distance Potential Well = Preferred Site
Figure 3.26
Figure 3.27
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Covalent Bonding
Homopolar (Covalent) Bonding = Electron Sharing
Bonding Pairs = Number of Shared Electrons = 8 - N ( N=Valence)
Carbon (Atomic Number 6) Electron Configuration 1(s)22(s)22(p)2
Valence Electrons = 2 (from 2s) + 2 (from 2p) = 4
Bonding Pairs = 8 - 4 = 4
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Metallic Bonding
Metallic Elements (Valence = 1 or 2) Valence Electrons “free” to migrate and are
not “localized” to individual atoms in as in the case of ionic or covalent bonding.
The “sea” of migrating electrons and the attraction between positively charged atoms producing three-dimensional periodic lattices.
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Electrical Properties
Ionic and Covalent Bonding Localized Electrons = Insulators Conductivity increases with temperature
Metallic Bonding Free Migrating Electrons Collide with Oscillating Lattices Higher Mean Free Path = Higher
Conductivity Conductivity decreases with temperature
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Energy Bands
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle (2 per state) Energy bands have quasi-continuous levels Fill from lowest to highest energy levels Additional energy (thermal or electric field) Kinetic energy increases
Electrons move up an energy level but only at the highest level
Conduction Band - Valence Band - Energy Gap
Semiconductors
Figure 3.28
Energy Gap
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Crystalline State and Crystallography
Unit Cell Lattice with atoms at each corner (6
parameters) Parallelepiped (, a, b, c) Seven distinct shapes
Bravais Lattice Fourteen constructions are possible where
each atoms has an identical surrounding.
Figure 3.30
Table 3.2
Figure 3.33
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Body-Centered Cubic Lattice
Body-Centered Cubic Lattice BCC (9)
Face-Centered Unit Cell FCC (12) Closed Packed Plane
Hexagonal Closed Pack Lattice HCP (13)
Figure 3.34
Figure 3.35
Figure 3.37
Figure 3.36
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Miller Indices
System of notation used for denoting planes and directions in crystalline structures (hkl).
Note: All integers, without common factors.
Figure 3.38
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Primitive Cells
Only Corner Atoms Cubic Lattice, Hexagonal Lattice BCC, FCC, HCP are not primitive cells.
Number of Atoms per Cell Simple Cubic (1/8 * 8) = 1 per cell FCC (1/8 * 8 + 1/2 * 6) = 4 per cell BCC (1/* * * + 1) = 2 per cell
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Interplaner Spacing Interplaner Distance (dhkl) Perpendicular distance between equivalent planes Measured in Angstrom Units A = 10-8 cm
Atomic Packing Factor = Volume of Atoms Volume of Space
FCC APF = 0.74V BCC APF = 0.68
X-Ray Crystallography Bragg’s Law 2dhkl = sin = is X-Ray Wavelength and is Reflection
Number
Figure 3.39
Figure 3.40
Figure 3.41