1 Language Acquisition Helena Gao Helena Gao Lecture 10 30 Nov., 2005.

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Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition

Helena Helena GaoGao

Lecture 10 30 Nov., 2005Lecture 10 30 Nov., 2005

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Required readings:Required readings: Tomasello, M. (2003). Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing A Language. A Uage-Based Constructing A Language. A Uage-Based

Thoery of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press. Thoery of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press. Chapter two: Origins of Language. pp. 8-42Chapter two: Origins of Language. pp. 8-42

Lee, T. H. (2002). Lee, T. H. (2002). Two types of logical structure in child Two types of logical structure in child language. language. Journal of Cognitive Science 3Journal of Cognitive Science 3: 155-182.: 155-182.

Pinker, S. (1994). Pinker, S. (1994). The Language InstinctThe Language Instinct. New York: Morrow. . New York: Morrow. Chapter 1: An instinct to acquire an art. pp. 15-24. Chapter 1: An instinct to acquire an art. pp. 15-24.

Recommended readings:Recommended readings: Pinker, S. (1995). Language acquisition. In L. R. Gleitman, M. Pinker, S. (1995). Language acquisition. In L. R. Gleitman, M.

Liberman, and D. N. Osherson (eds.), Liberman, and D. N. Osherson (eds.), An invitation to cognitive An invitation to cognitive sciencescience. 2nd Ed. Volume 1: Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT . 2nd Ed. Volume 1: Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chapter 5: Why the child holded the baby rabbits: A case Press. Chapter 5: Why the child holded the baby rabbits: A case study in language acquisition. pp. 107-133. study in language acquisition. pp. 107-133.

Gould, J. L., & Marler, P. (1987). Learning by Instinct. Reprinted Gould, J. L., & Marler, P. (1987). Learning by Instinct. Reprinted as Chapter 7 in Wang, W. S.-Y. (ed.), (1991), as Chapter 7 in Wang, W. S.-Y. (ed.), (1991), The Emergence of The Emergence of Language: Development and Evolution; Readings from Scientific Language: Development and Evolution; Readings from Scientific American MagazineAmerican Magazine, pp. 88-103. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman., pp. 88-103. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman.

Moskowitz, B. A. (1978). The Acquisition of Language. Reprinted Moskowitz, B. A. (1978). The Acquisition of Language. Reprinted as Chapter 10 in Wang, W. S.-Y. (ed.), (1991), as Chapter 10 in Wang, W. S.-Y. (ed.), (1991), The Emergence of The Emergence of Language: Development and Evolution; Readings from Scientific Language: Development and Evolution; Readings from Scientific American MagazineAmerican Magazine, pp. 131-149. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman., pp. 131-149. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman.

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Language acquisition Language acquisition theoriestheories

Two types of perspectives Two types of perspectives centered around “centered around “nurturenurture” and “” and “naturenature” ”

distinction or on “empiricism” and “nativism”. distinction or on “empiricism” and “nativism”.

Empiricism: all knowledge comes from Empiricism: all knowledge comes from experience, ultimately from our interaction with experience, ultimately from our interaction with the environment through our reasoning or senses. the environment through our reasoning or senses.

Nativism: at least some knowledge is not Nativism: at least some knowledge is not acquired through interaction with the acquired through interaction with the environment, but is genetically transmitted and environment, but is genetically transmitted and innate. innate. neither nurturists (environmentalists) disagree neither nurturists (environmentalists) disagree

thoroughly with the nativist ideas nor do nativists with thoroughly with the nativist ideas nor do nativists with the nurturist ideas. the nurturist ideas.

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Usage Based Accounts – Theory of Usage Based Accounts – Theory of Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition

Supported by recent researchSupported by recent research characterize children’s language in terms of characterize children’s language in terms of

cognitive and communicative processes cognitive and communicative processes involvedinvolved

children’s early language based on specific children’s early language based on specific linguistic items and expressions they linguistic items and expressions they comprehend and producecomprehend and produce

Three processes involved:Three processes involved: Imitative learningImitative learning Finding patterns in languageFinding patterns in language Combining linguistic constructions Combining linguistic constructions

creativelycreatively

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Tomasello’s View (2003) Tomasello’s View (2003) The human uses of symbols is primary, with the most The human uses of symbols is primary, with the most

likely evolutionary scenario being that the human likely evolutionary scenario being that the human species evolved skills enabling the use of linguistic species evolved skills enabling the use of linguistic symbols phylogenetically (p. 9)symbols phylogenetically (p. 9)

