1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 PURPOSES OF THE DOCUMENT · 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 PURPOSES OF THE DOCUMENT The...

Bioregional Planning Framework for the Western Cape Province 10.10.2000

Department of Planning, Local Government and Housing1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 PURPOSES OF THE DOCUMENT

The primary purposes of this document are the following:

(a) It is to serve as both a reference and framework for promoting a consensus approach to managing the resources of the Western Cape in a sustainable manner within the context of the Western Cape Planning and Development Act (WCPDA), 1999 (Act 7 of 1999).

(b) In particular, it is intended to support the endeavours of Category B and C Municipalities in the preparation of their Integrated Development Plans(IDPs) and Sectoral Plans described by the WCPDA, 1999 (Act 7 of 1999), as well as cross-boundary co-ordination in terms of bioregional planning and management principles.

(c) It is to provide a framework for the delimitation of cluster biospherereserves in the Cape Floral Region based on UNESCO’s Biosphere Reserve principles.

(d) It is to provide guidelines for the land-use classification of the entire land surface of the Western Cape Province in accordance with defined SpatialPlanning Categories, which are based on a broad spectrum ofenvironmental parameters.

(e) It is to provide a framework for the delimitation of bioregions in theWestern Cape Province based on bioregional planning principles.

1.2 STRUCTURE OF THE DOCUMENT

In addition to this introductory chapter (CHAPTER 1), the document comprises 9 further chapters, which describe the context, concepts, programmes and processes that are to be applied in the drafting of all IDPs and Sectoral Plans, from the provincial level to the district and local town levels. The other chapters of the document and their functions are the following:

CHAPTER 2

Chapter 2 describes the statutory framework and principles on which bioregional and biosphere reserve planning in the Western Cape Province are to be based.

CHAPTER 3

Chapter 3 provides a general overview of the ecological, biophysical, cultural and socio-economical characteristics, which collectively shape the cultural and natural landscapes that typify the province. These characteristics represent the environmental parametersthat are fundamental to bioregional planning and management.



CHAPTER 4

Chapter 4 describes the existing administrative districts and local governmentstructures, as well as the demarcation proposals recently put forward by theDemarcation Board in terms of the Local Government Municipal Demarcation Act, 1998 (Act 27 of 1998). It also provides the legislative context in terms of which localgovernment in South Africa is to be restructured to create different types of localgovernment as is contemplated in the South African Constitution, 1996 (Act 108 of1996) and the Development Facilitation Act, 1995 (Act 67 of 1995).

CHAPTER 5

Chapter 5 describes the principles of bioregional planning and management, whichamalgamate the perspectives of several similar concepts, such as ecosystemmanagement, biosphere reserve planning, etc.

CHAPTER 6

In the Global Biodiversity Strategy it is stated that a bioregion should be defined by its people (‘it must be a unique cultural identity and a place in which local residents have a primary right to determine their own development’). Chapter 6 provides a description of a ‘place-specific planning approach’, which recognises the existential meanings thatpeople attach to their places and the values and norms that underpin such meanings.

CHAPTER 7

Chapter 7 provides a description of UNESCO’s Biosphere Reserve Programme, which is to serve as a spatial model for the implementation of the bioregional planningprinciples discussed in Chapter 5.

CHAPTER 8

Chapter 8 describes the Spatial Planning Categories in terms of which the entire land surface of the Western Cape Province should be geographically divided into land-usezones. These Spatial Planning Categories are based on UNESCO’s Biosphere Reserve Model and are generally consistent with the land management principles of bioregional planning and UNESCO’s MaB Programme described in Chapter 7.

CHAPTER 9

Chapter 9 provides a description of the methodology that should be used for delimiting bioregions. To provide a practical illustration of the methodology, this chapter describes how the bioregional components of the Western Cape were synthesised into conceptual bioregions, producing a ‘provincial bioregional plan’.

CHAPTER 10

In Chapter 10 a broad framework is provided for undertaking bioregional planning in Geographical Information Systems (GIS) format. The purpose of this framework will be



to ensure compatibility of GIS at all planning levels and to provide planners andauthorities with guidelines for implementing and managing GIS.

1.3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The principles on which a bioregional planning framework can be built, as is explained and illustrated in this document, are founded upon the research and recommendations of the WRI; IUCN; UNEP; and UNESCO. In particular, two publications served asreference documents for the preparation of this report, namely:?? Global Diversity Strategy (WRI; IUCN and UNEP, 1992)1

?? Balancing the Scales (Kenton B Miller, 1996)2

UNESCO’s MaB / Biosphere Reserve Programme is an inter-governmental programme, which in South Africa, falls under the auspices of the Department of EnvironmentalAffairs and Tourism (DEAT). The Department of Planning, Local Government andHousing gratefully acknowledges DEAT’s assistance with the implementation of the biosphere reserve programme in the Western Cape Province. As stated above, thisprogramme has, up to now, culminated in the registration of South Africa’s firstbiosphere reserve in 1998, namely the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve, and thesubmission of an application to DEAT in July 1999 for the registration of the WestCoast Biosphere Reserve.

This Department also wishes to thank Messrs. Dennis Moss Partnership Inc., Regional and Environmental Planners of Stellenbosch, for their assistance with the preparation of this document.

1 WRI; IUCN and UNEP 1992. Global Biodiversity Strategy: Guidelines for action to save, study and use earth’s biotic wealth sustainably and equitably. World Resources Institute. Washington.

2 Miller, K. 1996. Balancing the Scales: Guidelines for Increasing Biodiversity’s ChancesThrough Bioregional Management. World Resources Institute. Washington.



1.4 READER’S GUIDE TO TERMS USED IN THE DOCUMENT

The section below describes the terms, abbreviations and acronyms that have beenused, or referred to in this document.

Alien organisms Plants, animals, and micro-organisms, which do not naturally occur in an area, and which have been deliberately oraccidentally introduced by humans to ecosystems outside of their natural range.

Biogeograhic Concerning both geographical (e.g. climate, ocean currents), and biological (e.g. animals, plants) components and theinter-relationship of these components with humans.

Biological diversity or biodiversity

Biodiversity is an abbreviation of biological diversity. TheConvention on Biological Diversity defines it as ’the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversitywithin, between species and of ecosystems’.

Biological resources Includes genetic resources, organisms, or parts thereof,populations, or any other biotic component of ecosystemswith actual, or potential value for humanity.

Biome A group of ecosystems, which may differ considerably in the species they contain, but function in ecologically similar ways. In practise, although biomes contain both plants and animals, for purposes of identifying biomes and mapping them, thevegetation type is used to define the biome boundaries.

Bioregion A land and water territory, the limits of which are not defined by political but by the geographical boundaries of humancommunities and ecological systems. Also a geographicalspace that contains one whole or several nested ecosystems characterised by landforms, vegetative cover, human culture and history as identified by local communities, governments and scientists.

Bioregional planning An organised process that enables people to work together, think carefully about the problems and potential of theirregion, set goals and objectives, define activities, implement projects, take actions agreed upon by the communities,evaluate progress and refine their approach.

Biosphere reserve Areas of terrestrial and coastal/marine ecosystems, or acombination thereof, which are internationally recognisedwithin the framework of UNESCO's MaB Programme.



Catchment or catchment area

The entire land area from which water flows into a river.Catchments can be divided into smaller ‘quarternary’ or ‘sub-catchments’.

CBO Community-Based Organisation.

CMC Cape Metropolitan Council.

WCNCB Western Cape Nature Conservation Board.

Conservation The management of human use of the biosphere to yield the greatest benefit to present generations while maintaining the potential to meet the needs and aspirations of futuregenerations. Conservation thus includes sustainable use,protection, maintenance, rehabilitation and restoration of the natural environment.

De facto wilderness Refers to natural areas that are wilderness in the generalsense of the term, but have not been legally designated.

Ecological community All the organisms that live in a given habitat and affect one another as part of the food web or through their variousinfluences on the physical environment.

Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organismcommunities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.

Endemic Any plant or animal species confined to, or exclusive to a particular, specified area.

Enhancement Increasing the capacity of an ecosystem or population to fulfil a particular function or yield a specified product.

Entropy Measure of the degradation of the universe, resulting in adecrease in available energy.

Existential dimension The ‘existential dimension’ refers to the philosophicalexplanation of the part of the world that gives meaning and identity to our way of ‘existing’.

Fynbos Fynbos is the main vegetation type of the south-westernCape and of the Cape Floristic Region.

Genes Genes are elements of the germ plasm through whichhereditary characteristics are passed from one generation to another.

Genetic resources The useful characteristics of plants, animals and micro-organisms that are transmitted genetically.



Genetically modified organisms

Organisms whose genetic makeup has been altered by the insertion or removal of small fragments of DNA in order to create or enhance desirable characteristics.

GIS Geographical Information System or ‘a system of people,resources, and procedures that collects, transforms, anddistributes (spatial) information to relevant organisationmembers’.

Habitat The place or type of site where an organism or populationnaturally occurs.

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

A system of marking up, or tagging, a document so it can be published on the World Wide Web. Documents prepared in HTML contain reference graphics and formatting tags. Youuse a Web browser (such as Microsoft Internet Explorer) to view these documents.’

I&AP Interested and Affected Party.

IDP Integrated Development Plan.

IISD International Institute for Sustainable Development.

Indigenous Native to a particular area.

ISO International Organisation for Standardisation.

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature.

LUPO Land Use Planning Ordinance (No. 15 of 1985).

MaB Man and the Biosphere.

MaB Programme A global programme of international scientific co-operation,dealing with people-environment interactions over the entire realm of bioclimatic and geographic situations of thebiosphere.

Macrobiogeographicalregion

A region defined by its unique biological characteristics (flora and fauna) and biophysical characteristics (climate, geology, soils), giving rise to a variety of major landscapes, andvariations in human settlement patterns and economicactivity.

Maintenance Keeping something in good health or repair.



Mountain catchment area

The main mass of mountain or range, together with any spurs or connected outliers, above the general level of surrounding plains, comprising the crest or watershed, plateaux, slopes foothills and connecting valleys, which gather and graduallyrelease the precipitation.

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation.

PGWC Provincial Government of the Western Cape.

Population A group of individuals with common ancestry that are much more likely to mate with one another than with individualsfrom another such group.

Preservation Keeping something in its present state.

Protected area A geographically defined area designated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives. Protected areasare dedicated primarily to the protection and enjoyment ofnatural or cultural heritage, to the maintenance of life support systems.

Quarternarycatchment

Usually the area which feeds a tributary or a part of the main river.

Rehabilitation To return a degraded ecosystem or population to its original condition.

Restoration To return a degraded ecosystem or population to its original condition.

SA Red Data Book A document presenting information on endangered, rare orthreatened species in such a manner as to assistconservationists to assess their actions in respect of these species.

SDP Spatial Development Plan.

SDI Spatial Development Initiative.

SMA ‘Special Management Area’ defined as ‘an area of excellence and good practice’.

Species Plants, animals, micro-organisms or other living organismsthat are morphologically similar; that share inheritance fromcommon ancestry; or whose genes are so similar that theycan breed together and produce fertile offspring.

Statutory wilderness Refers to wilderness areas, which are directly anddeliberately protected by legislation.



Sustainabledevelopment

Sustainable development is development that meets theneeds of the present generation without compromising theability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Sustainable use of biological resources

The use of components of biological diversity in a way and at rate that does not lead to its long term decline, therebymaintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations.

Topology A study of geometrical properties unaffected by changes of shape or size.

Traditional knowledge Traditional knowledge refers to a body of knowledge built up by a group of people through generations of living in closecontact with nature. Traditional knowledge is both cumulative and dynamic; building upon the experience of earliergenerations and adapting to the new technological and socio-economic changes of the present.

UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme.

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganisation.

Water cycle The water (hydrological) cycle describes the natural process of moving water out of the oceans, into the atmosphere, and back to the land and oceans.

WCPDA Western Cape Planning and Development Act, 1999 (Act 7 of 1999)

Wildlife Any non-domestic animals and plants, which occur in thewild.

WRI World Resource Institute.

WWF World Wide Fund for Nature.



2 STATUTORY FRAMEWORK AND PRINCIPLES

The WCPDA, 1999 (Act 7 of 1999) provides the statutory context for the preparation of an IDP for all spheres of government, namely, the provincial level, district level and local town level. As described in Section 1.1 (‘Purposes of the Report’), this document is to serve as a framework for the provincial IDP and for the required lower sphere planning.

The Act stipulates that 'when preparing, amending, withdrawing, or reviewing adevelopment framework, regard shall be had to the natural and developed environment and ecologically sustainable development in general, and all prescribed steps taken in this respect, shall be specified and all prescribed studies shall be carried out'. This implies that environmental planning must be based on a holistic integrated planning approach that will address the full spectrum of environmental and related key issues. It is, therefore, proposed that planning at all levels be undertaken in terms of thebioregional planning principles, the ‘place-specific’ planning approach and the biospherereserve progamme described in Chapters 5, 6 and 7 below.

2.1 THE INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PLAN

In Section 5(1) (a – c) of the WCPDA, 1999 (Act 7 of 1999) the general purposes of the IDP and its component Sectoral and Spatial Plans are described as follows:

a) An IDP shall lay down strategies, proposals and guidelines, including development objectives and implementation plans by means of development planning so thatthe general principles contained in Schedule IV of this Act are promoted.

b) A Sectoral Plan (defined as ‘any written strategy or plan, which deals mainly with one of the sectors or elements or particular subjects that form part of an integrated development plan and which may be a spatial, economic, land reform,environmental, housing, water or transport plan’) shall lay down detailedstrategies, proposals and guidelines for the specific sector, element or subject for which it is prepared.

c) A Spatial Plan, as part of an IDP, shall indicate the spatial implications of anintegrated development plan and lay down strategies, proposals and guidelines for the future spatial development of the area to which it relates (including, withoutbeing limited to, development objectives, proposals for land reform, urban renewal, reconstruction, integration, environmental planning, transport planning,infrastructure planning and urban design) so that the general principles inSchedule IV, and the general well-being of the particular community and orderlyplanning of the area are promoted in the most effective manner.



2.2 SCHEDULE IV OF ACT 7 OF 1999

Schedule IV and any policy referred to in Section 54, constitute frameworks, norms and standards relating to co-ordinated planning and development and the promotion ofintegrated social and economic development and shall, in the interest of the province or a region, apply throughout the province and shall;a) Bind the State;b) Be applied when regulations, guidelines, zoning scheme regulations and by-laws are

drafted and implemented and shall also apply to administrative practice relating to planning and development;

c) Be applied when a development plan, land reform plan, zoning scheme, transportplan or similar plan or scheme is prepared and administered by the State in terms of any law administered by that authority, and

d) Apply when the State exercises a discretion or makes a decision in terms of this Act or any other law relating to planning and development, including a law relating to the subdivision, utilisation and planning of land.

The Premier may by proclamation in the Provincial Gazette –a) In addition to the principles set out in Schedule IV, but not inconsistent with them,

prescribe any planning and development principle, and b) Prescribe any principle set out in Schedule IV in more detail, but not inconsistent

with it, and thereafter that principle shall apply in the Province on the basis set out in Subsection (1).

Before publication of a proclamation as contemplated in Subsection (2), the Premiershall afford all interested parties, including local government, an opportunity to lodge objections or make presentations.

Schedule IV of the WCPDA, 1999 (Act 7 of 1999) describes the following groups of principles upon which integrated development planning is to be based.

GROUP 1: PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT LEGISLATION, POLICY,ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICE, REGULATIONS AND BY-LAWS

1.1 Laws, regulations, policy and guideline documents on planning and development should:

1.1.1 Be clear and generally available to those who are likely to be affected thereby;

1.1.2 Provide guidelines and information to those affected thereby in addition to serving as regulatory measures;

1.1.3 Be aimed at promoting trust and acceptance among those likely to be affected thereby, and

1.1.4 Give further content to fundamental rights as set out in the Constitution.

GROUP 2 PRINCIPLES OF DECISION-MAKING AND DISPUTE RESOLUTION

2.1 Each proposed development should be judged on its merits and no specific land use should be regarded in advance, or in general, as being less important, or desirable, than any other land use, unless a development plan or structure plan indicates that a specific type of land-use should be protected.



2.2 Decisions should be taken on the advice of suitably qualified and experienced persons in the employ of the authority concerned and experts in the field ofagriculture, planning, engineering, geology, mining, management of theenvironment, law, surveying or any other field determined by the ProvincialMinister.

2.3 Before a decision is taken, the desirability of referring for mediation a dispute about development or planning between parties should be considered.

2.4 If the authority concerned considers mediation to be desirable, the dispute should be referred for mediation, but if mediation is undesirable, or if mediation hasfailed, a public inquiry should be conducted or a decision taken.

2.5 Before any important decision is taken in terms of this Act, the desirability ofconducting a public inquiry into the matter should be considered.

2.6 If a public inquiry is to be conducted before a decision is taken, it should be open to the public, and any person entitled to appear at the inquiry may be presented by any other person.

2.7 Reasons in writing for a decision in terms of this Act should be furnished onrequest.

2.8 The department head should keep a record of reasons given for decisions taken by the Provincial Administration of Western Cape, and the chief executive officer for decisions taken by the council concerned.