The human adaptation for symbolic communication The human adaptation for symbolic communication emerges in human ontogeny quite predictably across emerges in human ontogeny quite predictably across cultures at around 1 year of age. It emerges in the cultures at around 1 year of age. It emerges in the context of a whole suite of new social-cognitive context of a whole suite of new social-cognitive skills, the most important for language acquisition skills, the most important for language acquisition being the establishment of joint attentional frames, being the establishment of joint attentional frames, the understanding communicative intentions, and a the understanding communicative intentions, and a particular type of cultural learning known as role particular type of cultural learning known as role reversal imitation. (p. 19)reversal imitation. (p. 19)

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Early skills of Intention-Early skills of Intention-readingreading

(1) The joint attentional frame(1) The joint attentional frame Joint attentional frames are defined intentionally, that is, Joint attentional frames are defined intentionally, that is,

they gain their identity and coherence from the child’s and they gain their identity and coherence from the child’s and the adult’s understandings of “what we are doing” in terms the adult’s understandings of “what we are doing” in terms of the goal-directed activities in which we are engaged. (p. of the goal-directed activities in which we are engaged. (p. 22)22)

(2) Understanding communicative intentions(2) Understanding communicative intentions Children understand adult communicative intentions, Children understand adult communicative intentions,

including those expressed in linguistic utterances, most including those expressed in linguistic utterances, most readily inside the common ground established by joint readily inside the common ground established by joint attentional frames. (p. 24)attentional frames. (p. 24)

(3) Cultural learning in the form of role reversal (3) Cultural learning in the form of role reversal imitationimitation Children who understand that other persons have intentional Children who understand that other persons have intentional

relations to the world, similar to their own, may attend relations to the world, similar to their own, may attend especially carefully to the behavioral means that these especially carefully to the behavioral means that these persons have devised for meeting their goals, and so may persons have devised for meeting their goals, and so may imitate their intentional actions. (p. 26)imitate their intentional actions. (p. 26)

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Behavioural theory Behavioural theory Language Language acquired through learning (e.g., acquired through learning (e.g., operant conditioning, imitation)operant conditioning, imitation)

Parents and teachers model Parents and teachers model grammatically correct language and grammatically correct language and provide feedbackprovide feedback

Evidence?Evidence?

The development of The development of grammargrammar

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Theories of grammar Theories of grammar developmentdevelopment

1. 1. Behavioural theory Evidence more contrary than supportive.Evidence more contrary than supportive.

Brown and Hanlon (1970) 3 findings Ungrammatical sentences rarely corrected

Child:“Doggie bited daddy” Mother: “Yes, that’s right”

Sentence corrected only if they are untrue Child (sees a car):“Dere’s a truck” Mother: “No, that’s a car”

Ungrammatical requests as likely to be fulfilled as ungrammatical requests

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1. 1. Behavioural theory Evidence more contrary than Evidence more contrary than

supportive.supportive. Imitation?Imitation?

Adults don’t use telegraphic speechAdults don’t use telegraphic speech Adults don’t over-regularize verbsAdults don’t over-regularize verbs

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Nativist/linguistic perspectiveNativist/linguistic perspective Acquisition of grammar too complex, Acquisition of grammar too complex,

too rapid to be the result of learningtoo rapid to be the result of learning Poverty of the stimulusPoverty of the stimulus Chomsky: Chomsky: LLanguage anguage AAcquisition cquisition DDeviceevice Genetically-specified grammatical Genetically-specified grammatical

processorprocessor Recent evolutionary adaptationRecent evolutionary adaptation Evidence?Evidence?

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Cross-linguisticCross-linguistic Languages of the world Languages of the world conform to a Universal Grammar (Chomsky)conform to a Universal Grammar (Chomsky)

GeneticGenetic Grammatical impairments run in Grammatical impairments run in families (Pinker) families (Pinker)

ComparativeComparative Our closest evolutionary Our closest evolutionary ancestors (Chimps) cannot learn grammarancestors (Chimps) cannot learn grammar

DissociationsDissociations Language and general Language and general intelligence dissociate in Williams Syndromeintelligence dissociate in Williams Syndrome

DevelopmentalDevelopmental Grammar acquired Grammar acquired effortlessly and systematicallyeffortlessly and systematically


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Imitation - Research Imitation - Research findings findings

In early infancy there is some face-to-face dyadic In early infancy there is some face-to-face dyadic mimicking of behaviors (Meltzoff & Moor, 1977)mimicking of behaviors (Meltzoff & Moor, 1977)

Meltzoff (1995) found 18-month-olds appeared to Meltzoff (1995) found 18-month-olds appeared to understand what the adult intended to do and understand what the adult intended to do and performed the action instead of just mimicking performed the action instead of just mimicking the adult’s actual behavior.the adult’s actual behavior.

Aktar & Tomasello (1998a) investigated infants’ Aktar & Tomasello (1998a) investigated infants’ imitation of accidental actions vs. intentional imitation of accidental actions vs. intentional actions. They found that 16-month-olds mainly actions. They found that 16-month-olds mainly produced the adult’s intentional actions (there) produced the adult’s intentional actions (there) but not the accidental ones (Woops!)but not the accidental ones (Woops!)

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2- to 3-day-old infants imitating (a) tongue protrusion, (b) mouth opening, and lip protrusion demonstrated by adult experimenters. gestures by human neonates.

Meltzoff, A. N. & Moore, M.K (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, 198. 75-78

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Early Skills of Pattern-Early Skills of Pattern-FindingFinding

Human infants are experts from early in development Human infants are experts from early in development in finding visual patterns (Haith & Benson, 1997)in finding visual patterns (Haith & Benson, 1997)

Synthesized speech exposed to 8-month-olds (Saffran, Synthesized speech exposed to 8-month-olds (Saffran, Aslin, & Newport, 1996). Infants prefered to listen to Aslin, & Newport, 1996). Infants prefered to listen to the origial ones heard.the origial ones heard.

Marcus et al. (1999) found that 7-month-olds Marcus et al. (1999) found that 7-month-olds preferred the speech stream containing the same tri-preferred the speech stream containing the same tri-syllabic nonsense “words” that have the same pattern syllabic nonsense “words” that have the same pattern (e.g., bapopo) as they originally heard (e.g., wididi, (e.g., bapopo) as they originally heard (e.g., wididi, delili)delili)

Gomez & Gerken (1999) found very similar results Gomez & Gerken (1999) found very similar results with 12-month-olds.with 12-month-olds. These results indicate that prelinguistic infants are able to These results indicate that prelinguistic infants are able to

find patterns in auditory stimuli of an abstract nature. find patterns in auditory stimuli of an abstract nature. (Tomasello, 2003: 30)(Tomasello, 2003: 30)

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Universal pattern of language Universal pattern of language developmentdevelopment

1 word

babble

complex grammar

2 word

36 mo6-10 mo 12 mo 18 mo

The same pattern is observed in every culture

This suggests that language is acquired as a result of highly specialized biologically programmed mechanisms operating on the linguistic input.

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Language Development: Stages and Rule Language Development: Stages and Rule

SystemsSystems Brown’s (1973) Stages Brown’s (1973) Stages MMean ean LLength of ength of UUtterance tterance

is a good index of child’s language maturity. is a good index of child’s language maturity. Stages indicate growth of language complexity.Stages indicate growth of language complexity.

Stage 1 - 12 to 26 months of age = MLU 1.00 to 2.00 Stage 1 - 12 to 26 months of age = MLU 1.00 to 2.00




Stage 5 - 41 to 46 months of age = MLU 3.75 to 4.50Stage 5 - 41 to 46 months of age = MLU 3.75 to 4.50

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Sensitive periods: Isolated Sensitive periods: Isolated childrenchildren

Genie was an isolated child… as an infant she was Genie was an isolated child… as an infant she was locked away and not spoken to. She was discovered locked away and not spoken to. She was discovered by the authorities when aged 13. Though she by the authorities when aged 13. Though she acquired words, she never acquired correct grammar:acquired words, she never acquired correct grammar:

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Isolated children (cont.)Isolated children (cont.)

By contrast, Isabelle and her mute, brain-By contrast, Isabelle and her mute, brain-damaged mother escaped from the imprisonment damaged mother escaped from the imprisonment of her grandfather when she was aged 6½. of her grandfather when she was aged 6½. Within eighteen months, her language was not Within eighteen months, her language was not significantly behind the level expected at her significantly behind the level expected at her age:age:

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Language Exposure and Language Exposure and Language UseLanguage Use

Cameron-Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello Cameron-Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello (2003)(2003) examined 12 English-speaking examined 12 English-speaking

mothers’ speech during samples of mothers’ speech during samples of their linguistic interactions with their their linguistic interactions with their 2- to 3-year-old children2- to 3-year-old children

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The overall findings:The overall findings:

Children heard an estimated 5000 to 7000 Children heard an estimated 5000 to 7000 utterances per day utterances per day

Between one-quarter and one-third of these were Between one-quarter and one-third of these were questions.questions.

More than 20% of these were not full adult More than 20% of these were not full adult sentences, but rather some kind of fragment (most sentences, but rather some kind of fragment (most often a noun phrase or prepositional phrase)often a noun phrase or prepositional phrase)

About one-quarter of these were imperatives and About one-quarter of these were imperatives and utterances structured by the copulautterances structured by the copula

Only about 15% of these had the canonical English Only about 15% of these had the canonical English SVO form (i.e., transitive utterances of various SVO form (i.e., transitive utterances of various kinds) supposedly characteristic of the English kinds) supposedly characteristic of the English language; and over 80% of the SVOs had a language; and over 80% of the SVOs had a pronoun subject. pronoun subject.