2.9 Such record should be made available for inspection by members of the public, and any person or body should be able to publish the reasons.

2.10 A decision taken in terms of this Act should be subject to review by anycompetent division of the High Court.

GROUP 3: PRINCIPLES OF ROLE-PLAYER PARTICIPATION AND HUMANRESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Members of communities affected by planning and development should beactively involved in the planning and development process.

3.2 The skills and capacities of all persons involved in planning and development,including the disadvantaged, should be developed.

3.3 All sectors of the economy (government and non-government sectors) should be encouraged to contribute toward planning and development so as to maximise the ability of all spheres of government to undertake planning and development, and to this end:3.3.1 Authorities should endeavour to clearly define and make known the

functions and responsibilities of all sectors of the economy with regard to planning and development and the desired relationship between thesesectors, and

3.3.2 An authority, which is responsible for the administration of this Act and any other law relating to planning and development, should furnish particulars of the legislation concerned and of the persons responsible for itsadministration to any person requiring such information.

GROUP 4: PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT IN GENERAL

4.1 Efficient land development administrative practices should be promoted.4.2 Development should result in security of tenure and should provide for the widest

possible range of tenure alternatives, including individual and communal tenure.



4.3 In the development of land, the rightful interests of any occupants of that land should be duly taken into account.

4.4 The various spheres of government should co-ordinate the interests of thevarious sectors involved in, or affected by development so as to minimiseconflicting claims to scarce resources.

4.5 The effective functioning of a development market based on open competitionbetween suppliers of goods and services should be stimulated.

GROUP 5: PRINCIPLES OF SPATIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESTRUCTURING

5.1 Provision should be made for rural and urban planning and development, and the development of existing and new formal and informal settlements should befacilitated.

5.2 The illegal occupation of land should be discouraged, with due recognition ofinformal development processes.

5.3 Sufficient land for permanent development and temporary reception areas should be identified and developed in accordance with national and provincial policies.

5.4 Efficient and integrated planning and development should be promoted by:5.4.1 The integration of social, economic, institutional, environmental and

physical aspects of planning and development.5.4.2 Integrated development and planning in rural and urban areas with a view

to mutual support.5.4.3 Providing residential and employment opportunities in close proximity to,

or integrated with each other.5.4.4 The optimal utilisation of existing resources, including resources with

regard to agriculture, land, minerals, bulk infrastructure, roads, transportand social facilities.

5.4.5 Encouraging a diverse combination of land uses, including mixed land uses.

5.4.6 Discouraging the phenomenon of urban sprawl, protecting the agricultural resource base and encouraging the development of more compact cities.

5.4.7 Contributing towards the correction of historically distorted spatial patternsof settlements in the Western Cape.

5.4.8 Encouraging environmentally sustainable planning and developmentpractices and processes.

GROUP 6: PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

6.1 Sustainable development must be promoted by:6.1.1 Promoting development within the fiscal, institutional and administrative

means of the Province.6.1.2 Promoting the establishment of viable communities.6.1.3 Promoting sustained protection of the environment.6.1.4 Meeting the basic needs of all communities in an affordable manner.6.1.5 Ensuring the safe use of land, with regard to factors such as geological

formations, dangerously undermined areas and flood plains.



GROUP 7: PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

7.1 Development should harmonise with the ecological characteristics of theenvironment.

7.2 Development should heed the natural processes, which control any specificenvironment.

7.3 Development in unsuitable environments, such as areas with a high water table, swamps, flood plains, steep slopes and areas sensitive to drift-sands, should be discouraged.

7.4 Development planning should heed carrying capacity restrictions, especially with regard to water shortages.

7.5 Development planning should heed the aesthetic properties of landscapes and the environment.



3 THE WESTERN CAPE PROVINCE: AN OVERVIEW OF ITSUNIQUE ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

The Western Cape Province covers almost 11 % (130 000 km²) of the surface area of South Africa (refer to Map 1) and accommodates approximately 10 % of the country’s population.

The province plays an important role in the South African economy, in that it contributes the following:

?? 14 % OF THE COUNTRY’S GDP?? 20 % OF ITS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS?? 18 % OF ITS COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS AND SERVICES?? 14 % OF ITS MANUFACTURING PRODUCTS

Map1: Western Cape Province in context.

Furthermore, the Western Cape comprises cultural and natural landscapes ofspectacular beauty, as well as unique vegetation types, which are of immense scientific importance and which are primary tourist attractions.



3.1 PRIMARY BIOMES AND ECOSYSTEMS

The Western Cape largely falls within the world-renowned Cape Floral Kingdom and includes a number of biomes, namely the Fynbos, Forest, Nama Karoo, SucculentKaroo, and Thicket Biomes (refer to Map 2). These biomes constitute a complexconglomeration of ecosystems within which communities co-exist.

Map 2: Biomes of the Western Cape.

The Cape Floral Kingdom, is internationally recognised as one of the six FloralKingdoms of the world. The Cape Floral Kingdom is the smallest, covering a mere 0,06% of the earth’s surface, and is the only Floral Kingdom contained in its entiretywithin a single country (refer to Map 3).

The Cape Floral Kingdom is characterised by its exceptional richness in plant species and its high endemicity. More that 8 700 species are known to occur, with more than 68% being endemic. The Cape Floral Kingdom, thus, compares with some of the richest floras world-wide, surpassing many tropical forest regions in its floral diversity.

The biomes of the province can be grouped into three broad ‘categories’ namely,Fynbos, Forest and Karoo. The Knersvlakte, which is described below, is particularly unique and is viewed by many ecologists as a separate biome. The above biome ‘categories’ are generally associated with the three major landscape types, namelyKaroo landscapes, mountain valley landscapes and the coastal plain landscapes (refer to Chapter 9).



Map 3: The Cape Floral Kingdom in International Context.

The primary biomes of the Western Cape and their characteristics are described below.

3.2 FYNBOS

Fynbos is the noun describing the unique flora that occurs exclusively in the South-Western Cape in a narrow band following the Cape Fold Mountains from north ofNieuwoudtville to near Port Elizabeth (refer to Map 2).

Low and Rebelo (1996)3 state that, although the Cape Floral Kingdom comprisesvarious biomes, namely the Fynbos, Forest, Nama Karoo, Succulent Karoo, and Thicket Biomes, the contribution of Fynbos in terms of species richness, endemicity, and fame of the region, is so overwhelming, that the Cape Floral Kingdom is considered to be ‘essentially Fynbos’. Figure 1 on the following page illustrates the Cape Floral Kingdom with its biomes.

3 Low, A.B. & Rebelo, A.G. (eds). 1996. Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Dept. Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria.



The Fynbos Biome comprises two broad veld types, namely Fynbos and Renosterveld. Fynbos vegetation types are characterised by the presence of a restioid component, belonging to the Cape Reed Family, an ericoid or heath component, and a proteoid component, which presents the dominant overstorey in this vegetation type.Renosterveld is characterised by the dominance of members of the Daisy Family(Asteraceae), specifically one species, namely Renosterbos (Elytropappus rhinocerotis),from which the vegetation type gets its name.

Figure 1: Biomes of the Cape Floral Kingdom.

The endangered Clanwilliam Cedar (Widdringtonia cedarbergensis), which isendemic to the Cederberg, and W. schwarzii, which is endemic to the SwartbergMountains, are two of the enigmatic tree species that occur within the Fynbos Biome.

3.2.1 THE FYNBOS ENVIRONMENT

The distribution of the various Fynbos types and Renosterveld is largely determined by the geology and soils. The Fynbos types are generally associated with nutrient-poor, acidic soils derived from sandstones and quartzitic sandstones of the CapeSupergroup, while Renosterveld is largely confined to fine-grained soils – mainlyclays and silts – which are derived from the shales of the Malmesbury andBokkeveld Groups, and the Karoo Sequence.

The climate of the Fynbos Biome is generally of a Mediterranean type, with hot drysummers and mild to cold winters. Snow often falls on the higher mountain peaksduring winter. Summer months are hot, with temperatures often exceeding 40°C incertain areas.

Fynbos occurs in a variety of landscapes – from the coastal plains to sub-alpinemountain peaks – and in a variety of climatic regions. Rainfall varies between 250 mm and 3 000 mm per year and, being orographic, is generally higher in themountainous areas, with areas such as Jonkershoek near Stellenbosch receivingmore than 3 000 mm per year.



Fynbos is well adapted to fire, which is the primary disturbance factor in Fynbos and has a major influence on Fynbos community processes. Fynbos must burn at between 6 and 45 years of age to sustain its structure and species diversity. Without fire, it becomes senescent and Forest and Thicket elements begin invading.

Fynbos generally has a low vertebrate animal biomass. However, the species richness of birds, mammals, frogs, reptiles, and insects is quite high. Many effective conservation initiatives have been instituted to conserve the animal species of the Fynbos Biome, an example of which is the Cederberg Leopard Project. The Cederberg Mountains are home to arguably the most important core population of leopard (Panthera pardus) in the Western Cape. A 2 000 km² leopard management area was established in 1988 to conserve the species.

3.2.2 SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE OF FYNBOS

The Fynbos Biome is of immense scientific importance both nationally andinternationally. The Cape Floral Kingdom only covers 4% of South Africa, but contains 45% of all plant species of Southern Africa.

About three-quarters of all plants in the South African Red Data Book are found in the Cape Floral Kingdom. Of these plants, 1 700 plant species are threatened. ManyFynbos species are extremely localised in their distribution, with sets of such localised species organised into ‘centres of endemism’ (Low and Rebelo, 1996).

The Fynbos Biome includes, inter alia, the remaining tracts of two of South Africa’s rarest vegetation types, namely Sand Plain Fynbos and West Coast Renosterveld. Both these types are exceptionally high in species diversity, and have a high incidence of vulnerable and endangered Red Data plant species. Daines and Low (1993)4 describe these areas as ‘the most important unpreserved lowland sites in the Cape Floral Kingdom, and a top priority for the conservation of threatened endemic species’.

The uniqueness of Fynbos puts South Africans under the obligation to explore thisFloral Kingdom, to display it to the rest of the world, and to preserve it for futuregenerations. To accomplish this, an understanding of the uniqueness of Fynbos and its complicated processes, its cycles and the interdependence of the various components, is necessary. Research is the key to this understanding. The Fynbos Biome provides opportunities for specialised research to scientists and students from all over the world and particularly South Africa.

3.2.3 WATER CONSERVATION CAPABILITIES OF FYNBOS

Fynbos has unique intrinsic capabilities as a natural water conservation agent andsubsequently plays a critical role in the maintenance of the natural water cycle. The overriding objective of water conservation is the management of the catchmentareas so as to maintain an optimal sustainable yield of high quality water.Maintenance of water yield entails ensuring the capacity of a catchment area to yield water at historical flow rates. This can only be achieved through the maintenance of a vigorous cover of indigenous vegetation, such as Fynbos.

4 Daines. A., and Low, A.B. 1993. Cape Metropolitan Area. West Coast Environmental Survey.Western Cape Regional Services Council, Cape Town.



3.2.4 AESTHETIC VALUE OF FYNBOS

As stated above, fynbos is uniquely rich in endemic taxa and has a series ofbiogeographic and floristic features warranting the status of a Floristic Kingdom.Fynbos is the flora of the Protea, Erica, Gladiolus and other genera that areparticularly attractive. Due to its aesthetic appeal and global scientific status, Fynbosis a focal point of the foreign and domestic eco-tourism market.

It is difficult to determine the economic advantages that can be derived from therecreational use of an area, but there is no doubt that Fynbos areas are among the prime outdoor recreational zones of the country. Based on this fact alone, theconservation of these areas is more than justified. Thorough and urgent investigationinto the development of more camping and picnic sites and hiking trails are necessary to alleviate the high pressure on existing facilities and to avoid environmentaldegradation.

3.2.5 DIRECT ECONOMIC VALUE OF FYNBOS

Fynbos is the mainstay of the R80 million per annum wildflower industry in South Africa. Herbal plants, such as Buchu (Agathosma betulina) is being harvested in many areas, while Rooibos Tea (Aspalathus linearis) is cultivated and harvested on a large scale in the Clanwilliam District.

3.2.6 CONSERVATION STATUS AND THREATS

Large Fynbos areas are being conserved in terms of the National Forests Act, 1998 (Act 84 of 1998), the Mountain Catchment Areas Act, 1970 (Act 63 of 1970), and theNature Conservation Ordinance (No. 19 of 1974). This legislation provides for theprotection, management and utilisation of certain plant and animal life and ecosystems, and the management of veld, forest and mountain fires.

Representative samples of most of the Fynbos types are being conserved in statutorywilderness areas, such as Cederberg, Winterhoek and Boosmansbos, national parks, as well as in provincial and private nature reserves. The conservation status ofRenosterveld is generally poor. A representative sample of Central MountainRenosterveld is conserved within the Anysberg Provincial Nature Reserve and some South Coast Renosterveld is conserved within the Bontebok National Park. Less than 3% of the original area of West Coast Renosterveld remains, less than 1% of which is formally conserved. In this regard, the most important nature reserve is the Elandsberg Private Nature Reserve near Hermon.

The primary threats to Fynbos include the infestation of alien plants, agriculturaldevelopment and the misuse of fire. The relatively high fertility of Renosterveld soils has meant that most of the area has been converted to agriculture.

The then Department of Environmental and Cultural Affairs suggested in 1991 that a series of cluster biosphere reserves be registered covering the entire Fynbos Biome. The recommended biosphere reserve programme was initiated with the registrationof South Africa’s first biosphere reserve in 1998, namely the Kogelberg Biosphere



Reserve, and the submission of an application to UNESCO in December 1999 forthe nomination of the West Coast Biosphere Reserve.

3.3 FORESTS

The indigenous, evergreen forests of South Africa are generally distributed in patches in a belt along the seaward slopes of the mountain ranges, from Table Mountain along the southern and eastern seaboard, to the Northern Province (refer to Map 2). Forest also occurs along the southern slopes of the Soutpansberg in the Northern Province, insheltered valleys and kloofs along the Mpumalanga escarpment and the inlandmountains of the Eastern Cape Province. These closed-canopy forests coverapproximately 200 000 ha of which more than 60 000 ha are privately owned.

The Southern Cape forests, termed by Acocks as Veld Type 4, cover an area of about 60 500 ha of which about 35 700 ha are controlled by the Chief Directorate Forestry of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. These forests lie scattered in blocks of varying size on a narrow coastal strip south of the Outeniqua and Tsitsikamma mountains where a moist, subtropical climate with moderate temperatures creates the necessary conditions for forest growth. The largest consolidated section of 16 300 ha, the so-called ‘main forest’, is near Knysna.

Historically timber from the forests, mostly Yellowwood, Stinkwood and Ironwood, hasbeen used extensively for mining timber purposes, railway sleepers, buildingconstruction, telegraph poles, furniture and ship-building. Today, timber is still harvested in limited quantities for the furniture industry in Knysna, which is famous for itsprestigious Cape Dutch furniture made by expert craftsmen.

3.3.1 THE FOREST ENVIRONMENT

The canopy cover of forests is continuous, comprising mostly evergreen trees, andbeneath it the vegetation is multi-layered. Herbaceous plants, particularly ferns, lianas and epiphytes are common throughout. The ground layer is generally sparse due to the dense shade. Distinctive plant communities occur along the forest edges. These so-called fringe, or ecotonal communities, are fire-tolerant.

The forests of the Western Cape are restricted to frost-free areas with a mean annual rainfall of more than 525 mm. The rainfall is mainly orographic and ranges from 500 mm to about 1 200 mm in the heart of the forest complex.

Forests occur from sea level to over 2 100 m above sea level. They rarely burn, mainly due to their high humidity. Under extremely hot and dry (berg wind) conditions fires may occur and destroy the forest structure.

The underlying geology affects the forest composition through its effect on the nutrient and moisture status of the soil. Soils are generally acid, leached, low in nutrients,shallow and with a poor internal drainage.



3.3.2 SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS

Due to their limited extent and uniqueness, the forests are considered to be of immense conservation importance both nationally and internationally. Even added together, forests cover less than 0.25% of southern Africa’s surface area, making this the smallest biome on the subcontinent.

The Southern Cape forests form the largest forest complex in Southern Africa. It forms the southern end of the chain of Afromontane forests along the eastern escarpment and the Indian Ocean Coastal Belt.

Forests are rich in plant species diversity. Some 649 woody and 636 herbaceous plant species have been recorded from the Forest Biome in South Africa.

The forests are the natural habitat of various interesting bird species, such as theNarina Trogon (Apaloderma narina) and the Knysna Lourie (Tauraca corythaix). The Knysna forest is the habitat of the famous Knysna elephants, which are now almost extinct.

The underlying motive for forest conservation is based on ethical and aestheticconsiderations and aims at protecting the scientific, economic and sociological values associated with the forests.

The forests of the Southern Cape play an important role in the economy and social wellbeing of the people of the subregion. The forests support a number of viableindustries, which include the following:

3.3.3 FURNITURE INDUSTRY

Currently, the final product manufactured from indigenous timber and blackwood is, in most cases, furniture. There is a well-established furniture industry based in Knysna, which absorbs most of the timber. The timber is generally sold on public auctions, which have become part of the history of the industry. A total of 3 589 m3 of timber was sold on auction (1 600 m3 blackwood) in 1998, realising a total income of almost three million rand. Timber, which is not sold on the auctions is generally bought by speculators who process the timber and sell it in board form to furniture manufacturers and craftsmen outside the Southern Cape.

Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) is an exotic invader, but is very valuable as a furniture timber. The timber industry depends on the Knysna forest as a source for Blackwood. The Blackwood control programme is, thus, carried out in a way conducive to the optimal recovering of this timber resource.

3.3.4 FERN INDUSTRY

The seven-weeks fern (Rumohra adiantiformis) occurs in forests throughout South Africa. It is common in the Southern Cape forests, especially in the moist and wet forest types in association with Stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), White Alder (Platylophus trifoliatus) and Red Alder (Cunonia capensis). The fronds are used extensively in flower arrangementsbecause of their long cut-life. Huge crops of fern are harvested by private contractors on a



sustainable basis over a total area of about 15 000 ha. This harvesting is undertaken under supervision and strict control of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry.

3.3.5 TOURISM

Partly because of their rarity, their grandeur and their setting, forests are an important tourist attraction in South Africa. The forests present unique outdoor recreationopportunities, which imply significant benefits for tourism in general. For example, the forests represent a vital element of the very popular ‘Garden Route’ of the Southern Cape, which is of immense national importance.

Thousands of tourists annually flock to the forests of the Southern Cape to visit, orexperience unique natural features such as the giant Outeniqua Yellowwoods, many of which tower above the canopy of the Southern Cape forests. These old monarchs of the forest are truly magnificent. Massive trunks support their heavy crowns, draped withlong threads of bright green beard lichens waving eerily in the wind. It is hardlyconceivable that some Yellowwoods germinated more than 800 years ago. These trees can reach a height of more than 45 m, but many occur as medium-sized trees in the forests. Dalene Matthee in ‘Circles in the Forest’ (1984) wrote the following about one of these giants of the forest: ‘Like a mighty king it stood towering above the white alder and mountain saffron, stinkwood, assegai and hard pear. As if God had planted it long before the others. Its giant roots anchoring it to the ground like giant arms.'

A further primary tourist attraction of the forests of the Southern Cape is the rich cultural-historic and literary legacy associated with, inter alia, the ‘Early Travellers and Settlers’,the historical ‘Woodcutters’, the ‘Great Fire of 1869’’, the ‘Millwood Gold Rush’, the ‘Knysna Forest Railway’, and the ‘Roads into Eden’.

Although the famous elephant population of the Knysna forest has but almost died out, these giants of the forest and their history still form a fundamental part of the ambience of the forest.

The forests also present exceptional recreational opportunities such as mountain-bikingand hiking. Hiking trails such as the Outeniqua Hiking Trail and the Elephant Trail near the Diepwalle Forestry Station in the Knysna forest are particularly popular withdomestic and foreign tourists.


The forests of the Western Cape Province cover approximately 65 000 ha of which about 40 000 ha are controlled by the Chief Directorate Forestry of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, and the Western Cape Nature Conservation Board.

Trees and forests on private land are protected under the Forest Act, 1984 (Act 84 of 1984). The exploitation of timber from protected forests is strictly controlled in accordance with a yield regulation system aimed at optimal sustained utilization, and management plans prepared on behalf of the private landowners. In addition certain tree species are ‘protected flora’ under the Cape Nature and Environmental Conservation Ordinance (No. 19 of 1974).



All indigenous forests on State Forest land are protected under the general land-usemanagement policy of the Chief Directorate Forestry. With the exception of mining land where the Chief Directorate Forestry only exercises surface rights, all the indigenous forests are declared demarcated forest and may not be alienated except by resolution of Parliament. In addition, it is possible under Section 15 of the Forest Act, 1984 (Act 84 of 1984) for the Minister to declare any specific area of indigenous forest on State Forest land to be a nature reserve.

The primary environmental threats to the forest include invasion by alien plant species such as Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) and Black Wattle (A. mearnsii). The alien plant invasion is particularly evident along the rivers in the forest.

Although the forest does not readily burn, conditions of drought, together with hot and dry ‘bergwinds’, periodically contribute to intense veld fires that destroy the forest. The ‘Great Fire of 1869’ is an extreme example of the very destructive fires that periodically occur. According to history, the area between Riversdale in the west, and Uitenhage in the east, was destroyed by this fire.

3.4 KAROO

The composite region of the Western Cape referred to as the ‘Karoo’, generally lies north and east of the Cape Fold Belt and covers the central plateau of the province at altitudes of between 500 and 2 000 m. This region comprises portions of the SucculentKaroo Biome and the Nama Karoo Biome and covers most of the interior of the province (refer to Map 2).

‘Karoo’ is an old indigenous word for ‘thirst land’. The region is known for its harshclimate and regular droughts, which are the rule, rather than the exception. Rainfalldecreases from east (450 mm per annum) to west (150 mm per annum). Extremely low temperatures and snow occur in areas such as Sutherland, while summer temperatures often exceed 40° C.

It is believed that some 280 million years ago, the Great Karoo was a vast swamp. Over the aeons, this swamp of prehistory, where mammal-like reptiles once lived,disappeared. It gradually changed to a semi-desert with rugged beauty and eternal rock layers that hide the secrets of this ancient land.

3.4.1 THE KAROO ENVIRONMENT

The geology underlying the Karoo is largely varied. More that 80% of the areacomprises lime-rich, weakly developed soils over rock. Although less than 5% ofprecipitation reaches the rivers, the high erodibility of soil poses a major problem where overgrazing has occurred.

The Succulent Karoo vegetation, which occurs in the western areas of the region, is a unique mixture of dwarf shrubs and succulent plants, with the Vygie Family(Mesembryanthemaceae) dominating, and genera such as Ruschia, Drosanthemum,Malephora, and Delopsperma being widespread. Disturbed areas are often dominated by Kraalbos (Galenia africana), while many ephemeral species and geophytes occur



after good rains. Palatable, non-succulent shrubs, such as Osteospermum sinuatum,and grass species such as Common Ehrharta (Ehrharta calycina) occur.

Much of the Succulent Karoo Biome falls within the renowned spring flower region.Each year during spring, depending on the preceding weather conditions, the region is transformed into a floral showcase featuring a large variety of spring flowers, such as Gousblom (Arctotis spp., Dimorphotheca spp. and Osteospermum spp.),Chinkerinchees (Ornithogalum spp.), Bergmagrietjies (Ursinia spp.) en Vygies(Lampramthus spp. and Ruschia spp.).

The dominant vegetation of the Nama Karoo Biome, which covers the central andeastern parts of the Karoo region, is described as a grassy, dwarf shrubland. Grasses tend to be more common in depressions and on sandy soils.

Dense stands of Driedoring (Rhigozum trichotomum), Bitterbos (Chrysocoma ciliata),and Sweet Thorn (Acacia karroo) occur along rivers in many areas. The Sweet Thorn thickets provide suitable habitat for game species such as kudu, substantial populations of which occur in areas such as Beaufort West. According to Low and Rebelo (1996) there are very few Red Data Book Plant Species in the Nama Karoo.

The brown locust and Karoo caterpillar exhibit irruptions under similarly favourable, local rainfall events, and attract large numbers of bird and mammal predators.

3.4.2 SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE OF THE KAROO

The Karoo is considered a wonder of the scientific world and is, therefore, of immense national and international conservation importance. The region is integral to the work of scientists, botanists, archaeologists, geologists, palaeontologists, and ecologists fromall over the world. This is mainly due to the fact that the Karoo is an ancient, fossil-richland with the largest variety of succulents found anywhere on earth.

Some of the world’s most important archaeological sites are located in the Karoo, with a multitude of stone-age sites, and petroglyphs, rock paintings, and other forms of rock art produced by the earliest hunter-gatherers.

Fossilised footprints are found in many areas. On the farm Gansfontein, nearFraserburg, there is an intriguing palaeo-surface, which shows an ancient flood-plainsurface with contour, mud, ripple and wrinkle marks, as well as worm trails, fish-finimprints and anthropoid trails. There are also many mammal-like reptile, Dinocephalian and Bradysaurus tracks.

The Karoo supports a number of economic sectors and enterprises, the most important of which are the following.

3.4.3 AGRICULTURE

The Karoo supports a viable sheep-farming industry, which includes stud farming, meat and wool production. The region is particularly famous for its superior quality mutton.

The Klein-Karoo and many areas of the Great Karoo support the renowned ostrichindustry, with the district of Oudtshoorn being the center of this industry.



3.4.4 GAME FARMING

Since long before recorded memory the Great Karoo has been natural hunting country. Thousands of Springbok and many other game species roamed the open plains of the Great Karoo and were probably nomadic between patches of rainfall events within the biome. Today many well-stocked game farms offer excellent hunting opportunities for both trophy and biltong hunters, with the Beaufort-West area being one of the most popular hunting areas in the Western Cape.

3.4.5 TOURISM

The Karoo comprises a rich variety of tourist resources including its unique naturalenvironment, its palaeontological heritage, and its cultural-historic features. Theseresources offer a variety of tourism concepts, including eco-tourism, ‘agri’ tourism and ‘culture’ tourism.

Most of the towns or settlements bear testimony of historical events or era’s, including the Anglo-Boer War. An example of the urban cultural-historic heritage is the quaint little village of Matjiesfontein, referred to as the ‘Duchess of the Great Karoo. Matjiesfontein has been restored in its entirety, and was declared a National Monument in 1979.

The ‘gateways’ to the Great Karoo are littered with history and stories of outlaws,murderers and ghosts. One of the most interesting routes is the ‘Old Diamond Way’, which is the historical route fortune hunters used to reach the diamond fields at Kimberley. It was also the route Cecil John Rhodes traveled to and from his diamond claims.

The Karoo National Park near Beaufort West and Provincial Nature Reserves, such as Anysberg, provide unique educational and recreational opportunities, such as a ‘fossil trail’, 4X4 routes, game viewing, hiking and mountain-biking. Private farms and reservesin the region offer a broad spectrum of accommodation and recreational opportunities.

The district of Oudtshoorn with its ostrich industry, world-renowned Cango Caves, and Afrikaans cultural festival is a very popular tourist destination.


In an impassioned plea for its preservation, achaeologist Garth Sampson once said: ‘The Karoo is like a rich tapestry. Removing any item is like picking a stitch, each path or road cut across its surface is equal to pulling out a thread, and each settlement is likea moth hole!.

In spite of its immense scientific importance and sensitivity, less than 1 % of the biome has statutory conservation status. Little research into the dynamics of the biome hasbeen undertaken particularly in the west of the region.

The primary statutory conservation areas in the region include the Karoo National Park, Tankwa Karoo National Park, Anysberg Provincial Nature Reserve and GamkapoortProvincial Nature Reserve.



The Prickly Pear (Opuntia aurantiaca) and Mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) are the major alien invader species. Overgrazing is probably the primary singular environmental threat, under conditions of which many grasses and other palatable species may be lost and other less productive indigenous species may proliferate, including Driedoring,Bitterbos and Sweet Thorn.

Periodic flooding events often have disastrous effects on the natural environment and on infrastructure, an example of which is the tragic events in Laingsburg in 1981 when the Buffels River burst its banks and destroyed much of the town and killed a large number of residents.

3.5 KNERSVLAKTE

The Knersvlakte is located near the West Coast of the Western Cape ± 300 km north of Cape Town. The area falls within a low-lying basin of about 300 m above sea level, which opens towards the coastal Sandveld in the west. Towards the south and east the area is framed by the steep Bokkeveld and Matsikamma Mountains and to the north it borders on the foothills of the Namaqualand rocky hills (refer to Map 4).

Map 4: Location of the Knersvlakte.

The Knersvlakte comprises an area of approximately 450 000 ha and is typified by small rolling hills with isolated patches of white quartz pebbles and very saline soils.



The area is sparsely inhabited, with only a few stock farmers and their employees living on isolated farms. Most of the area’s people live in the towns or villages of Vredendal, Nuwerus, Bitterfontein and Vanrhynsdorp.

3.5.1 THE KNERSVLAKTE ENVIRONMENT

There is little difference between the soils of the Knersvlakte and the remainder of the Succulent Karoo Biome - both are lime-rich, weakly developed soils on rock. Ofimportance in the area are ‘heuweltjies’, raised mounds of calcium-rich soil, which are thought to be created by termites. These ‘heuweltjies’ often support distinctive plantcommunities.

Because the rains are largely cyclonic, and not due to thunderstorms, the erosive power is far less than of the summer rainfall biomes. The predominant climatic conditions are extremely harsh, with summer temperatures often exceeding 40° C.

The average annual rainfall of 60–70 mm is extremely erratic in space and time. The rainfall is supplemented by coastal fog, which often occurs in the area during winter.Desiccating, hot, northeasterly ‘berg winds’ occur throughout the year.

The vegetation is dominated by dwarf, succulent shrubs, of which the Vygies(Mesembryanthemaceae) are particularly prominent. Mass displays of floweringannuals (mainly Daisies - Asteraceae) occur in spring, often on degraded or fallowlands.

Grasses are rare, except in some sandy areas. The number of plant species - mostly succulents - is very high and unparalleled elsewhere in the world for an arid area of this size. Characteristically, the vegetation of the quartz hills is composed of ‘monodominant units’ i.e. a patchwork of almost pure stands of single species, such as Argyroderma, Conophytum or Dactylopsis species, which are supplemented by a few other taxa.

3.5.2 SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE OF THE KNERSVLAKTE

Due to its limited extent and uniqueness of its vegetation the Knersvlakte is considered to be of immense conservation importance nationally and internationally justifying the opinion of many ecologists that the Knersvlakte represents a separate biome.

The unique Knersvlakte flora represents one of six endemic centers of the Succulent Karoo vegetation type and is known as the ‘Vanrhynsdorp Center’. The Knersvlakte basin encompasses a flora of some 600 to 800 species and is exceptionally rich in endemic plant species, with more than 140 endemic species and three endemic genera occurring.

Not only is the flora unique for its high incidence of endemic species, it is also unique for its exceptional growth forms and adaptations, which enable the plants to survive in the extremely harsh Knersvlakte environment. Ecologists refer to the ‘cryptic’ behaviour of many of these plants, which includes mimicking or assuming the characteristics of the immediate surroundings. This is typical of the Argyroderma species with their silver-white to gray-green leaves that make them hard to spot among the quartz pebbles.Many species of Conophytum become invisible by literally burying themselves under a



translucent quartzite ‘ceiling’. The Conophytum species survive the dry season by being entirely enveloped in a self-created sheath of old leaves.

The Knersvlakte is not rich in endemic animal species. An endemic species that does occur, is the Namaqua Klipskilpad (Homopus signatus signatus). This little tortoise is said to be one of the world’s smallest tortoises.

The Knersvlakte supports a number of economic sectors and enterprises, the mostnotable of which are the following:

3.5.3 AGRICULTURE

Although the vegetation of the Knersvlakte is very susceptible to over-grazing andtrampling, a number of hardy farmers still practice extensive small-stock farming in the area. This practice is locally considered to be a viable land-use, especially in areas where an abundance of perennial plants, grasses and palatable shrubs occur. Many ecologists, however, maintain that the area has little agricultural potential due to a lack of water.The paucity of grasses limits grazing, and the low carrying capacity requires extensive supplementary feeding. Much soil has been lost from the biome through sheet erosion, which is a consequence of nearly 200 years of overgrazing.

3.5.4 TOURISM

Tourism presents a viable seasonal non-consumptive land-use in the area, with the primary attraction being the unique natural display of spring-flowers that occur in the area after good winter rains. During these times numerous ephemeral plants occur,miraculously transforming the landscape into a spectacular floral showcase, featuring alarge variety of spring flowers such as Gousblom (Arctotis spp., Dimorphotheca spp.and Osteospermum spp.), Chinkerinchees (Ornithogalum spp.), Bergmagrietjies(Ursinia spp.) en Vygies (Lampramthus spp. and Ruschia spp.). Tourism entrepreneurs in the area derive income from providing accommodation and from selling nursery-cultivated specimens of the succulents of the area to tourists.

3.5.5 MINING

Gypsum is being mined in the Knersvlakte north of Vanrhynsdorp. Although effortsare being made to rehabilitate the mining areas, this land-use is extremelydestructive and a significant threat to biodiversity and the aesthetic qualities of the area.


There is currently no statutory conservation area in the Knersvlakte Biome. Due to its high number of rare and Red Data Book plant species, immense species richness andunique global status, the biome requires urgent conservation attention. The vegetationof the area is protected in terms of the Cape Nature and Environmental Conservation Ordinance (No. 19 of 1974). This however provides little protection for the flora because almost the entire biome is currently zoned for agriculture. The institution of programmes aimed at the rezoning of specific areas, the registration of statutory conservation areas, and the implementation of appropriate statutory conservation measures are of paramount importance.



‘Core areas’ of the biome, such as Rooiberg, were in the past under the control of the SA National Defence Force and was, subsequently, subjected to destructive land-uses. A faction of the local community now have restitution claims on some of these important ‘core areas’.

Few invasive alien plants occur, with only the poisonous Wild Tobacco (Nicotianaglauca) presenting a minor problem to stock farming in the area. This plant isparticularly poisonous to ostriches.