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The specific words and phrases with The specific words and phrases with which mothers initiated utterances:which mothers initiated utterances:

Are you ..., I'll ..., It's ..., Can you ...., Here’s Are you ..., I'll ..., It's ..., Can you ...., Here’s ...., Let's...., Let's ..., ..., Look at ..., What did Look at ..., What did ..., etc. ..., etc.

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More than half of all maternal More than half of all maternal utterances began with one of 52 highly utterances began with one of 52 highly frequent item-based frames frequent item-based frames i.e., frames used more than an estimated i.e., frames used more than an estimated

40 times per day for more than half the 40 times per day for more than half the children.children.

Mostly consisting of 2 words or Mostly consisting of 2 words or morphemes. morphemes.

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More than 65% of all of the mothers’ More than 65% of all of the mothers’ utterances began with one of just 156 item-utterances began with one of just 156 item-based frames. based frames.

Approximately 45% of all maternal utterances Approximately 45% of all maternal utterances began with one of just 17 lexemes: began with one of just 17 lexemes:

WhatWhat (8.6%), (8.6%), That That (5.3%), (5.3%), It It (4.2%), (4.2%), YouYou (3.1%), (3.1%), Are/Aren't Are/Aren't (3.0%), (3.0%), Do/Does/Did/Don'tDo/Does/Did/Don't (2.9%), (2.9%), II (2.9%), (2.9%), IsIs (2.3%), (2.3%), ShallShall (2.1%), (2.1%), AA (1.7%), (1.7%), Can/Can't Can/Can't (1.7%), (1.7%), WhereWhere (1.6%), (1.6%), ThereThere (1.5%), (1.5%), WhoWho (1.4%), (1.4%), ComeCome (1.0%), (1.0%), LookLook (1.0%), (1.0%), and and Let'sLet's (1.0%). (1.0%).

Children used many of these same item-based Children used many of these same item-based frames in their speech, in some cases at a frames in their speech, in some cases at a rate that correlated highly with their own rate that correlated highly with their own mother's frequency of use. mother's frequency of use.

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Cameron-Faulkner, Lieven, & Cameron-Faulkner, Lieven, & Tomasello (2003)Tomasello (2003)

What’s .18 Where’s .05What’re .09 Where’re .02What do .05 Where shall .01What did .04What has .03 Who’s .08What about .03 Who did .01What shall .02What can .02 Which one .02What does .02What hppnd .01 Why don’t .01What were .01What kind of .01 How many .01

31 frames =>80% of Wh Qs

13 frames =>65% of Wh Qs

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Early GesturesEarly Gestures Human infants produce three main types of Human infants produce three main types of

gestures:gestures: ReutilizationsReutilizations Deictic gesturesDeictic gestures Symbolic gesturesSymbolic gestures

Gestures run the gamut from non-symbolic to Gestures run the gamut from non-symbolic to symbolic – and emerge along with the first symbolic – and emerge along with the first linguistic skills – is strong evidence that linguistic skills – is strong evidence that children’s ability to communicate symbolically children’s ability to communicate symbolically is not tied specially to language but rather is not tied specially to language but rather emanates from a more fundamental set of emanates from a more fundamental set of social-cognitive skills (Tomasello & Camaiono, social-cognitive skills (Tomasello & Camaiono, 1997)1997)

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Early HolophrasesEarly Holophrases

An important issue for later language An important issue for later language development is what parts of adult development is what parts of adult expressions children choose for their expressions children choose for their initial holophrases.initial holophrases.

The answer presumably lies in the The answer presumably lies in the specific language they are learning and specific language they are learning and the kinds of discourse in which they the kinds of discourse in which they participate with adults, including the participate with adults, including the perceptual salience of particular words perceptual salience of particular words and phrases in adults’ speech (Slobin, and phrases in adults’ speech (Slobin, 1985)1985)

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Early Holophrases – language Early Holophrases – language specificspecific In English, most beginning language learners acquire a In English, most beginning language learners acquire a

number of so-called relational words such as number of so-called relational words such as more, more, gone, up, down, on gone, up, down, on andand off, off, presumably because adults presumably because adults use these words in salient ways to talk about salient use these words in salient ways to talk about salient event s (Blom, Tinker, and Margulis, 1993; McCune, event s (Blom, Tinker, and Margulis, 1993; McCune, 1992)1992) Many of these words are verb particles in adult English and so Many of these words are verb particles in adult English and so

the child at some point must learn to talk about the same events the child at some point must learn to talk about the same events with phrasal verbs such as with phrasal verbs such as pick up, get down, put on, and take pick up, get down, put on, and take off.off.

In Korean and Mandarin Chinese, in contrast, children In Korean and Mandarin Chinese, in contrast, children learn fully adult verbs from the onset f language learn fully adult verbs from the onset f language development because these verbs are most salient in development because these verbs are most salient in adult speech to them (parallel to an English verb like adult speech to them (parallel to an English verb like removeremove for clothing: Choi & Gonpnik, 1996: Gopnik & for clothing: Choi & Gonpnik, 1996: Gopnik & Choi, 1995; Tardif, 1996)Choi, 1995; Tardif, 1996)

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Thomas Lee’s data Thomas Lee’s data (2002)(2002)

Mandarin-speaking children’s Mandarin-speaking children’s Sensitivity to quantifier type and Sensitivity to quantifier type and thematic roles in their understanding thematic roles in their understanding of inverse scope for sentences.of inverse scope for sentences.

SuggestionSuggestion Young children (about 4yeasrs of age) Young children (about 4yeasrs of age)

are sensitive to constraints of the are sensitive to constraints of the conceptual-intentional system on conceptual-intentional system on quantifier scope interpretationquantifier scope interpretation

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Phonological Phonological developmentdevelopment

Systematic age-related changes in Systematic age-related changes in the ability to the ability to perceiveperceive and and produceproduce the elementary sounds of language.the elementary sounds of language.

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Categorical phoneme perception at 1 Categorical phoneme perception at 1 monthmonth

Vowel discrimination at 2 monthsVowel discrimination at 2 months

Loss of the ability to discriminate non-Loss of the ability to discriminate non-native phonemes by the end of the 1st yearnative phonemes by the end of the 1st year

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6-8 weeks 6-8 weeks cooing (vowel-like sounds cooing (vowel-like sounds with consonant produced by closure of the with consonant produced by closure of the back of the mouth (e.g., “g” or “k”)back of the mouth (e.g., “g” or “k”)

Later, comes to include consonants Later, comes to include consonants produced by closure of the front of the produced by closure of the front of the mouth (e.g., “m” or “b”)mouth (e.g., “m” or “b”)


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3 to 6 months 3 to 6 months Emergence of babbling, Emergence of babbling, the production of consonant-vowel the production of consonant-vowel combinations like “da” and “ba”combinations like “da” and “ba”

Reduplicated babbling Reduplicated babbling Repetition of C-V Repetition of C-V combinationscombinations

9 to 10 months 9 to 10 months More complex More complex combinationscombinations


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Interesting babbling factsInteresting babbling facts

Cross-linguistic consistency in the timing Cross-linguistic consistency in the timing of the onset of cooing and babbling, of the onset of cooing and babbling, although some cross-linguistic differences although some cross-linguistic differences in the sounds producedin the sounds produced

Deaf infants babble in the first months of Deaf infants babble in the first months of lifelife


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Learning wordsLearning words

Evidence of word-comprehension @ Evidence of word-comprehension @ 6 months (Tincoff & Juszyck, 1999) .6 months (Tincoff & Juszyck, 1999) .

By 6, children understand over By 6, children understand over 5,000 different words.5,000 different words.

20 new words a week for 5 years!!!20 new words a week for 5 years!!!

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Words learning begins during Words learning begins during mother-infant interaction.mother-infant interaction.

Best when child focussed on object, Best when child focussed on object, and mother labels it.and mother labels it.

Association formed.Association formed. How does child know what the word How does child know what the word

refers to?refers to?

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What are the words that infants first What are the words that infants first learn?learn?

Nelson (1973) Nelson (1973) First words name First words name objects (65%), or actions (14%).objects (65%), or actions (14%).

Do infants’ first words have the Do infants’ first words have the same meaning they do for adults?same meaning they do for adults?

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No: Often different from adult No: Often different from adult meanings.meanings.

Overextensions.Overextensions. Meaning of a word overgeneralized.Meaning of a word overgeneralized. "Dog" for any animal with 4 legs."Dog" for any animal with 4 legs. Underextensions.Underextensions. Meaning of a word too constrained.Meaning of a word too constrained. Car refers only to child’s father’s car.Car refers only to child’s father’s car.

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Most frequently used words?Most frequently used words? Goplink Goplink (1982)(1982)

Longitudinal, home-observation Longitudinal, home-observation study.study.

Before 24 months, children most Before 24 months, children most frequently use words that provide frequently use words that provide commentary on their ongoing activity.commentary on their ongoing activity.

"Gone", "there", "oh dear", "down"."Gone", "there", "oh dear", "down".