4 ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICTS AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

4.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The current boundaries of the Western Cape Province were determined in 1993. These boundaries largely coincide with those of the ‘Development Regions’ established by the national government during the 1980s. A primary aim of these ‘Development Regions’was to facilitate planning based on socio-economic criteria, rather than political criteria.

Prior to the municipal restructuring undertaken in 2000 the Western Cape comprised 8 local authority areas of jurisdiction, namely:a) Cape Metropolitan Area b) Breede River Districtc) Little Karoo District d) Overberg Districte) Central Karoo District f) Southern Cape District g) West Coast District h) Winelands District

The Cape Metropolitan Area was further spatially divided into 6 metropolitan sub-structures and the 7 district councils were divided into 89 local transitional councils.

4.2 MUNICIPAL RESTRUCTURING

In accordance with the Local Government: Municipal Structures Act, 1998 (Act 117 of 1998) and the Local Government: Demarcation Act, 1998 (Act 27 of 1998), localgovernment in South Africa was to be restructured and local government boundarieswere to be demarcated in order to create four types of local government areas as is contemplated in the Constitution, namely:?? Category A: Metropolitan Municipalities?? Category B: Local Municipalities?? Category C: District Municipalities?? Category D: District Management Areas

A Demarcation Board was appointed in accordance with Act 117 of 1998 to demarcate the above areas in terms of Section 26 of the Act. The demarcation process wascompleted during the first quarter of 2000 and the new local government dispensation is to come into effect upon the local government elections during December 2000.

In accordance with the above process a total of 30 local government areas weredemarcated (Category A, B, C = 1+24+5 = 30) plus 5 District Management Areas(Category D) that do not have municipal status and are administered by DistrictMunicipalities (refer to Table 1 and Map 5).



Table 1: Category A, B, C and D local government areas.

CATEGORY A CATEGORY B CATEGORY C CATEGORY DNUM-BER

1 24 5 5

NAME Cape Town Matzikama, Cederberg,Berg River, Saldanha Bay, Swartland

West Coast WCDMA01

Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Witzenberg, BreedeValley, Breërivier

Boland WCDMA02

Overstrand, Theewaters-kloof, Cape Agulhas,Swellendam

Overberg WCDMA03

Kannaland, Langeberg,Mossel Bay, Oudtshoorn,George, Knysna, Pletten-berg Bay

Garden Route-Klein Karoo

WCDMA04

Laingsburg, Prince Albert, Beaufort West

Central Karoo WCDMA05

Map 5: Category A, B, C and D local government areas.

The purpose of the Category A, B and C Municipalities and the demarcation criteria are the following (refer to Chapter 7 of the Constitution and Section 24 and 25 of Act 27 of 1998):



4.2.1 SECTION 24

When the Board determines a municipal boundary its objective must be to establish an area that would-(a) enable the municipality for that area to fulfil its constitutional obligations, including-

(i) the provision of democratic and accountable government for the localcommunities;

(ii) the provision of services to the communities in an equitable and sustainable manner;

(iii) the promotion of social and economic development; and(iv) the promotion of a safe and healthy environment;

(b) enable effective local governance;(c) enable integrated development; and (d) have a tax base as inclusive as possible of users of municipal services in the

municipality.

4.2.2 SECTION 25

In order to attain the objectives set out in Section 24, the Board must, when determining a municipal boundary, take into account the following-(a) The interdependence of people, communities and economies as indicated by-

(i) existing and expected patterns of human settlement and migration;(ii) employment;(iii) commuting and dominant transport movements;(iv) spending;(v) the use of amenities, recreational facilities and infrastructure; and (vi) commercial and industrial linkages.

(b) The need for cohesive, integrated and unfragmented areas, including metropolitan areas.

(c) The financial viability and administrative capacity of the municipality to performmunicipal functions efficiently and effectively.

(d) The need to share and redistribute financial and administrative resources.(e) Provincial and municipal boundaries.(f) Areas of traditional rural communities.(g) Existing and proposed functional boundaries, including magisterial districts, voting

districts, health, transport, police and census enumerator boundaries.(h) Existing and expected land use, social, economic and transport planning.(i) The need for co-ordinated municipal, provincial and national programmes and

services, including the needs for the administration of justice and health care.(j) Topographical, environmental and physical characteristics of the area.(k) The administrative consequences of its boundary determination on -

(i) municipal creditworthiness;(ii) existing municipalities, their council members and staff; and (iii) any other relevant matter.

(l) The need to rationalise the total number of municipalities within differentcategories and of different types to achieve the objectives of effective andsustainable service delivery, financial viability and macro-economic stability.’



5 BIOREGIONAL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

There is an increasing global awareness against economic growth at the expense of the natural environment. United Nations organisations such as UNEP; UNESCO;and international conservation bodies such as the IUCN; WRI; and WWF; plead fornational and regional development policies, and strategies that can facilitatesustainable development.

Sustainable development is generally defined as ‘development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.

The IISD (1995) points out that sustainable development occurs at the intersection ofthree global imperatives and that if these imperatives are not balanced, sustainable development cannot be achieved. Figure 2 below illustrates the three globalimperatives of sustainable development.

Figure 2: The three global imperatives to achieve sustainable development.

In the World Conservation Strategy, sustainable development is considered to be a set of tools and strategies, which respond to five broad requirements, namely:

a) Integration of conservation with development.b) Satisfaction of basic human needs.c) Achievement of equity and justice.d) Provision of social self-determination and cultural diversity.e) Maintenance of ecological integrity.

The IISD (1995) highlights two key components with regard to sustainabledevelopment, namely (a) the concept of need (in particular, the essential needs ofthe poor to which overriding priority should be given, and the reality of limitations,imposed by the state of technology and social organisation) and (b) theenvironment's ability to meet present and future needs.

It is clear that sustainable development will not be achieved by only conservingnatural areas. The Global Biodiversity Strategy (IUCN/UNEP/WWF) states that



conservation strategies must be aimed at accommodating cultural, economic, andpolitical circumstances at local and regional levels. Such strategies must, inter alia,be aimed at improving the wellbeing of local and regional communities through theimplementation of conservation strategies.

5.1 WHAT IS A BIOREGION ?

Miller (1996)5 in his landmark practical study on bioregional management defines a bioregion as a ‘geographical space that contains one whole or several nestedecosystems characterised by landforms, vegetative cover, human culture and history as identified by local communities, governments and scientists’.

The IUCN describes a bioregion as a ‘land and water territory, the limits of which are not defined by political but by the geographical boundaries of human communities and ecological systems.’

A bioregion must be large enough to maintain the integrity of the region’s biological communities, habitats and ecosystems, in order to ensure the preservation of thehabitats of key species. However, a bioregion must also be small enough for localcommunities to consider it ‘home’.

Bioregions do not necessarily coincide with administrative or constitutional regionsand can extend beyond the boundaries of such regions. It is of paramountimportance to, as far as practically possible, align administrative with bioregionalboundaries.

5.2 WHAT IS BIOREGIONAL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT ?

To promote sustainable development practices as is contemplated in the WCPDA, 1999 (Act 7 of 1999), it will be necessary to institute planning and management systems,which would facilitate a balanced integration of conservation and development interests in land-use and settlement planning.

International experience has shown that biodiversity conservation is a prerequisite for sustainable development, and that for biodiversity conservation to succeed, themaintenance of environmental integrity (as defined by ecological, economic and social criteria) must be one of the primary determinants of bioregional delimitation and land-use planning.

This view has, during the past decade, evolved into a planning and managementapproach generally known as bioregional planning, which is increasingly beingemployed as a management system by, amongst others, UNEP and the WRI topromote sustainable development practices world-wide.

Bioregional planning is an integrative concept, one that amalgamates the learning and perspectives of several similar concepts, such as ecosystem management andbiosphere reserve planning. Bioregional planning is, therefore, ‘an organised process

5 Miller, K. 1996. Balancing the Scales: Guidelines for Increasing Biodiversity’s ChancesThrough Bioregional Management. World Resources Institute. Washington.



that enables people to work together, think carefully about the potential and problems of their region, set goals and objectives, define activities, implement projects, take actions agreed upon by the communities, evaluate progress and refine their approach’ (Miller, 1996).

From the perspective of promoting sustainable development and biodiversityconservation through integrating development and conservation, it is especiallyimportant to consider regional planning and management in the context of theintegrative relationship between ecological processes and the needs andperceptions of local communities. This integrative relationship is referred to asbioregional management in the Global Biodiversity Strategy (WRI, 1992).

Bioregional management requires delimiting bioregions and managing them in anintegrated, holistic manner. Within the ecological and social framework provided by a bioregion, government, community, corporate and other private interests, shareresponsibility for co-ordinating land-use planning, for both public and private landand for defining and implementing development options that would ensure thathuman needs are met in a sustainable way (WRI, 1992).

The Global Biodiversity Strategy puts forward fundamental objectives and supporting actions to establish a framework for bioregional management and sustainabledevelopment. These objectives strive to:

(a) Create institutional conditions to promote bioregional planning

Bioregional planning and management have clear ecological, economic and socialadvantages. To achieve the above objective, the IUCN proposed the followingactions:(i) Develop new methods and mechanisms at bioregional level for participation in

the planning process and for the resolution of conflicts.(ii) Give all communities the means to ‘have a say’ in the management and

distribution of the region’s resources.(iii) Establish inter-sectoral and inter-agency task forces to facilitate bioregional

planning.

(b) Incorporate biodiversity into the management of all biological resources

The mix of species in an ecosystem enables that system both to provide a flow of ecosystem services under given environmental conditions, and to maintain that flowif environmental conditions change. The loss of biodiversity therefore limits theresilience of the affected ecosystem, which in turn, may have direct negativeeconomic implications.

(c) Support bioregional conservation initiatives in the private sector

A bioregional planning approach requires that conservation on private land becomes an integral part of the strategy. This, in turn, requires that forward planning must be done on a holistic bioregional scale.

Environmental health is the key to sustainable development. The primary threat toenvironmental health is fragmentation of community-supporting ecosystems.



Fragmentation generally leads to a cycle of environmental degradation, whichsubsequently influences the wellbeing of the dependent communities. It is, therefore, of paramount importance that issues, such as biodiversity conservation, economicgrowth, human resources development, and social development, should beaddressed when delimiting and managing bioregions.

Of importance for the successful application of bioregional planning principles and the implementation of biosphere reserves, is the recognition that the promotion ofsustainable development ideals is process driven. Successful implementation of these principles and programmes is dependent upon the effective involvement of localcommunities in such endeavours, obtaining institutional co-operation and building the required capacity.

5.2.1 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF A BIOREGION

Drawing from the elements and experience of Bioregionalism, Man and the Biosphere Programme, International Conservation and Development Projects, Protected AreaManagement and Ecosystem Management, Miller (1996) defined the followingcharacteristics of bioregions and bioregional management:

a) Adaptive management: Bioregional programmes are operated on an experimental basis, from which lessons may be drawn from experience to respond appropriately.

b) Biotic viability: Bioregional management programmes embrace regions largeenough to include the habitats and ecosystem functions and processes needed to make biotic communities and populations ecologically viable in the long-term.These regions must be able to accommodate migratory patterns, anticipate nature’s time cycles and absorb the impacts of global change.

c) Co-operative skills development: Communities and public and privateorganisations, together, must locate and mobilise the skills, knowledge, andinformation needed to manage the area.

d) Economic sustainability: The maintenance of livelihoods and the economicwellbeing of people living and working within the bioregion, including those inindustry, and especially in the matrix, must be encouraged.

e) Full involvement of stakeholders: All parties who can affect or benefit from the resources in the region should be fully involved in planning and managing thebioregional programme. Key here, is building the local capacity to participate,negotiate, and perform the various tasks involved.

f) Institutional integration: Alliances between institutions are to be forged to close gaps, minimise overlap and make management and investment in the region more efficient.

g) International co-operation: Because some ecosystems cross internationalboundaries and, in some cases, extend globally along animal migration routes oralong venues where endangered species are traded, international co-operationagreements for debate, mechanisms for joint research, information management



and investments must be part of the biodiversity management programme. The MaB Programme is particularly suited to this purpose.

h) Leadership and management: The leadership to establish bioregionalprogrammes may come from public agencies, or from the community of residentsand resource users. The tasks of convening stakeholders, preparing andnegotiating vision statements, planning and implementing agreed-upon activitiescan be shared co-operatively between public and private entities, or be fullycommunity based.

i) Reliable and comprehensive information: All stakeholders must have at their disposal the critical information needed to facilitate biodiversity management. GIS technology is to be used to help stakeholders envision their region and its distinctive features clearly. GIS will help them to model options and scenarios for the future.

j) Research and monitoring: Research and inquiries should focus on people-environment interactions, the development of innovative methods for managingnatural resources, and the long-term monitoring of environmental factors and the impact of management practices.

k) Restoration: Where the viability of some habitats or ecological functions have been impaired upon through excessive or inappropriate use, these areas are to berehabilitated.

l) Social acceptance: Any proposals for changes in the way of life and livelihoods of the residents and local peoples, including indigenous communities, need to beacceptable to them. All stakeholders warrant the opportunity to participate inprogramme management and implementation.

m) Structure of interrelated cores, corridors and matrices: These programmes include core nature areas that feature representative samples of the region’scharacteristic biodiversity. Ideally such sites, which may already be designated as protected areas, should be linked by corridors of natural or restored natural plant cover to permit migration and adaptation to global change. Both the core sites and corridors should be nested within a matrix of mixed land uses and ownershippatterns.

n) Use of knowledge: Scientific, local and traditional knowledge should be employed in planning and management activities. Biology, anthropology, economics,engineering and other related fields are to be tapped. Such knowledge helpsstakeholders and programme managers to anticipate nature’s long and short cycles and to track global change.

5.2.2 GUIDING TENANTS OF BIOREGIONALISM

Successful implementation of bioregional principles requires developing guidelines for land-use planning in terms of which a diverse landscape can be achieved, wherehuman needs can be addressed and where water, soil and biodiversity can beconserved.



Bioregions also imply the following:a) They offer the most opportune spatial scale for human governance and socio-

economic development.b) Governance within a bioregion should be democratic and subject to local control,

should nurture a high quality of life, and should be judged on its ability to achieve social justice.

c) Economic development within a bioregion should be locally regulated, based on the use of appropriate technology, focussed on self-reliance (with limited, value-addedexport manufacturing), and expand only to the extent that component ecosystemscan sustainably support exploitation.

d) The political and economic interdependence of bioregions should be institutionalised at all levels through federation.

5.2.3 SCALE OF A BIOREGION

To be practical, communities, residents, resource managers and government agencies should be able to define the bioregion in accordance with the ‘place’ that most residents and resource dependent people consider as their ‘home’ (Miller, 1996).

There is no one single right scale for a bioregion. Setting up the scale of the bioregion is essential to reaching shared individual and institutional goals. However, a programme of dialogue, scientific trial and error and adaptation over time, is the best way to determine a bioregion’s boundaries (‘Thus, the right scale is determined by dialogue and informed by science, technology information and social considerations’).

5.2.4 DEVELOPING AN ACTION PLAN FOR BIOREGIONAL PLANNING ANDMANAGEMENT

Against the background of the considerations described above, the development of an action plan for the implementation of bioregional planning can be considered. As an introduction to such an action plan, reference is made to the proposals of WRI, UNEP and IUCN in their publication National Biodiversity Planning (1995) in which theprinciples and suggestions pertaining to the preparation of plans are provided.

It is proposed that the development of all bioregional planning frameworks in the Western Cape be based on the guidelines provided by UNESCO with regard to the zoning of land and mechanisms to balance conservation with developmentinterests.

It is also proposed that all land-use classification be undertaken in accordance with the Spatial Planning Categories (SPCs) described in Chapter 8 below. These SPCs are consistent with the principles of bioregional planning and UNESCO’s Biosphere Reserve Programme.

One of the greatest singular problems that has been experienced world-wide in the delimitation of bioregions, is the historic mismatches between administrative, bio-physical and topographical boundaries, which form the essence of the places thatpeople call ‘home’. The symbiotic relationship between socio-economic development, administrative and fiscal factors in general, and the environmental characteristics of the region are, therefore, of particular importance to bioregional planning and management.



As stated above, regional planning in which environmental characteristics are aprincipal determinant of boundaries is considered to be of major importance if biological diversity conservation is to succeed. This is a general practice in, for example, Australia,where the Murray-Darling Basin Commission base all their regional planning onenvironmental requirements, using catchment boundaries as well as existing local,State, and Commonwealth structures. Several other Australian State and Territorygovernments are also planning and managing on a bioregional basis as part of their land management responsibilities. These programmes are generally based onecological parameters, vegetation types, catchment areas and climatic factors,combined with the interests of the people living and working in the area.

One of the major determinants of the success of bioregional planning will be the extent to which all spheres of government co-operate and co-ordinate their activities. For this co-operation to occur, a concerted province-wide, and even nation-wide, effort isnecessary to establish better lines of communication and co-ordination mechanismsthat can be activated as soon as appropriate bioregional boundaries have beendetermined and accepted.

5.2.5 PROPOSED ACTIONS

(a) Determining planning units

The initial phase of the planning process will be to determine principles for establishing bioregional planning units that emphasise regional environmental characteristics, arebased on environmental parameters, and take account of productive uses and theidentity and needs of human communities. Such principles will include the following:(i) Identifying the biological diversity elements of national, regional and local

significance, the extent to which they need to be protected, and the extent to which they already occur in protected areas.