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Early word Early word comprehensioncomprehension

7-8 months olds. Typical 7-8 months olds. Typical early understood words: early understood words: mummy, daddy, clock, mummy, daddy, clock, drink, teddy (Harris, et al., drink, teddy (Harris, et al., 1995)1995)

Acquire 5 to 10 words a day Acquire 5 to 10 words a day from about 15from about 15thth month month through the 6through the 6thth year of life year of life (Gleitman and Cleitman, (Gleitman and Cleitman, 1992)1992)

Vocabulary spurt: total Vocabulary spurt: total number of words grow number of words grow fairly steadily until 12 fairly steadily until 12 months of age, when there months of age, when there will typically be a sharp will typically be a sharp increase in vocabularyincrease in vocabulary

Average number of words understood by boys and firls bet. 8 and 16 monthsof age (Fenson et al. 1994. p. 74)

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Telegraphic SpeechTelegraphic Speech

Examples (Brown, 1973)Examples (Brown, 1973) (1) Agent-action: "Tommy hit"(1) Agent-action: "Tommy hit" (2) Action-object: "Give cookie"(2) Action-object: "Give cookie" (3) Possessor-possession: "My car"(3) Possessor-possession: "My car" (4) Questions: “Where daddy?”(4) Questions: “Where daddy?”

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1. Telegraphic Speech1. Telegraphic Speech

Is telegraphic speech grammatical?Is telegraphic speech grammatical?Braine, 1976 Pivot grammar[Pivot word + open word]“e.g., More ________”

Bloom, 1990 Bloom, 1990 No wild grammars (e.g., “Big he”)No wild grammars (e.g., “Big he”) Gross violations rare (e.g., “Daddy eat” vs “Eat Gross violations rare (e.g., “Daddy eat” vs “Eat

daddy”)daddy”)

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2. Inflectional morphology2. Inflectional morphology

Rules governing the use of morphemes Rules governing the use of morphemes like inflections (e.g., -s, -ed that alter the, like inflections (e.g., -s, -ed that alter the, -ing) syntactical function of specific words-ing) syntactical function of specific words

E.g., E.g., Past tense Acquired in a regular sequencePast tense Acquired in a regular sequence Not all past tenses formed through use of the Not all past tenses formed through use of the

[stem +“-ed”] rule (E.g., Run/Ran)[stem +“-ed”] rule (E.g., Run/Ran) How do children learn the exceptions?How do children learn the exceptions?

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3. Irregular past-tense3. Irregular past-tense

Rules governing the use of Rules governing the use of morphemes like inflections (e.g., -s, morphemes like inflections (e.g., -s, -ed that alter the, -ing) syntactical -ed that alter the, -ing) syntactical function of specific words function of specific words Developmental U-shaped curveDevelopmental U-shaped curve

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Developmental U-shaped curveDevelopmental U-shaped curve3. Irregular past-tense

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40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6Time

Pro

port

ion

corr

ect

Developmental U-shaped curve

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3. Irregular past-tense3. Irregular past-tense Developmental U-shaped curveDevelopmental U-shaped curve Irregular form learned first. “Ran”Irregular form learned first. “Ran” Then over-regularization occurs. Then over-regularization occurs.

“Runned”“Runned” Finally, irregular forms reappear. Finally, irregular forms reappear.

“Ran”“Ran” Why does this occur?Why does this occur?

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3. Irregular past-tense3. Irregular past-tense Competing mechanismsCompeting mechanisms Irregulars first learned through Irregulars first learned through

association.association. Then, children learn the past-tense Then, children learn the past-tense

rule.rule. Over-applied.Over-applied. Must re-learn the exceptions.Must re-learn the exceptions.

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Theories of Cognitive and Theories of Cognitive and Language Development: Language Development:

Piaget, Vygotsky and Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner Bruner

- - Comparisons and Comparisons and

ContrastsContrasts

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OutlineOutline

Brief review of Piaget’s theory Brief review of Piaget’s theory

The role of culture - implications for The role of culture - implications for Piaget’s theory Piaget’s theory

The theory of Vygotsky The theory of Vygotsky

The theory of BrunerThe theory of Bruner

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Summary of PiagetSummary of Piaget

Stage theory of development - older children Stage theory of development - older children think qualitatively differently to younger think qualitatively differently to younger children children

4 stages: 4 stages: Stage 1: Sensorimoter Period (0-2 years) Stage 1: Sensorimoter Period (0-2 years) Stage 2: Pre-operational stage (2-7 years) Stage 2: Pre-operational stage (2-7 years) Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (11+ years)Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (11+ years)

Development is the combined result of: Development is the combined result of: maturationmaturation of the brain and nervous system of the brain and nervous system experiences that help children experiences that help children adaptadapt to new to new

environments - environments - adaption:adaption: an organism’s ability to an organism’s ability to fit in with it’s environment.fit in with it’s environment.

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Alternative to Piaget 1: Lev Alternative to Piaget 1: Lev VygotskyVygotsky

1896 - 1934 1896 - 1934 Work remained little known because Work remained little known because

it was banned by Stalin after it was banned by Stalin after Vygotsky’s deathVygotsky’s death

Collapse of the Soviet Union meant: Collapse of the Soviet Union meant: greater dialogue between the West and greater dialogue between the West and

Russia Russia Vygotsky’s work translated into EnglishVygotsky’s work translated into English

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Vygotsky’s Theory: The role of Vygotsky’s Theory: The role of culture/social interactionculture/social interaction

Sociocultural environment ALL IMPORTANT for Sociocultural environment ALL IMPORTANT for cognitive development cognitive development

Different contexts create different forms of Different contexts create different forms of development development

Cognitive processes (language, thought, Cognitive processes (language, thought, reasoning) develop THROUGH social interaction reasoning) develop THROUGH social interaction

Development is a product of CULTURE Development is a product of CULTURE Vygotsky emphasised the role of: Vygotsky emphasised the role of:

social interaction social interaction instruction instruction

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CCentral ideaentral idea

Zone of Proximal Development Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): (ZPD):

the difference between the level of the difference between the level of actual development and potential actual development and potential development development

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Example from Seifert, Example from Seifert, Hoffnung & HoffnungHoffnung & Hoffnung

Parent: Here are four books for you and the same Parent: Here are four books for you and the same for your brother for your brother

Child: The same? (Child: The same? (He investigates his brother’s pile He investigates his brother’s pile of booksof books.) No, he has more (.) No, he has more (spoken with spoken with annoyanceannoyance). ).

Parent: No, really, they’re the same. Take another Parent: No, really, they’re the same. Take another look. look.

Child: He does have more. Child: He does have more. Parent:Try laying his out in a row. Then lay yours Parent:Try laying his out in a row. Then lay yours

out too. Then compare out too. Then compare Child:(Child:(Does as suggestedDoes as suggested) One two three four . One ) One two three four . One

two three four. The same! (two three four. The same! (He looks satisfiedHe looks satisfied))

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Summary of the role of social Summary of the role of social interactioninteraction

1. Confirm existing knowledge 1. Confirm existing knowledge 2. Add new information2. Add new information Instruction most effective when: Instruction most effective when:

it builds on previous knowledge and it builds on previous knowledge and skills (e.g. counting) skills (e.g. counting)

it provides a ‘sensible’ challenge - it provides a ‘sensible’ challenge - there’s no point pushing children there’s no point pushing children beyond their potential beyond their potential

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Vygotsky’s theory: The role of Vygotsky’s theory: The role of language language

Piaget’s view: language is just another Piaget’s view: language is just another representational system. representational system. Underdeveloped until 6 to 7 years of age Underdeveloped until 6 to 7 years of age

Vygotsky’s view: language is social and Vygotsky’s view: language is social and communicative. Essential for cognitive communicative. Essential for cognitive development. development.

Why did Vygotsky think this? Why did Vygotsky think this? Private speech - children talk to Private speech - children talk to

themselvesthemselves

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Vygotsky suggested: Vygotsky suggested:

adults give instructions to children adults give instructions to children (social speech) (social speech)

children start to use parent’s children start to use parent’s instructions to direct their own instructions to direct their own behaviour (private speech) behaviour (private speech)

private speech becomes internalised as private speech becomes internalised as thought processes (silent statements) thought processes (silent statements)

Children use this ‘internalised’ speech Children use this ‘internalised’ speech to plan and organise behaviour => to plan and organise behaviour => cognitive developmentcognitive development

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Summary of VygotskySummary of Vygotsky

Culture and social interaction very Culture and social interaction very important in cognitive development important in cognitive development

Social interaction with knowledgeable Social interaction with knowledgeable others moves development forward - others moves development forward - ZPD ZPD

Language is central to cognitive Language is central to cognitive development: development:

social speech => private speech => social speech => private speech => thoughtthought

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Alternative to Piaget 2: Jerome Alternative to Piaget 2: Jerome BrunerBruner

Very influenced by Piaget’s and Very influenced by Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s work Vygotsky’s work

Responsible for introducing Responsible for introducing Vygotsky’s work to the non-Soviet Vygotsky’s work to the non-Soviet worldworld

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Bruner’s Theory: Similarities Bruner’s Theory: Similarities with Piagetwith Piaget