(ii) Identifying the major activities taking place within the region and in adjoiningregions and analysing how these may adversely affect the region’s biologicaldiversity.

(iii) Identifying any areas that are important for biological diversity conservation and require repair or rehabilitation.

(iv) Identifying priority areas for biological diversity conservation and for ecologicallysustainable use, and their relationship to essential community requirements, such as infrastructure and urban and industrial developments.

(v) Providing mechanisms for genuine, continuing community participation and proper assessment and monitoring processes.

(vi) Co-ordinating mechanisms to ensure ecologically sustainable use of biologicalresources, with particular reference to agricultural lands, catchments and fisheries.

(vii) Incorporating flexibility, to allow for changes in land uses of particular locations,and to accommodate improvements in knowledge and management techniquesand changes in institutional arrangements.

Bioregional planning should be undertaken within the context of four distinct levels,namely the international level, national level, regional level and the local level.Effective integrated planning at these levels requires innovative forms of institutionalintegration and social co-operation. Dialogue amongst all I&APs, participatoryplanning and institutional flexibility are, therefore, essential to plan and manage



effectively. The planning process should, furthermore, be undertaken in accordancewith the following guidelines:(i) Treat each region as an integrated system, taking into account the interactions

among land, air, water, organisms and human activities.(ii) Recognise that each system influences and is influenced by larger and smaller

systems - whether ecological, economic, social or political.(iii) Consider people as the central element in the system and evaluate the social,

economic, technical and political factors, which will influence the way they usenatural resources.

(iv) Relate economic policy to environmental carrying capacity.(v) Increase the benefits obtained from each stock of resources.(vi) Promote technologies, which will help people use resources more effectively.(vii) Ensure that users of resources pay the full social price of the benefits they

enjoy.(viii) Ensure that the planning of the region always be considered in context of the

whole.

(b) Preparing bioregional plans

The next phase of the proposed action plan will be to prepare appropriate bioregional plans. This process will involve the following:(i) Identifying appropriate inter-governmental and intra-governmental mechanisms to

ensure co-operation and co-ordination.(ii) Promoting the inclusion of biodiversity and principles in local government planning

schemes and strategic plans.(iii) Promoting sympathetic co-ordinated management of biodiversity for land and sea

areas adjoining protected areas.(iv) Improving protection of, and management for, biological diversity in closely settled

environments and the coastal zone, with particular attention paid to corridors and remnant areas.

(v) Increasing the number and involvement of those in the community who havespecial knowledge of biological diversity and skills in regional management,making use of existing community networks.

(vi) Providing suitably trained facilitators to help community participation, facilitate co-operation, and encourage resource managers to pursue ecological sustainability.

5.2.6 APPLICATION OF BIOREGIONAL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENTGUIDELINES

The Department of Planning, Local Government and Housing of the PGWC has,especially during the past two years, introduced bioregional planning principles inprovincial planning projects. The department has recently directed that bioregionalplanning principles have to be recognised by local authorities undertaking planning projects.

This opened an avenue to all Category B and C Municipalities to effectively assist in applying bioregional planning principles, namely the implementation thereof through the IDPs, which are currently being prepared. The bioregional planning principles are, in all respects, consistent with the founding principles of the WCPDA, 1999 (Act 7 of 1999), as is contemplated in Schedule I-IV of the Act. The Act provides the required statutory framework for implementing the principles effectively.



To successfully implement bioregional planning principles, the following challengesneed to be addressed (Miller, 1996):a) Create the capacity to manage complex and integrated programmes.b) Meaningfully involve stakeholders.c) Build up and link established institutions, or if needed, create new ones.

Miller (1996) provided guidelines for addressing the above challenges. Theseguidelines are summarised in the table below.

Table 2: Guidelines for bioregional planning and management.

BIOREGIONAL PLANNING GUIDELINESGUIDELINE NO. 1: BUILDING CAPACITYa) Develop leadership for the bioregional programme.

Ideally a well-respected local individual or organisation who has leadership capabilities and who knows the community and its resources, should take responsibility for this task.

b) View management as a social and governance issue.

The manner in which authority and responsibility is distributed amongst spheres ofgovernment and between public and private interests, is a central issue in promoting co-operation and mobilising skills and capacities.

c) Use authority to foster co-operation.

It is idealistic to expect constituents to work together as a ‘tight band of well-meaningstakeholders’. Experience has shown that a measure of authority to provide the ‘backbone’ to efforts is both needed and appreciated. An authority must ensure that minimum goals,standards and criteria are met.

d) Redistribute power over land and resources to develop authority and responsibility in the bioregion.

The challenge here is to:(i) Establish incentives for local residents to take on responsibility for biodiversity protection

and management.(ii) Foster a fair sharing of benefits from the use of resources.(iii) Place the authority to protect, control and use, closer to the ground (community level).

e) Identify and assess the capacities of organisations and individuals in the bioregion and fill the gaps.

This action requires a detailed and systematic evaluation of skills and capacities in thebioregion and the filling of gaps can often be achieved by establishing a new structure through which existing skills can be co-ordinated and where shortcomings can besupplemented by employing new skills.



f) Use and build upon existing capacity wherever possible.

The establishment of large regional structures should be avoided and priority should be given to reinforce local technical capacity through networking on a larger scale.

g) Build the capacity to handle challenge.

Bioregional planning takes place in context of dynamic change and flux and it is, therefore, important to promote and foster capacity to anticipate and manage challenge.

GUIDELINE NO. 2: CHALLENGE TO FOSTER STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATIONa) Leaders, planners and policy makers should get to know the stakeholders, their

concerns, interests and perspectives.

If too little is done to get to know and understand the region’s people, bioregional planning and management will fail.

b) Initially, focus on a few issues of interest to the widest possible set ofstakeholders.

Experience suggests that it is of decisive importance to begin simply by limiting theprogramme to one, or a few issues of common concern. Programmes should rather grow gradually to embrace more comprehensive issues.

c) Link conservation and restoration activities with socio-economic development goals in the bioregion.

The challenge is to integrate development with conservation goals and measures.

d) Provide access to decision-making.

Give local residents and communities access to decision-making processes and the skillsneeded to participate fully in the development and implementation of democratically managed bioregional programmes.

e) To keep stakeholder participation fair, give all participants information of equal value.

Constituents need to be well and equally informed and a scientifically sound information base must be established at an early stage.

f) Give stakeholders incentives to get involved in and committed to bioregional programmes.

Whilst it is recognised that in some areas interest in conservation is great and thatvolunteerism may be assured, few stakeholders can do more than attend a number of public meetings or respond to questionnaires. To alter farming practices and other resourcepractices in the interest of conservation, will require compensation for time, expenses and alternative uses.

g) To foster involvement and commitment, ensure that individuals and groupstakeholders receive a fair share of the benefits.

Where conservation-linked programmes are linked to reward, ensure that it is both fair and forthcoming.



h) In areas of multiple jurisdictions, develop co-ordination mechanisms that do not challenge existing sovereignty.

The biosphere reserve approach, for example, leaves intact the authority of public agencies and private property rights.

i) Honour all commitments that result from negotiations.

It is especially important that government ensures that commitments are honoured and that such commitments do not fall prey to changing budgets, personnel departures, which leave unfilled vacancies, etc.

j) Promptly implement projects that respond to community needs.

Where the implementation of a bioregional management programme gives rise to specific projects, it is of decisive importance that such projects be implemented speedily.

GUIDELINE NO. 3: CHALLENGE TO ESTABLISH CO-OPERATIVE ARRANGEMENTS AMONG INSTITUTIONS a) Establish co-operative management options with and among stakeholders.

A cardinal rule of ecosystem management is that people with interest in a bioregion are not simply to be placated with ‘marginal give-away’, or menial jobs, but are understood to be partners.

b) Adjust the design and delivery of technology to allow for the space and time necessary for communities and institutions to adapt.

Innovation and technology have to be introduced carefully and adjusted to local and social institutional circumstances.

c) Do not hesitate to rely on short-term financial support from external sources for bioregional programmes initially, as long as it is replaced in a timely manner by a sustainable flow of resources.

Consideration should be given to the setting up of an ‘environmental fund’ for the bioregion in which grants and contributions from international, national, provincial, local and privateresources can be held in trust and capitalised.



6 PLACE-SPECIFIC APPROACH TO PLANNING, DESIGN ANDMANAGEMENT OF THE NATURAL AND HUMAN-MADEENVIRONMENT

6.1 INTRODUCTION

A place-specific approach to planning, design and management recognises that anyplace has a distinct character and that it is this character of a place that humans have to come to terms with in their daily lives.

The environment influences human beings. The quality and nature of places havepsychic implications and places cannot only be considered in functional or biophysical terms. Humans cannot gain a foothold through scientific understanding alone.

One of the basic needs humans have is to experience life as meaningful. The character, nature and atmosphere of places transmit meanings.

What is therefore required, is an understanding of the things that give meaning and identity to our way of existing. This can also be described as a qualitativephenomenological understanding of the environment. Such an understanding needs to be cultivated because, in the long-term, it would not help to try and solve practicalproblems without this understanding. The nature and quality of places need to beinterpreted to be understood. Planning frameworks, therefore, have to recognise the need to develop this understanding.

As was stated in the foreword, this policy document has been prepared with therecognition that an understanding of the problems facing the Western Cape need to be addressed in place-specific, as well as in general terms. The challenge is to create places where humans can live with dignity and pride and to manage these places in a manner, which would ensure long-term environmental sustainability.

Places manifest themselves at various environmental levels. As is illustrated in Chapter 9 of this document, distinction can be made between 29 bioregions in the Western Cape. These distinct bioregions all have unique environmental characteristics, whichimply a different character and meaning. For example, the West Coast Bioregion is a different kind of place than the Outeniqua Bioregion. On a local scale, the CapePeninsula mountain chain is very much different to False Bay’s sandy beaches. A small settlement, such as Puntjie at the Duiwenhoks estuary, is a completely different kind of place than Still Bay.

In the long term, it will be the pride and care people have for their places, which will form the basis for sustainable development and management of the places of theWestern Cape.

Whilst there may be general consensus that historical patterns of resource consumption are unsustainable and that current settlement patterns and practices are destroying the environment, there is, as yet, little consensus of what has to be done on a practical level to address the situation.



In this regard, questions need to be asked and solutions found for critical problems, such as the loss of the endearing qualities of towns and the countryside, urban sprawl, development impacts, and widespread degradation of the natural environment.

It is clear that comprehensive place-specific solutions will have to be found within which chronic and interrelated problems such as crime, health care, education, pollution, etc. can be confronted.

It is generally accepted that development planning should be practical. It is, however, equally important to recognise the need to consider future development in terms ofspecific, agreed upon values, norms and principles and a justifiable theoreticalframework.

If place-specific planning is to become the central focus of collective decision-making in the future, it is of paramount importance to achieve a better understanding of our places and to establish a common framework to facilitate future planning and management of these places. In short, the people of an area need to consider their places in practical, qualitative terms and agree on a realistic policy framework.

A key requirement for addressing the above challenges is to develop an understanding for the manner in which places constitute centers of human meaning and how meaning is manifested and expressed in the day-to-day experiences and consciousness ofpeople. The meaning of ‘place’ is said to be grounded in existential, or livedconsciousness, implying that the limits of ‘place’ are determined by the limits of human consciousness (Tilley, 1994)6.

A development framework (which fundamentally relates to ‘places’), therefore, cannotbe prepared without giving thought to, the phenomena of ‘place’ (including site-specificcharacteristics) and without due consideration of public opinion.

6.1.1 NATURE OF PLACE-SPECIFIC PLANNING

Miller (1996)7 states that ‘the rubric of bioregional management’ draws upon worldwide achievements with protected areas and is enriched by a number of differentapproaches, including bioregionalism, biosphere reserves, etc., each of which buildsupon a strong ethic of ‘place’ and stewardship.

There is a widespread propensity to emphasise the role of functional, physical andbiological factors in the formulation of policy and strategies, which are aimed atbiodiversity conservation and planning, whilst the existential meaning that peopleattach to their places and the values that underpin such meanings, are being neglected.

As stated in Chapter 7 below, the Global Diversity Strategy requires that a bioregion be defined by its people. ‘A bioregion must be a unique cultural identity and be a place in which local residents have a primary right to determine their own development. This primary right does, however, not imply an absolute right. Rather, it means that the

6 Tilley, Cristopher 1994. A phenomenology of landscape. Places, Paths and Monuments. Berg Publishers, Oxford.

7 Miller, Kenton. 1996. Balancing the Scales: Guidelines for Increasing Biodiversity’s ChancesThrough Bioregional Management. World Resources Institute. Washington.



livelihoods, claims and interests of local communities should be both the starting point and the criteria for regional development and conservation’.

Therefore, if one of the determinants of successful planning is accepted to be the value and meaning people attach to their places - what Lynch (1960)8 would call a ‘jointbetween mind and setting’ - then it is necessary to consider and address the above much neglected existential meanings in bioregional planning.

As stated above, planning for the future was, up to now, almost entirely based onfunctional, abstract and ‘scientific’ theory, with very little attempt being made toinvestigate and integrate the existential dimensions9 of people’s lives with theplanning process.

Planning documents show little evidence of a qualitative understanding of places and the need to consider the values and norms that guide decisions and the dimensions of people’s lives that provide meaning and identity for the individual communities andsociety at large.

In recent history, places were physically structured through the application of general standards and regulations pertaining to, amongst others, street widths, buildingguidelines in respect of lines and heights, erf dimensions, and minimum densities.

These standards and regulations serve an important purpose in regulatingdevelopment. However, due to the fact that the regulations do not take cognisance of site-specific requirements and the existential dimensions of people’s lives, they directly promoted the development of ‘nowhere’ places. Such ‘nowhere places’ are generallycharacterised by, inter alia, a lack of structure and character, uncontrolled urban sprawl and extensive road and electricity networks that have negative ecological andaesthetical impacts. There are many such ‘nowhere places’ in the Western Cape.

The application of a site-specific planning and design approach includes, amongstothers, finding answers in respect of the following:a) Future unfolding of the settlements.b) Collective decision-making in respect of future development.c) Environmental sustainability (including both the natural and the cultural

environment).

IDPs and other planning frameworks should be an expression of the wishes of thepeople of an area in respect of what kind of places they want to live in and what kind of future they are aspiring for. In order to realise the latter aim of the IDP it is imperative to ensure compliance with the following primary requirements:a) Promoting an understanding for the places of the Western Cape in qualitative

terms.b) Developing an appreciation for the things that provide the Western Cape and its

component places with their unique qualities and give meaning to people’sexistence.

c) Encouraging the people of the region to think about the nature and quality of their places in a fresh manner and to express their existential meanings, wishes and

8 Lynch, Kevin 1960 The Image of the City. MIT Press Oxford Massachusetts.9 The ‘existential dimension’ refers to the philosophical explanation of the part of the world that gives

meaning and identity to our way of ‘existing’.



aspirations through formal planning structures and mechanisms provided for in the WCPDA, 1999 (Act 7 of 1999).

6.1.2 PHENOMENOLOGY: THE ‘MIDDLE GROUND’ OF EDUCATION

In order to realise place-specific planning in the Western Cape, it is suggested that a phenomenological approach be adopted in the quest to develop a comprehensive and realistic common understanding/appreciation of the meaning places have for peopleand to re-evaluate the ‘rules-based’ criteria on which modern planning legislation and control are based.

Phenomenology refers to what is experienced inside consciousness. It deals withhuman awareness, specifically, the awareness of human experience. Aphenomenological approach is, therefore, about ‘how we experience ourselves and how we experience things outside ourselves, that is, all that is not self’ (Wagner, 1983)10.

Fundamental to a phenomenological approach, is a way of knowing and being in the world through the senses. It is based on the sensory experience of one’s every-day life world, rather than an abstract or conceptual understanding of the environment. Aphenomenological understanding of the environment is rooted in place and its material being and meaning. In addition, such understanding is based on the concepts ofdwelling, building, thing and the phenomenology of both the both natural and man-made place.

To dwell implies a meaningful relationship between humans and a given environment. This relationship consists of the act of identification, or a sense of belonging to a certain place (Norberg-Schulz, 1993)11.

People’s ‘being in the world’ is determined when they settle. Settlement is the first mode of dwelling – ‘when settlement is accomplished, other modes of dwelling, which concernbasic forms of togetherness, come into play namely urban space, institution and house’(Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

Settlement, urban space, institution and house constitute the total environment where natural, collective, public and private dwelling takes place. Through identification with these places and the things around them humans gain their own identity (Heidegger, 1975)12. Identity consists of an interiorisation of understood things. ‘Growing up’,therefore, depends on being open to what surrounds us. The world has to be interpreted to be understood (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

However, belonging to a place does not only mean the identification with the qualities embodied by things, but also ‘orientation within the space they constitute’.

Human life is always related to centers where actions of primary importance take place. Centers are found at all environmental levels - the settlement is the center of alandscape, the town square is the center of the settlement, the institution the center of

10 Wagner, H.R. 1983. Phenomenology of Consciousness and the Sociology of the Life-world: An Introductory Study. The University of Alberta Press, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

11 Norberg-Schulz, Christian 1993 ‘The Concept of Dwelling’. Rizzoli International Publications, Inc.12 Heidegger, Martin 1975. Poetry, Languages, Thought. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc.



explanation of the built fabric of the settlement and the house is the center of personal life. The center, in general, represents the known in contrast to the unknown.

As a rule human action may be understood in terms of paths and goals which, together, constitute a field or domain of more-or-less well known places (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

Man acts on the basis of an ‘environmental image’, which is related to the spatialorganisation of the environment. A good environmental image gives its possessor an important sense of emotional security. The phenomenology of orientation would aim at finding the meaning of center, path and domain (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

6.2 PLACE: WHAT IS IT?

It is generally understood that the environment influences human beings and visa versa.Planning for the future, therefore, requires humans to look beyond pure functionalism as the meaning people attach to their environment.

Norberg-Schulz (1984)13 explains that our world consists of concrete phenomena such as people, animals, trees, stone, towns, water, homes, moon, stars, clouds, night, day, etc. The concrete ‘things’, which constitute the world for humans are interrelated and complex and some phenomena may comprise others. In general, it can be said thatsome phenomena form an ‘environment’ to others. The concrete term for ‘environment’ is place.

Norberg-Schulz (1984), subsequently, defines ‘place’ as ‘a totality of concrete things, which have material substance, shape, texture and colour’. These substances determine the ‘environmental character’, which is the essence of ‘place’.

However, whilst natural and material elements are usually the primary components of‘place’ and the latter is usually described in physical or geographical terms, ‘place’ means more than a geographical location and comprises more than material substance. ‘Place’ also comprises intangible phenomena such as feelings, which provide the‘content’ of human existence.

For site-specific planning to effectively accommodate the existential meaning thatpeople attach to their places, a thorough understanding of the concept of ‘place’ isrequired. To achieve this understanding, the phenomenology that gives rise to specific social qualities and concepts such as meaning (content) and structure (form) need to be studied.

One of the most fundamental needs of humans is to experience their existence asmeaningful. In this context ‘meaning’ can be considered to be a psychic function and implies a sense of belonging. Structure, on the other hand, denotes the formalproperties of a system of relationships.

When humans lose their identification with natural and human-made things, whichconstitute their environment, and the latter has no meaning for them, they become alienated. When this happens things become mere objects and nature in general is

13 Norberg-Schulz, Christian 1984 ‘Genius Loci, Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture’.Rizzoli International Publications, Inc.



treated as a resource only. Only if humans regain their ability of identification will they be able to stop the present destruction of the environment (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

A general analysis of the structure of human-made place, therefore, has to beinvestigated with reference to different environmental levels and how a place is related to its environment in order to explain and understand place in concrete terms.

The distinctive quality of any human-made place as it relates to its environmentalsetting, is enclosure and its character. The spatial properties of the human-madeplace are determined by how it is enclosed. ‘Enclosure primarily means a distinct area, which is separated from its surroundings by means of a built boundary’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

The ‘how’ of enclosure depends on the concrete properties of enclosure, while theboundaries determine the degree of enclosure (or openness) as well as the spatialdirection. So, environmental character is determined by how the ‘things’ that make up the environment are ‘gathered’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1984).

Norberg-Schulz (1993) differentiates between natural place and man-made place in accordance with an analytical methodology. The figure on the following pagesummarises the various characteristics of both the natural and the man-made place.

6.2.1 NATURAL PLACE

The natural place is broadly defined as the natural environment that has not beensubstantially modified by man and where natural ecosystem processes are maintained. The definition of a wilderness area provided in the Forest Act, 1984 (Act 122 of 1984), provides an apt description, or a model, for ‘natural place’, namely, ‘a predominantly natural and unmodified area upon which the impact of modern humans has been minimal, retaining its primeval character and influence, without permanentimprovements or human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions’.

(a) Phenomena of natural place

To be able to dwell between heaven and earth, man has to understand these two elements as well as their meanings. Such understanding does not necessarily refer to scientific knowledge, but to an existential concept, which denotes the experience ofmeanings. It is when the environment is meaningful to humans that they feel at home. Any understanding of the natural environment grows out of a primeval experience ofnature as a multitude of living forces. The growth of human’s mental faculties proceeds from grasping the diffuse qualities of the forces of nature (Norberg-Schulz, 1984).

Norberg-Schulz (1984) distinguishes between five basic modes of mythicalunderstanding of the natural environment, which have different values in differentcultures, namely, things, order, character, light and time.

‘Thing’ and ‘order’ are spatial while ‘character’ and ‘light’ refer to the generalatmosphere of a place. ‘Thing’ and ‘character’ are the dimensions of the earth whereas ‘order’ and ‘light’ are dimensions of the sky. ‘Time’ is the dimension of constancy and



change and makes space and character parts of a living reality, which at any moment is given as a particular place, or a genius loci (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

Figure 3: The Genius Loci of Place.

(b) Structure of natural place

The term natural place denotes a series of environmental levels, from continents and countries, to valleys, hills, mountains and even the shade under an individual tree. ‘All

PLACE

NATURAL PLACE MAN-MADE PLACE

PHENOMENAOF NATURAL PLACE

?? Things?? Order?? Character?? Light?? Time

PHENOMENAOF MAN-MADE PLACE

?? Things?? Order?? Character?? Light?? Time

STRUCTUREOF NATURAL PLACE

STRUCTUREOF MAN-MADE PLACE

SPIRITOF NATURAL PLACE?? Romantic?? Cosmic?? Classical?? Complex

SPIRITOF MAN-MADE PLACE

?? Romantic?? Cosmic?? Classical

?? Complex

IMAGE

GENIUS LOCI

SPACE

CHARACTER



these ‘places’ are determined by the concrete properties of the earth and sky’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

The most distinctive quality of any landscape is extension. The particular character and spatial properties of a landscape are determined by how the landscape extends. For example, extension may be continuous, or ‘sub-places’ (such as a valley) in an all-embracing landscape may be formed. The ‘how’ of extension primarily depends on the nature of the landscape (e.g. the topographical conditions) (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

(c) Spirit of natural place

There are several basic types of natural forces, which are related to the earth, or the sky, and which express an interaction of the two basic elements (earth and sky) indifferent ways. There are, for example, places where the sky dominates, or where theearth contributes the primary presence in the landscape, or where the two forces are in balance. Where the sky dominates, a distinction may be drawn between places where the ‘cosmic order’ is of primary importance and where the changing atmosphericconditions contribute decisively to environmental character. Where the earth isdominant, a classification must be based on the presence of archetypical ‘things’ as well as variations in scale (micro-macro) (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

(d) Natural landscapes

Norberg-Schulz (1993) distinguishes between four types of natural landscapes, namelyromantic, cosmic, classical and complex.(i) Romantic landscapes are those places where the original forces of nature are

still the most strongly felt. (ii) Cosmic landscapes are places where the complexities of the human life-world

are reduced to a few simple phenomena. Such landscapes are, for example, found in the Knersvlakte north of the Olifants River.

(iii) Classical landscapes are those places where an intelligible composition ofdistinct elements is found (e.g. hills and mountains or natural spaces). Suchplaces appear as individual worlds. In the classical landscape forms have a‘sculptural presence’ and ‘dimensions are human and constitute a total andharmonised equilibrium’. In the classical landscape the environment consists of things that stand out in light. In general a classical landscape may be described as a meaningful order of distinct individual places. The genius loci of the classical landscape is, first of all, manifest where clearly defined natural places areemphasized by the loving care of man’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

(iv) Romantic, cosmic and classical landscapes are archetypes of natural place and are relevant categories, which help us to understand the concrete properties ofany concrete situation. However, as distinct types they hardly appear in ‘pure’ form but ‘participate’ in various types of synthesis i.e. complex landscapes (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

Landscapes function as extended ground to man-made places - they ‘contain’ man-made places. Man-made places, therefore, need to be considered and understood in context of the natural place that ‘contains’ it (Norberg-Schulz, 1993). The insides of the natural environment of the coastal plains within which settlements are ‘contained’ are drastically different from the natural places of the mountain valleys (refer to Chapter 9).



6.2.2 MAN-MADE PLACE

The man-made (cultural) place, is defined as ‘a spatial system of activity that isperceived by humans as a unit and results from man’s interaction with what is to be found in his natural environment. Cultural landscapes may be regarded as stages in complex processes. They are initiated by factors and influences, which may be socio-economic, cultural, or related to natural space, but which are merely intermediate stages within a framework of continued development’ (Schmithusen, 1964)14.

Norberg-Schulz (1984) states that ‘to dwell between heaven and earth means to settle in the multi-farious in-between’, that is, to concretise the general situation as a man-made place. The word ‘settle’ does not only refer to economical relationship but also to an existential concept, which denotes the ability to symbolise meaning.

Human-made places complement and symbolise human understanding of theirenvironment. However, human-made environs also gather a number of meanings. ‘Anytrue settlement is founded on gathering and the basic forms are the farm, agricultural village, urban dwellings, the town, and the city’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993). All these places are essentially man-made but fall into two categories namely:?? The farm and agricultural village are related to the land and, as such, form part of

a particular environment, which has an influence on their structure.?? In urban dwelling, the direct relationship to the natural environment is weakened, or

sometimes almost lost, as ‘gathering becomes bringing together of forms, which have their roots in other localities’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

(a) Phenomena of man-made place

As for natural place, five modes of building can be identified and described for the man-made environment, namely things, order, character, light and time.

(i) Things

Norberg-Schulz (1993) states that ‘man builds his world’. The first mode of building implies concretising the natural forces, which since ancient times, were undertaken in two distinct manners and expressed by means of line and ornament (e.g. Bushmanpaintings).

Through a process of abstraction the elementary forces are transformed into a system of verticals and horizontals, which, for example, culminated in structures such as those of ancient Egypt. The pyramids of Egypt were constructed to represent mountains and through their location between oasis and desert (life and death) they visualise thespatial structure of the country (a longitudinal fertile valley between infinite expanses of barren land).

(ii) Order

Egyptians, for example, ‘built the sky’ by decorating ceiling of tombs, temples andhouses with stars on a blue background. In Roman times, cosmic order was visualised by two main streets crossing each other at right angles north/south-east/west, dividing

14 Schmithusen, J, 1964. Was ist eine Landschaft. In: Erdkundliches Wissen H.9.



urban areas into four quarters (to this day, we talk about city quarters) (Norberg-Schulz,1993).

(iii) Character

Whereas cosmic orders imply visualisation by means of spatial organisation, character is symbolised through formal articulation and its concretisation presupposes a language of symbolic forms, or style. The first decisive step in developing a coherent formallanguage was taken by the Greeks through relating building elements to humancharacters. The Greek classical orders (e.g. structure of ionic columns) formed the basis for ‘an exceptionally sensitive treatment of symbolic characterisation’ up to the late eighteenth century (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

(iv) Light

In medieval European architecture, architectural form served the purpose of symbolising the ordered Christian cosmic. Norberg-Schulz (1993) states that ‘as the Christian world is founded on the spirit as an existential reality, medieval articulation is aimed at dematerialization’. ‘Dematerialization was understood as a function of light as a divine manifestation’. It can be said that medieval man ‘built’ light, the most intangible ofnatural phenomena. Since medieval times light has been a primary means ofarchitectural characterisation.

(v) Time

In addition to the phenomena of order, character and light, the categories of natural understanding also comprise time. Humans have succeeded in ‘building time’ by‘translating basic temporal structures into spatial properties’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).Life’s movement possesses direction and rhythm. The path is therefore a fundamental existential symbol, which concretises the dimension of time. As the path mostly leads to a center (e.g. center of a town) the latter can also be considered as a symbol, which concretises time. Paths and centers have been concretised in buildings since ancient times. In the Christian basilica, for example, the path (nave) lead to the goal (alter) to symbolise the path of salvation of Christian doctrine. In the urban environment streetand square also belong to the categories path and center (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

(b) Structure of man-made place

The structure of the man-made place constitutes the following three elements:

(i) Boundaries (Edges)

The term ‘man-made place’ denotes a series of environmental levels, from villages and towns, to houses and interiors. However, all places begin their precensing (being) from their boundaries. An investigation of the structure of man-made place, therefore, has to consider the relationship of the place to its inside and outside, its silhouette onapproach, etc. (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).



(ii) Enclosure

‘The distinctive quality of any man-made place is enclosure and its character and spatial properties are determined by how it is enclosed’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

(iii) Character

The character of a human-made place is largely determined by its degree of openness (i.e. density). The nature of its inside/outside relationship and its solidity/transparency establishes an external relationship to the environment within which it is contained.

Internally, settlements contain sub-places such as squares and streets. ‘Sub-placescontain, and are defined by buildings that serve different purposes. Within buildings we find the interior spaces - the interiors contain artifacts, which define the innermost goal (alter of the church, etc.)’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

The structural properties of the various levels and their formal interrelations concretize the ‘form of life’ as a whole in an individual, as well as a social sense. ‘Structurally,orientation and identification mean the experience of man-made place within man-madeplace. The different ‘insides’ are ‘known’ in accordance with their structural properties. The man-made genius loci depends on the unique qualities of such places are in terms of space and character’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

(c) Spirit of man-made place

Any concrete situation is distinguished by a combination of the factors described above and this combination constitutes the genius loci of man-made place. There are, forexample, man-made places where the mystery and variety of the natural forces ofnature and the forces of cosmic order are strongly evident (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

(d) Man-made landscapes

Norberg-Schulz (1993), therefore, suggests that the categories of romantic, cosmic,classical and complex be used to describe different types of man-made places and to assist us in understanding any concrete situation as a synthesis of these basiccategories.

(i) Romantic places

Romantic places are settlements distinguished by multiplicity and variety, which cannot be understood in logical terms and which seem irrational and subjective. Such places are characterised by a strong ‘atmosphere’ and may appear intimate and idyllic.Romantic places are topological rather than geometrical. ‘On the urban level, thismeans that the basic configurations are the dense and indeterminate cluster and free and varied row’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

Norberg-Schulz (1993) views the medieval town as the romantic settlement par-excellence.



(ii) Cosmic places

Cosmic settlements are distinguished by uniformity and absolute order and can beunderstood as an integrated logical system and often a lack of atmosphere and variety.Cosmic settlements are usually strictly geometrical and often concretized as a regular grid (however, in Islamic architecture, cosmic approach to urban development findsexpression in a combination of geometrical and labyrinthine space - main buildings are based on a grid, whilst the residential areas are labyrinthine in nature) (Norberg-Schulz,1993).

(iii) Classical places

‘Classical’ architecture ‘is distinguished by imageability and articulate order’. Itsorganization can be understood in logical terms, whereas its substance asks forempathy’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

In classical settlements, each architectural element forms part of a ‘family’ ofarchitectural characters, which are related to human qualities. In classical architecture ‘the original forces (of nature) are thus ‘humanized’ and present themselves asindividual participants in a comprehensive, meaningful world’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).The Greek architecture, in its development, represents the archetype of classicalarchitecture.

(iv) Complex places

As with the natural environment, romantic, cosmic and classical settlements arearchetypes of man-made place. ‘As they are related to the basic categories of natural understanding they help us to interpret the genius loci of any particular place.’‘However, being distinct types, they hardly ever appear in pure form but participate in various kinds of synthesis’ (Norberg-Schulz, 1993).

As the urban environment is based on gathering, it usually offers many possibilities of identification. It is often easier to feel ‘at home’ in a foreign city than in a foreignlandscape.

Urban areas differ in terms of what they ‘gather’. In urban areas, the forces of the earth are strongly felt, in other urban areas the ordering power of the sky is dominant, while others have the presence of humanised nature, or are saturated with light. Allsettlements, however, have to possess something of these categories of meaning to make urban dwelling possible.



6.3 UNDERLYING VALUES AND ‘CRITICAL REGIONALISM’

Kelbaugh (1997)15 has identified underlying values that can, if recognised in the future, serve to provide direction and greater meaning to the IDP planning process. These values pertain to the community, sustainability and order.

6.3.1 UNDERLYING VALUES

(a) Community

Without community people are doomed to private worlds that are ultimately selfish and loveless (Kelbaugh, 1997). In this age of electronic communication and individualisolation and self-centeredness it is especially necessary to realise that the Internet is not a substitute for a community and that ‘electronic communications have increased the human need for traditional interaction amongst people who share common interest within settlements’.

Kelbaugh quotes Bart Giamatti (former president of Yale University) who stated that‘over millenia refinement of negotiation – of balancing private need with publicobligation, personal desire and public duty, and keen interest of the one and the many into a common shared net of agreements – becomes a civilisation’. ‘This state is achieved because city dwellers as individuals, or as families, or groups, have smoothed the edges of private desire so as to fit, or at least, work in with all the other city dwellers without undue abrasion, without sharp edges forever nicking and wounding’ (City is understood to mean any form of settlement where a sense of community wouldtraditionally have been present).

Few would argue that the sense of community has deteriorated in the South African society over time and that the Western Cape is no exception. There is ample evidence of a low level of tolerance and indifference to place and culture. Kelbaugh (1997) states that if people project their own pathologies onto an ‘outside enemy’ or stigmatised minorities, they have not faced up to themselves and are in collective denial. Tolerance and co-operation are implicit in urban life and society must strive to achieve this. The most sensible and equitable scales of community and governance in the urban context, is the neighbourhood of a town or the city (Kelbaugh, 1997).