Socio-Cognitive Stage Theory: Socio-Cognitive Stage Theory: Enactive Mode Enactive Mode Iconic Mode Iconic Mode Symbolic Mode Symbolic Mode Abstract thinking develops out of Abstract thinking develops out of

concrete thinkingconcrete thinking

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Bruner’s Theory: Similarities Bruner’s Theory: Similarities with Vygotskywith Vygotsky

Interpersonal communication Interpersonal communication necessary for development - necessary for development - sociosocio - -cognitive theory cognitive theory

Development relies on active Development relies on active intervention of expert others: intervention of expert others: SCAFFOLDING SCAFFOLDING Contingency Rule (Wood, 1980)Contingency Rule (Wood, 1980)

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Bruner’s Theory: The role of Bruner’s Theory: The role of languagelanguage

Language is important: Language is important: without language, thought is limited without language, thought is limited language forms the basis of language forms the basis of

understanding: understanding: prelinguistic thought - games and rituals prelinguistic thought - games and rituals rituals gradually replaced as adult adds rituals gradually replaced as adult adds

information information rituals replaced by linguistic modes of rituals replaced by linguistic modes of

communicationcommunication

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Summary of BrunerSummary of Bruner

Socio-cognitive stage theory Socio-cognitive stage theory Based on interaction with adults Based on interaction with adults Relies on adults developing Relies on adults developing

reciprocal behaviour with the childreciprocal behaviour with the child

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Overall ConclusionOverall Conclusion

Piaget underestimated the importance Piaget underestimated the importance of culture and social interaction of culture and social interaction

Vygotsky: Vygotsky: social interaction and language necessary social interaction and language necessary

for cognitive developmentfor cognitive development Bruner: Bruner:

Stage theory but emphasised role of social Stage theory but emphasised role of social interaction and languageinteraction and language

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Akhtar (1999) & Abbot-Smith et al. Akhtar (1999) & Abbot-Smith et al. (2001)(2001)

Weird Word OrderWeird Word Order

English-speaking children hear utterances English-speaking children hear utterances with “weird word order” (familiar and with “weird word order” (familiar and unfamiliar verbs)unfamiliar verbs)

““The cow the horse is meeking/pushing” (SOV)The cow the horse is meeking/pushing” (SOV)

They are encouraged to use these same verbs They are encouraged to use these same verbs with new characters engaging in these same with new characters engaging in these same actionsactions

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0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

2;4 (Abbot-Smith et al)

2;8 (Akhtar) 3;6 (Abbot-Smith et al)

3;9 (Abbot-Smith et al)

4;4 (Akhtar)

Ungrammatical Familiar Verb

Ungrammatical Novel

Grammatical Novel

AKHTAR (1999) & ABBOT-SMITH et al. (2001)AKHTAR (1999) & ABBOT-SMITH et al. (2001)

Percentage of mean number of utterances which were mismatches, as a function of condition and age group

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*

*

“ look! cookie monster’s tickling big bird”“ look! big bird’s tickling cookie monster”

see also Naigles (1990), Fisher (2000)

Golinkoff et al. 1987

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Childers & Tomasello (2001) Childers & Tomasello (2001) Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

Children at 2:6 hear several hundred transitive utterances over4 days/sessions

• Either familiar or unfamiliar English verbs

• With either nouns only in slots or nouns & pronouns (consistent)

Test is traditional nonce verb learning• child hears nonce verb as intransitive or passive

and must produce in transitive

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Number of children in each condition (out of 10) Number of children in each condition (out of 10) who produced at least one productive utterance with who produced at least one productive utterance with at least one nonce verb during testingat least one nonce verb during testing

0

1

2

3

45

6

7

8

9

FamiliarVerb

UnfamiliarVerb

Control

NounsPronouns

20% = same as inprevious studies

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Development of Matrix ClausesDevelopment of Matrix Clauses

Age Sarah Adam

>2;11 I think [2;11] (2)

3;0-3;11 I think [3;1] (26)

(Do) you think [3;7] (2)

I think (7)

Do you think [3;3] (4)

Does he think [3;3] (3)

You don’t think [3;5] (1)

What do you think [3;5] (1)

I don’t think [3;8] (2)

4;0-5;0 I think (42)

Do you think (3)

I thought [4;1] (7)

I’m thinking [4;2] (1)

They think [4;3] (1)

What do you think [4;4] (1)

I don’t think [4;8] (2)

I’ll think [4;10] (1)

I think (99)

Do you think (5)

I don’t think (2)

Why do you think (2)

What do you think (1)

One think [4;6] (1)

Paul think [4;10] (1)

Diessel & Tomasello, Cognitive Linguistics (2001)

1 Language Acquisition Helena Gao Helena Gao Lecture 10 30 Nov., 2005.

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Transcript of 1 Language Acquisition Helena Gao Helena Gao Lecture 10 30 Nov., 2005.