Against the background of the growth and increasing urbanisation the Western Cape is facing, the need to develop and actively promote a sense of community will becomeincreasingly important. The provisions made for the ward system and communityrepresentation on local town councils in terms of the Local Government MunicipalStructures Act, 1998 (Act 117 of 1998) may be a good starting point.

(b) Sustainability

The second fundamental that Kelbaugh (1997) identified is to achieve sustainabledevelopment, which is defined as ‘meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs’ (refer to

15 Kelbaugh, D. 1997. Common Place. Toward Neigborhood and Regional Design. University of Washington Press. Seattle and London.



Chapter 5). However, sustainability also involves respect and reverence for life itself –‘for billions of living things that have taken billions of years to evolve, for that miraculous web of plants and creatures that truly passeth all understanding’ – ‘If it is not human responsibility to protect all life it is certainly our responsibility not to mess it up’(Kelbaugh, 1997).

A high priority needs to be given to reform human values, habits and intuitions, to shift paradigms and transform culture and change industrial commerce so that society can co-exist with the natural environment more harmoniously in the future than in the past.

Kelbaugh (1997) stresses that promoting sustainable development is not enough and that any viable programme ‘must turn back the resource clock and devote itself actively to restoring damaged and deteriorating systems – restoration is far more compelling than the algebra of sustainability’.

(c) Order

Kelbaugh (1997) refers to order as the third fundamental value as it is perhaps themajor role of human beings in the universe to help bring order and meaning to it. ‘Asentropy runs down and exhausts the physical universe, is there an equal and opposite life force creating order? And if so, is it metaphysical spiritual order that humanscontribute to or even are entrusted with? Or is it simply a physical order ? And is it something discovered or created? Whilst these three questions are unanswerable,Kelbaugh (1997) argues that these questions give us enough pause to realise thathumankind and other intelligent life may collectively be playing a role in the cosmos. ‘Ifthis is the case, we need to do our job of bringing order to the world, just as billions of other organisms are faithfully and flawlessly doing their jobs’. Nobody does more with less, than nature, and its sublime efficiency seems to be a sustained one. We could not ask for a better model for ordering architecture and engineering, urban planning design and city planning (Kelbaugh, 1997).

Inherent in the discovery and creation of order is meaning. ‘Human beings seem set on finding out not only what makes things work, but why they work and why they should matter. They are, forever, looking for questions as well as answers, in what appears to be an endless spiritual quest for the meaning in life and of life’ (Kelbaugh, 1997).

Bringing order to urban settlements is one of the great challenges facing mankind, as the situation is fast approaching where the majority of people will be living in urbanareas in the future. It will, therefore, be increasingly necessary to better understand,plan and design such places. ‘Sometimes urban order is enhanced in a single, giant step, but usually it comes slowly and after many trials and errors. A city needs both many little moves and a few big ideas. It can’t be all organic or all monumental’(Kelbaugh, 1997). Whilst organic urbanism is an appropriate mode for development it can be enhanced by having key centres, districts, corridors, axes and edges moreintentionally designed. It would seem right that in the IDPs great attention should be given to bringing greater order to key places. Part of this order would be to recognise that incremental change, whether social, or physical, is often more lasting than radical or revolutionary change.

It is usually the appropriate mode of improvement in a society that is more right than wrong and it also seems the correct stance in central urban areas and neighbourhoods.



‘Dwelling is an essentially conservative act and neighbourhood is an essentially fragile condition. As long as there is more good than bad, more hopeful than hopeless, both need to be guarded jealously and changed carefully’ (Kelbaugh, 1997).

(d) Other ‘Bedrock Values’

There are obviously many other ‘bedrock values’ that can be included in a study of this nature but which, for practical reasons, must be accepted as given. Kelbaugh (1997) refers to such values as liberty, freedom and equality. Equality is perhaps the most elusive of all values. ‘It is not difficult to assure everyone of equality in the eyes of the law. But to assure egalitarian status in the eyes of other people is a very ambitious ideal. Human beings seem very canny and persistent about reasserting their individual or group superiority. Egalitarianism is also more abstract than community,sustainability, order and liberty and if history is any measure, it seems the hardest value to realise. Maintaining true political and social equality takes constant vigilance.’(Kelbaugh, 1997).

There is a perspective that presents a solution for the above equality problem. Thissolution is founded in an acceptance that man has been created after the image of God and that God has created all the nations of mankind out of one blood. Man (Homosapiens) is of one kind. This implies that man will have self-respect and respect for others; recognise the human dignity of each person and serve one another.

However, being one of a kind does not necessarily imply equality. We are born as one of a kind together with the rest of mankind; we must, through the development ofabilities, through sweat and hard work, ‘climb’ to a position of equality. This implies that we shall honour authority structures and acknowledge personal achievement.

6.3.2 GUIDING PRINCIPLES

It is proposed that the planning and design principles known as ‘critical regionalism’(Kelbaugh, 1997) be adopted to provide a theoretical framework for planning, design and development at all levels. The pragmatic approach inherent to ‘critical regionalism’ provides an alternative to the myth of progress / modernism and the unrealistic notion to revert back to the past. ‘Critical regionalism’ recognises the quality and attributes ofregional characteristics and builds upon the development of regional idiosyncrasies and variations. ‘Critical regionalism’ requires that the following five principles should guide planning and design, namely:

(a) Sense of Place

‘Critical regionalism’, first and foremost starts out with a love of ‘place’ and avoidsexcessive importation of culture and technology from other places. ‘Critical regionalism’ honours locale climate, topography, vegetation, building materials, building practicesand local authenticity and is ‘picky and stubborn in this age of aggressive hype and universal civilization’. It realizes that the more well-defined and highly evolved a place is, the less likely it is to be improved by random imports, experimentation, or ‘change for change’s sake’ (Kelbaugh, 1997).

Kelbaugh (1997) cautions that ‘critical regionalism must, be careful not to be toosensitive or resistive to change, lest it turn into a sour cynicism or saccharin



sentimentality. It must walk that thin line between conservation and reactionaryism. It can’t afford to be bitter about lost battles for former good causes or it will risk becoming too negative about today’s challenges’.

(b) Sense of History

Kelbaugh (1997) states that the best buildings, gardens, and cities of the past areoverwhelming in the awe and joy they can elicit. However, they yield more than beauty and pleasure as they offer lasting lessons. History should be respectfully studied fordesign principles rather than used as a ‘grab bag of forms’. An architectural type that has stood the test of time, like the basilica or courtyard house, must be doing something right in terms of responding to climate, social and cultural needs, tradition, andeconomy, and should, therefore, be worth copying.

Historical precedents are a good point of departure when planning, designing andrehabilitating new places and existing areas. Kelbaugh (1997) states that ‘designvocabulary and syntax can be creatively transformed to express and to accommodate new technical and programmatic forces. Traditional architectural language can evolve, much as spoken language does in multilingual dialects and much as new words are coined to name new scientific and technological developments’.

(c) Sense of Craft

‘Critical regionalism’ builds upon a return to craftsmanship and avoids constructiontypes, which have become ‘junkier’ over most of the past century. The trend inconstruction and architectural styles during this century has been ‘toward ever lighter framing with the result that buildings look and feel increasingly like movie sets;impressive to the eye, flimsy to the touch, and incapable of aging well’ (Kelbaugh, 1997).

(d) Sense of Nature

Kelbaugh (1997) states that nature is a good model for design because it holds the key to vitality and sustainability. ‘Designers can learn from the incredible sophistication of biological and ecological systems. Diversity, symbiosis, synergy, balance - these are profound and inspiring messages for all designers. Working together, architects,industrial designers, landscape architects, urban designers, and urban planners can fulfill an ecological role, namely to protect and preserve ecosystems, natural cycles and chains, and the symbiosis between organisms and their environment. Their role is also to reverse entropy, which is done by creating order and meaning. The most meaningfuland highly evolved order is to be found in nature’.

Buildings and cities, like plants and animals, can be viewed as vital, rather than as inert and denatured. They can be treated as organisms which are conceived, grow, flex,adapt, interact, age, die, and decay – always rooted in their habitat (Kelbaugh, 1997).Site-specific design - with its sensitivity to the living environment - is fundamental to a sense of nature.



(e) Sense of Limits

There is a need for physical and temporal boundaries to frame and limit human places and activities. There is also a need for human scale in the built environment. Kelbaugh (1997) states that ‘the sense of limits also pertains to a need for psychologicalboundaries – ones that makes life more understandable and negotiable’.

6.3.3 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF ‘CRITICAL REGIONALISM’

It is recognised that landowners, the general public and even professional designers will require guidance pertaining to what is considered as consistent with the principles of ‘critical regionalism’. For this purpose supplementary design guidelines will be required in respect of specific areas or regions. Such guidelines must be provided by the sectoral plans that are to be prepared by the municipalities in respect of specific places oractivities.

The practical application of ‘critical regionalism’ will, for example, imply that alldevelopment applications must be evaluated against the five guiding principles on which the approach is founded and the supplementary guidelines in respect of specific ‘places’ or ‘sites’. If any development proposal is considered to be inconsistent with theseprinciples, the relevant authority must inform the applicant about the nature and extent of the inconsistency and the avenues to be explored to find appropriate solutions, or, alternatively, that non-development is viewed as the most appropriate option.

This implies that the authorities and designers will be required to understand theprinciples of ‘critical regionalism’ and play a much more creative role in ‘shaping’ the man-made environment in accordance with these principles.



6.4 MANAGING THE EFFECTS OF CHANGE

At the root of conflicts, which arise in every day life, is the perceived threat to the existing situation, which may be caused by development. It is, however, important to note that whilst change is often perceived to have negative consequences, it alsocarries with it inherent potential to ‘improve the state of’.

Having considered the nature of places and the meanings we may attach to thembecause of our specific appreciation for their qualities, our understanding of theircharacteristics, identity, structure, etc. it is important to also consider the effects ofchange and development pressure on our places and the tensions and conflicts, whichmay arise because of it.

In this regard, it is important to recognise that the spirit of place is manifested in locationand spatial configuration, its borders and the characterising of articulation. These aspects are the objects of human orientation and identification and they, therefore, have to be protected from change. Furthermore, their primary structural properties, such as the way buildings are constructed, characteristic motifs, etc. must be preserved in order to retain a particular local quality and protect the atmosphere of a place (Norberg-Schulz, 1984). It is this atmosphere, which first of all, ties people to their place and strikes visitors as a particular local quality.

In general, three categories of change can be identified, namely practical, social andcultural change. All these types of change have environmental implications. Thesechanges must, therefore, be concretised in a way, which respects the spirit (genius loci)of a place, otherwise a place will lose its identity (Norberg-Schulz, 1984).

The question arises how a place can preserve its identity under the pressure ofhistorical forces of change and how it must adapt to the changing needs of public and private life. It is also important to identify what must be protected from change. Inaddition, as the cultural and social changes become manifest through their physicalimplications, one may consider change in functional terms. How can the genius loci be preserved under the pressure of new functional demands? This is what an answer has to be found for.

Economic, social, political and cultural intentions have to be concretised in a way, which respects the genius loci. However, to respect the genius loci, does not mean to copy old models – the challenge is to determine the identity of the place and to interpret it in ever new ways. Norberg-Schulz (1984) and Sharp (1946)16 refer to this type of change as ‘living tradition’, which makes change meaningful by relating it to a set of locally founded parameters. In most of the Western Cape Province these parameters must still be defined through creative public participation.

16 Sharp, Thomas 1946. ‘The Anatomy of the Village’, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, Middlesex.



6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

As stated above, the image on which we endeavour to agree is said to be a ‘jointbetween mind and setting’ (Lynch, 1960). The means of achieving this ‘joint between mind and setting’ include two distinctive dimensions, namely, changing settlementform, on the one hand, and changing mental conceptions, on the other. Mentalconception can be influenced in many ways – through education, communication and art. Through the ages, artists and writers have, for example, created newenvironmental meanings and have taught society new ways of looking and appreciating their places (Paris for example has become more legible since the Impressionists had painted it). ‘Environmental education’ can, thus, obtain a new meaning in the future.

However, for environmental education to be of any significance, effective publicparticipation is required. Participation presupposes ‘a sympathy with things’, whichimplies that one ‘must learn to see’. One must ‘learn to see’ the meanings of things that surround you. One must learn to appreciate the way things are made. The results of creative participation constitute man’s existential foothold, his culture (Norberg-Schulz,1993).

In the context of settlement planning and architecture, ‘creative participation’ means the realisation of a private ‘inside’. This concretises the identity of the individual bygathering the meanings, which constitute his/her personal existential content and,secondly, the creation of a ‘pubic outside’, which gathers the institutions of communal life and makes meanings (values) manifest on which this life is based (Norberg-Schulz,1984).

Therefore, through public participation in the Western Cape questions need to be asked and answers found for, amongst others, the following:a) What is the identity we want to protect?b) How must our public domain be spatially integrated and how must we manage

change?c) Can the Western Cape retain its identity under ever-new circumstances?d) Can this place persist with a particular kind of human identity (that which has not

yet been destroyed) and what qualities will we agree on? e) What can be done to, over time, improve the visual quality of our towns, improve

their urban spatial qualities and their environmental sustainability?

The answers to these questions (especially the ‘joint between mind and setting’) should be found through creative participation of people who care for their ‘place’ and who will seek to find agreement on how to ‘gather’ the ‘things’ of their environment and how to visualise and symbolise their form of life as a totality.

District and local municipalities are, therefore, encouraged to prepare planning/design/ development guidelines for towns to ensure that the mistakes of the past are notrepeated and that restoration programmes are instituted.

To promote and ensure sustainable integrated urban development it is proposed that an urban design sectoral plan be prepared for each town in accordance with theWCPDA, 1999 (Act 7 of 1999) and that environmental education and creative public participation should be a focus area of the preparation of such plans.



7 UNESCO’S ‘MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE’ PROGRAMME

Globally, various programmes have been developed to implement bioregional planning principles on regional and local levels. One such programme is the Man and the Biosphere Programme (MaB), launched in 1971 by UNESCO, as a global programme of international scientific co-operation dealing with people-environment interactions over the entire realm of bioclimatic and geographic situations of the biosphere.

In 1984 as a result of the work of the First International Biosphere Reserve Congress in 1983 in Minsk (Belarus), an ‘Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves’, was formallyendorsed by the UNESCO General Conference and by the Governing Council of UNEP.

In 1991 the Executive Board of UNESCO decided, to establish an Advisory Committee for Biosphere Reserves with the mission to evaluate the effectiveness of the 1984 Action Plan, to analyse its implementation and to develop a strategy for biospherereserves for the 21st century.

The International Conference on Biosphere Reserves, held in Seville (Spain), in March 1995 was organised to enable an evaluation of the experience in implementing the Action Plan, a reflection on the role for biosphere reserves in the context of the 21st century (the ‘Vision Statement’) and the elaboration of a draft Statutory Framework for the World Network. The Conference drew up the Seville Strategy, which provides a comprehensive summary of the MaB Programme, its major objectives andconsiderations relating to its implementation. The Seville Strategy is described below.

Research under the MaB Programme was designed to solve practical problems ofresource management, and aims to fill gaps in the understanding of the structure and function of ecosystems, and of the impact of different types of human interaction.

Key ingredients in the MaB Programme are the involvement of decision-makers and local people in research projects, training and demonstration at the field level, and the bringing together of disciplines from the social, biological and physical sciences inaddressing complex environmental problems (Miller 1996).

7.1 WHAT IS A BIOSPHERE RESERVE ?

Biosphere reserves are defined as ‘areas of terrestrial and coastal/marineecosystems, or a combination thereof, which are internationally recognisedwithin the framework of UNESCO's MaB Programme’.

Internationally, there is widespread agreement that biosphere reserves provide a useful model and starting point for bioregional planning and management. They give physical effect to the MaB Programme and have been designed as tools for reconciling and integrating the conflicting interests and pressures that characterise land-use planning.They are the most widely implemented and recognised of the various bioregionalplanning programmes, with more than 355 biosphere reserves that form part of the World Network of biosphere reserves currently existing world-wide.



Biosphere Reserves are nominated by national governments. Each reserve must meet a set of criteria and adhere to specific conditions before being admitted to the WorldNetwork of biosphere reserves.

Each biosphere reserve is intended to fulfil three complementary functions as illustrated by the figure below.

Figure 4: The three primary functions of biosphere reserves.

7.2 STRUCTURE OF A MODEL BIOSPHERE RESERVE

The biosphere reserve concept is based on a structure of interrelated zones covering the entire planning area (refer to Figure 5 below). Appropriate conservation statusand land use(s) are assigned to each zone.

Physically, the model biosphere reserve contains the following three elements:

7.2.1 CORE AREA

The Core area is a statutory protected site designated for conserving biodiversity,monitoring ecosystems, and non-disruptive, non-consumptive land-uses, such asoutdoor recreation, bench-mark research, and environmental education.

7.2.2 BUFFER ZONE

The Buffer Zone usually surrounds, or adjoins the core area. This zone ‘protects’ the core area against consumptive human activity and is used for co-operative non-consumptive activities, including environmental education, eco-tourism, benchmarkresearch, and specific sustainable agricultural activities.



7.2.3 TRANSITION AREA

The flexible Transition Area, or ‘area of co-operation’, accommodates a variety of non-consumptive and consumptive activities, such as agriculture, settlement developmentand other disruptive land-uses. In this zone local communities, management agencies, scientists, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), cultural groups, economic interestgroups and other stakeholders work together to manage and develop the area'sresources in a sustainable manner.

Although originally envisioned as a series of concentric rings, the three zones have been implemented in many different ways in order to meet local needs and conditions. In fact, one of the greatest strengths of the biosphere reserve concept has been the flexibility and creativity with which it has been carried out in various situations. Thefigure below illustrates the structure of a model biosphere reserve.

CORE AREA

BUFFER ZONE

TRANSITIONAREA HUMAN

SETTLEMENT

RESEARCHSTATION

EDUCATION &TRAINING

TOURISM &RECREATION

Figure 5: Structure of a model biosphere reserve.

Some countries have enacted legislation specifically to establish biosphere reserves. In many others, the core areas and buffer zones are designated (in whole or in part) as protected areas under national law. Many biosphere reserves simultaneously form part of other national conservation areas (such as national parks or provincial naturereserves) and/or other international networks (such as World Heritage Sites orRAMSAR Sites).

Ownership arrangements of the various zones may vary. The core areas of biosphere reserves are mostly public land, but can also be privately owned, or belong to NGOs. In many cases, the buffer zone is in private or community ownership, as is generally the case with the transition area.



The zones and functions of a biosphere reserve are summarised in the table below.

Table 3: Biosphere reserve zones and their functions.

CORE AREA

GENERAL DEFINITION OF THE CORE AREA:

A defined natural area of conservation importance.

ZONING CRITERIA AND GUIDELINES

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS

a) Natural areas with statutoryconservation status.

b) Natural areas that are relativelyundisturbed by human activities or that have the potential to be restored tosuch a state.

c) Areas which are representative ofspecific habitat or landscape types, and which have high scenic values.

d) Should be large enough to contributeeffectively to the conservation of rareand endangered species.

e) Presence of outstanding naturalfeatures, unique rock formations; fossil material; sensitive habitats; endemicspecies.

f) Areas of archaeological importance;containing historical sites or features.

a) In situ biodiversity conservation.

b) Conservation of representative examplesof ecosystems.

c) Monitoring pristine ecosystems.

d) Base-line research.

e) Water conservation.

f) Non-consumptive land-uses (e.g.‘wilderness outdoor recreation’).

g) Environmental education.

BUFFER ZONE

GENERAL DEFINITION OF THE BUFFER ZONE:

A defined natural area surrounding the core area.


PRIMARY FUNCTIONS

a) Areas containing a large percentage of natural vegetation, unique landscapefeatures, important archaeological andcultural-historic sites.

b) Areas that have other unique features such as uninterrupted views and vistas.

c) Areas where any form of development,

a) ‘Protecting’ the core area from negativeunnatural impacts.

b) Enhancing the natural functioning of theecosystem(s) within the core area.

c) Accommodating low-impact land-usesand development (e.g. for ecotourism).



including agriculture, requires strictcontrol.

d) Providing for environmental education; insitu biodiversity and water conservation.

TRANSITION ZONES

GENERAL DEFINITION OF THE TRANSITION ZONES:

Defined zones surrounding the buffer zone, representing the development areas.


PRIMARY FUNCTIONS

a) Natural corridors, or linkages comprising rivers, continuous tracts of naturalvegetation.

b) Generally land in private ownership that contains at least 50% naturallyvegetated areas.

c) Land with good potential for agriculture and forestry, where these activities are already practiced.

d) Existing small urban settlements andsparsely populated areas wherepotential exists for the establishment of new compact settlements.

e) Urban areas.

The transition zone comprises three zoneswith varying functions and intensities ofhuman activity, namely:

a) Transition Zone 1: Surrounding the buffer zone and representing an area where the natural and cultural environment is of high value. Low-impact land-uses are allowed in this zone (e.g. fynbos utilisation,ecotourism with small-scale resortdevelopment).

b) Transition Zone 2: Accommodatingactivities that extract natural resources and supply food and other primary materialsources (e.g. agriculture, forestry andmining).

c) Transition Zone 3: Representing urbanareas where the highest intensity of human activity is found, ranging from small towns to large metropolitan areas.



7.3 VISION FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

The international Seville Conference on Biosphere Reserves, organised by UNESCO, adopted a two-pronged approach, namely to:a) Examine past experience in implementing the innovative concept of the biosphere

reserve.b) Look to the future to identify what emphasis should now be given to their three

functions of conservation, development and logistical support.

The Seville Conference concluded that, in spite of the problems and limitationsencountered with the establishment of biosphere reserves, the programme, as a whole, had been innovative and had much success. In particular, the three basic functionswould be as valid as ever in the coming years.

7.4 FOUNDATIONS OF THE NEW SEVILLE STRATEGY

The Seville Conference identified the following key directions, which are basically the foundations of the new Seville Strategy.

(a) Strengthen the contribution that biosphere reserves make to the implementation of international agreements promoting conservation and sustainable development,especially to the Convention on Biological Diversity and other agreements, such as those on climate change, desertification and forests.

(b) Develop biosphere reserves that include a wide variety of environmental, biological, economic and cultural situations, going from largely undisturbed regions andspreading towards cities. There is a particular need and potential to apply thebiosphere reserve concept in the coastal and marine environment.

(c) Strengthen the emerging regional, inter-regional and thematic networks of biosphere reserves as components within the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

(d) Reinforce scientific research, monitoring, training and education in biospherereserves, since conservation and the rational use of resources in these areas require a sound base in the natural and social sciences, as well as the humanities. Thisneed is particularly acute in countries where biosphere reserves lack human and financial resources, and should receive priority attention.

(e) Ensure that all zones of biosphere reserves contribute appropriately to conservation, sustainable development and scientific understanding.

(f) Extend the transition zone to embrace large areas suitable for appropriateecosystem management, in order to explore and demonstrate approaches tosustainable development at the regional scale. Appropriate attention should,therefore, be given to the transition area.

(g) Reflect more fully the human dimensions of biosphere reserves. Connections should be made between cultural and biological diversity. Traditional knowledge andgenetic resources should be conserved, and their role in sustainable development should be recognised and encouraged.



(h) Promote the management of each biosphere reserve essentially as a ‘pact’ between the local community and society, as a whole. Management should be open, evolving and adaptive. Such an approach will help ensure that biosphere reserves - and their local communities - are better placed to respond to external political, economic and social pressures.

(i) Bring together all interested groups and sectors in a partnership approach tobiosphere reserves, both at site and network levels. Information should flow freelyamong all concerned.

(j) Invest in the future. Biosphere reserves should be used to further our understanding of humanity's relationship with the natural world, through programmes of publicawareness, information, formal and informal education, based on a long-term, inter-generation perspectives.

(k) In summary, biosphere reserves should preserve and generate natural and cultural values, through management that is scientifically correct, culturally creative andoperationally sustainable. The World Network of Biosphere Reserves, asimplemented through the Seville Strategy, is thus an integrating tool, which can help to create greater solidarity among peoples and nations of the world.

7.5 THE SEVILLE STRATEGY

The Seville Strategy provides recommendations for developing effective biospherereserves and for setting out the conditions for the appropriate functioning of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. It does not repeat the general principles of theConvention on Biological Diversity, nor Agenda 21, but instead, identifies the specific role of biosphere reserves in developing a new vision of the relationship betweenconservation and development. Thus, the document is deliberately focused on priorities.

The Strategy proposes different levels at which each recommendation will be mosteffective, namely the international, national and individual biosphere reserve level.However, given the large variety of different national and local management situations, these recommended levels of actions should be seen merely as guidelines and should be adapted to fit the situation at hand. Note, especially, that the ‘national’ level should be interpreted to include governmental levels higher than the individual reserve (e.g.district, provincial, state, etc.). In some countries, national or local NGOs may also be appropriate substitutes for this level. Similarly, the ‘international’ level often includesregional and inter-regional activities.

The Strategy also includes recommended ‘implementation indicators’, i.e. a check-list of actions that will enable all involved to follow and evaluate the implementation of the Strategy. Criteria used in developing the ‘indicators’ include the following:?? Availability (can the information be gathered relatively easily?).?? Simplicity (are the data unambiguous?).?? Usefulness (will the information be useful to reserve managers, National

Committees, and/or the Network at large?).



A primary role of the ‘implementation indicators’ is to assemble a database ofsuccessful implementation mechanisms and to exchange this information among allmembers of the Network.

7.5.1 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The primary goals and objectives of the Seville Strategy are summarised in the table below.

Table 4: Goals and objectives of the Seville Strategy.

Goal 1: Use biosphere reserves to conserve natural and cultural diversity.

Supporting objective 1.1 Improve the coverage of natural and cultural biodiversity by means of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

Supporting objective 1.2 Integrate Biosphere Reserves into conservation planning.

Goal 2: Utilise biosphere reserves as models of land management and ofapproaches to sustainable development.

Supporting objective 2.1 Secure the support and involvement of local people.

Supporting objective 2.2 Ensure better harmonisation and interaction among thedifferent biosphere reserve zones.

Supporting objective 2.3 Integrate biosphere reserves into regional planning.

Goal 3: Use biosphere reserves for research, monitoring, education, and training.

Supporting objective 3.1 Improve knowledge of the interactions between humansand the biosphere.

Supporting objective 3.2 Improve monitoring activities.

Supporting objective 3.3 Improve education, public awareness and involvement.

Supporting objective 3.4 Improve training for specialists and managers.

Goal 4: Implement the biosphere reserve concept.

Supporting objective 4.1 Integrate the functions of biosphere reserves.

Supporting objective 4.2 Strengthen the World Biosphere Reserve Network.



7.6 STATUTORY FRAMEWORK OF THE WORLD NETWORK OFBIOSPHERE RESERVES

The present Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (1995) has been formulated with the objectives of enhancing the effectiveness of individualbiosphere reserves and strengthening common understanding, communication and co-operation at regional and international levels.

This Statutory Framework is intended to contribute to the widespread recognition ofbiosphere reserves and to encourage and promote good working examples. The‘delisting procedure’, which is included in the Statutory Framework should beconsidered as an exception to this basically positive approach, and should be applied only after careful examination, paying due respect to the cultural and socio-economicsituation of the country, and after consulting the government concerned.

The text provides for the designation, support and promotion of biosphere reserves,while taking account of the diversity of national and local situations. States areencouraged to elaborate and implement national criteria for biosphere reserves, which take into account the special conditions of the State concerned.

7.6.1 ARTICLE 1: DEFINITION

As stated above, biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal/marineecosystems or a combination thereof, which are internationally recognised within the framework of UNESCO's MaB Programme, in accordance with the present StatutoryFramework.

7.6.2 ARTICLE 2: WORLD NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES

The Network constitutes a tool for the conservation of biological diversity and thesustainable use of its components, thus contributing to the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity and other pertinent conventions and instruments.

Individual biosphere reserves remain under the sovereign jurisdiction of the Stateswhere they are situated. Under the present Statutory Framework, States take themeasures, which they deem necessary according to their national legislation.

7.6.3 ARTICLE 3: FUNCTIONS

In combining their three functions, biosphere reserves should strive to be sites ofexcellence to explore and demonstrate approaches to conservation and sustainabledevelopment on a regional scale. As stated above, biosphere reserves have thefollowing three functions:a) Conservation - contribute to the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species

and genetic variation; b) Development - foster economic and human development which is socio-culturally

and ecologically sustainable; c) Logistical support - support for demonstration projects, environmental education

and training, research and monitoring related to local, regional, national and global issues of conservation and sustainable development.



7.6.4 ARTICLE 4: CRITERIA

The general criteria for selecting a biosphere reserve include the following:

(a) It should encompass a mosaic of ecological systems representative of majorbiogeographic regions, including a gradation of human interventions.

(b) It should be of significance for biological diversity conservation.

(c) It should provide an opportunity to explore and demonstrate approaches tosustainable development on a regional scale.

(d) It should have an appropriate size to support the three functions of biospherereserves, as set out in Article 3 above.

(e) It should promote these functions, through appropriate zonation, recognising thefollowing:(i) Legally constituted core areas, or areas devoted to long-term protection,

according to the conservation objectives of the biosphere reserve, and ofsufficient size to meet these objectives.

(ii) Buffer zones clearly identified and surrounding or contiguous to the core area, where only activities compatible with the conservation objectives can takeplace.

(iii) Transition areas where sustainable resource management practices arepromoted and developed.

(f) Organizational arrangements should be made for the involvement and participation of a suitable range of, inter alia, public authorities, local communities and private interests, in the design and carrying out the functions of a biosphere reserve.

(g) In addition, provisions should be made for:(i) Mechanisms to manage human use and activities in the buffer zone. (ii) A management policy and management plan for the area as a biosphere

reserve.(iii) A designated authority or mechanism to implement this policy and plan.(iv) Programmes for research, monitoring, education and training.

7.6.5 ARTICLE 5: DESIGNATION PROCEDURE

(a) Biosphere reserves are designated for inclusion in the Network by the International Co-ordinating Council (ICC) of the MAB Programme in accordance with the following procedure:(i) States, through National MaB Committees where appropriate, forward

nominations, together with supporting documentation, to the Secretariat (refer to Section F.2.5.10: Article 10 – Secretariat) after having reviewed potential sites, taking into account the criteria described in Article 4 above.

(ii) The Secretariat verifies the content and supporting documentation. In the case of incomplete nomination, the Secretariat requests the missing information from the nominating State.



(iii) Nominations will be considered by the Advisory Committee for BiosphereReserves for recommendation to the ICC.

(iv) The ICC takes a decision on nominations for designation. The Director-Generalof UNESCO notifies the State concerned of the decision of the ICC.

(b) States are encouraged to examine and improve the adequacy of any existingbiosphere reserve, and to propose extension as appropriate, to enable it to function fully within the Network. Proposals for extension, follow the same procedure asdescribed above for new designations.

(c) Biosphere reserves, which have been designated before the adoption of the present Statutory Framework, are considered to be already part of the Network. Theprovisions of the Statutory Framework, therefore, apply to them.

7.6.6 ARTICLE 6: PUBLICITY

(a) The designation of an area as a biosphere reserve should be given appropriate publicity by the State and authorities concerned, including commemorative plaques and dissemination of information material.

(b) Biosphere reserves within the Network, as well as the objectives, should be given appropriate and continuing promotion.

7.6.7 ARTICLE 7: PARTICIPATION IN THE NETWORK

(a) States participate in, or facilitate co-operative activities of the Network, including scientific research and monitoring, at the global, regional and sub-regional levels.

(b) The appropriate authorities should make available the results of research,associated publications and other data, taking into account intellectual propertyrights, in order to ensure the proper functioning of the Network and maximise the benefits from information exchanges.

(c) States and appropriate authorities should promote environmental education andtraining, as well as the development of human resources, in co-operation with other biosphere reserves in the Network.

7.6.8 ARTICLE 8: REGIONAL AND THEMATIC SUB-NETWORKS

States should encourage the constitution and co-operative operation of regional and/or thematic sub-networks of biosphere reserves, and promote development of information exchanges, including electronic information, within the framework of these sub-networks.

7.6.9 ARTICLE 9: PERIODIC REVIEW

(a) The status of each biosphere reserve should be subject to a review every ten years, based on a report prepared by the concerned authority, on the basis of the criteria described in Article 4, and forwarded to the Secretariat by the State concerned.



(b) The report will then be considered by the Advisory Committee for BiosphereReserves for recommendation to the ICC.

(c) The ICC will examine the periodic reports from States concerned.

(d) If the ICC considers that the status or management of the biosphere reserve issatisfactory, or has improved since designation, or the last review, it will be formally recognised by the ICC.

(e) If ICC considers that the biosphere reserve no longer satisfies the criteria described in Article 4, it may recommend that the State concerned take measures to ensure compliance with the provisions of Article 4, taking into account the cultural andsocio-economic context of the State concerned. The ICC indicates to the Secretariat actions that it should take to assist the State concerned in the implementation ofsuch measures.

(f) Should the ICC find that the biosphere reserve in question still does not satisfy the criteria contained in Article 4, within a reasonable period, the area will no longer be referred to as a biosphere reserve, which is part of the Network.

(g) The Director-General of UNESCO notifies the State concerned of the decision of the ICC.

(h) Should a State wish to remove a biosphere reserve under its jurisdiction from the Network, it notifies the Secretariat. This notification shall be transmitted to the ICC for information. The area will then no longer be referred to as a biosphere reserve, which is part of the Network.

7.6.10 ARTICLE 10: SECRETARIAT

(a) UNESCO shall act as the secretariat of the Network and be responsible for itsfunctioning and promotion. The Secretariat shall facilitate communication andinteraction among individual biosphere reserves and among experts. UNESCO shall also develop and maintain a worldwide accessible information system on biosphere reserves, to be linked to other relevant initiatives.

(b) In order to reinforce individual biosphere reserves and the functioning of the Networkand sub-networks, UNESCO shall seek financial support from bilateral andmultilateral sources.

(c) The list of biosphere reserves forming part of the Network, their objectives and descriptive details, shall be updated, published and distributed by the Secretariatperiodically.

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