1. How does Christine Rodrigue define environmental determinism? What were Herbert Spencer's key insights in his theory of environmental determinism? Give one argument against environmental determinism.Christine Rodrigue defines environmental determinism (sometimes called geographical determinism) to be a variant of Social Darwinism: the appropriation of Darwin's theory of natural selection for use directly on human societies, usually for racist or imperialist apologia. The idea that the natural environment, especially climate, creates natural selective conditions that either bring out the best in humans and create "superior" cultures or the worst in people and create “inferior” cultures.

Herbert Spencer’s key insights were that Species/society change – factors of evolutionOriginal

- Extrinsic (e.g climate, surface qualities)

- Intrinsic (e.g physical and intellectual character)

Secondary or derived (brought – social evolution itself)- Modifications of the environment

- Size and density of the social aggregate: the more people, the more idea, more mouths to feed, bigger armies

- Inter-societal reactions: different societies react differently. Some absorb the good ideas while others do not.

People were shaped by their environment and they tend to shape it as well. As societies develop, there is a feedback to the environment itself.

One argument against environmental determinism includes the "ideal" climate reflected the climate producing a given author's culture: British authors leaned to the West Coast marine climate; Americans favored the four season humid continental climate; and the ancient Greeks thought their Mediterranean climate (their Temperate Zone) was the ideal

2. What is Ricardo Hausmann's argument as to how the fact that a country is "landlocked" affects its growth prospects? How does he account for the plight of tropical agriculture?

In today’s global market place most industrial products require inputs from various locations. Unfortunately transportations costs are often determined by a country’s geography, therefore if transportation costs are high, local companies will be at a disadvantage it would be hard for them to export and import. Countries far from sea do not enjoy the physical infrastructure (railways, seaports) as well. Governments in landlocked countries face the additional challenge of coordinating infrastructure costs with neighboring countries. The divergence of agricultural productivity between the developed and developing world is grounded in dramatically different research and development capabilities. Geography aggravates this disparity plant varieties need to be adapted to the local climate meaning that research and development geared toward rich

temperate zone agriculture is of little use in tropical areas. The tropical countries are left out of the modern technology club so agricultural sector much less dynamic in tropical areas than in temperate zones

3. What are Ludwig von Mises' and Thomas R. DeGregori's main arguments against environmental/geographical determinism? Give a few examples used by each author.

Ludwig von Mises arguments environmental determinism looks upon geography as an active and upon human action as a passive factor. He feels that Geography sets a task, but man has to solve it. Man lives in a definite geographical environment and is forced to adjust his action to the conditions of this environment. But the way in which he adjusts himself, the methods of his social, technological, and moral adaptation, are not determined by the external physical factors. An example Ludwig von Mises uses is that the American continent produced neither the civilization of the Indian aborigines nor that of the Americans of European extraction, Fur coats are practical in Canada but less so in Tahiti. Thomas R Degregori arguments against environmental determinism is that to use geography as an explanation for relative achievements of countries over time is to use what is essentially a constant to explain a variable phenomenon. An example he uses is that culture has many of the same difficulties as geography cultures and religions posed ancient and insurmountable barriers to development in Asia.

4. Why does Paul Reiter argue against the notion that malaria resurgence is due to climate change? What are Miller and Conko's main arguments in favor of DDT?

Future changes in climate may alter the prevalence and incidence of the disease, but obsessive emphasis on "global warming" as a dominant parameter is indefensible; the principal determinants are linked to ecological and societal change, politics and economics. Forest clearance, provides abundant new habitat for these species. Agriculture can construction of dams for hydroelectric power. Rice cultivation provides an environment for many of the most efficient malaria vectors. Infected people in pursuit of work can introduce malaria to areas where it is rare. Water storage and inadequate water disposal can provide habitat for mosquitoes. In times of conflict, mass movements of people, e.g. soldiers and refugees, often promote malaria transmission. High birth rates often give rise to larger communities with higher densities of people, which can lead to a higher attack rate. Miller and Conkos main arguments in favor of DDT is DDT is only minimally toxic to humans, and spraying small quantities around the doorways and window frames and on the walls of buildings kills and repels malarial mosquitoes, creating a protective shield for people (Such spraying techniques minimize chemical residues in the environment.) And because it persists after spraying, DDT is superior to other pesticides now in use, some of which are highly toxic. Many other insecticides lack the capacity to irritate mosquitoes, and they become deactivated within an hour or two, making them

vastly more expensive and less useful than DDT and more potent and harmful to humans.

5. What are Jeffrey Sachs' basic observations as to the importance of geography for economic development? In his opinion, what role does geography play in the plight of sub-Saharan Africa?

Sachs basic observations were 1) almost all tropical countries are poor while countries in mid and high latitudes are rich 2) Coastal economies are generally wealthier than landlocked ones 3) countries close to large markets more likely have open trade policies than countries distant from them. Sach says that in sub Saharan Africa there are 1) few navigatable rivers 2) population heavily concentrated in internal area only 19% living less than 100km from coast more than 25 % in landlocked countries far from core European markets. 3) Landmass concentrations in tropics (diseases and poor soils)

Sachs’ Thesis: a country’s geography not only affects its economic growth potential but also economic policiesSachs’ ED:

- Almost all tropical countries are poor, while countries in mid and high latitude are rich

- Coastal economies are generally wealthier than landlocked ones

- Countries close to large markets more likely – open trade policies than countries distant from them

o E.g. Canada has good minerals and close to the US deposits, thus its better

than other places such as places that are undeveloped and will have greater transportation costs.

Sachs’ Diagnostic of the problems of sub-Saharan Africa- Landmass concentrated in tropics (diseases, poor soil)

- Few navigable rivers

Population heavily concentrated in interior- Only 19% living < 100 km from coast

- > 25% in landlocked countries far from “core” European markets.

6. Why does Diamond believe that New Guineans are smarter than Westerners?

Westerners, Europeans have lived in densely populated societies. These societies were subjected to infectious epidemics and natural selection selected for the survival of the

epidemics rather than intelligence. In new guinea there was mortality not from diseases but of murders warfare and accidents intelligent people are more likely to escape those causes of high mortality in New Guinean societies. Natural selection promotes genes for intelligence. Also Modern European children spend much of their time being passively entertained by Television, Radio and movies, in contrast traditional new guinea children have virtually no such opportunities for passive entertainment and instead spend their time actively doing something.

7. What is Diamond's take on traditional "environmental determinist" arguments?Traditional ED 1)racial or genetic superiority however there is objective evidence also they state that 2)cold climate stimulates inventiveness but Europeans inherited from warm climates agriculture, wheel, writing, metal lurgy 3) Lowland river valleys in dry climates depended on irrigation and centralized bureaucracies (Nile river valley, tigris and Euphrates valley, yellow and yangstze valley) but irrigation systems followed not accompanied bureaucracies agriculture originated in hills and mountains. 4) guns, infectious diseases steel tools, manufactured products yes but immediate or proximate reasons.

Diamond and Traditional ED1. Racial or genetic superiority

a. No objective evidence

2. Cold climate stimulates inventiveness

a. But Europeans inherited

i. Agriculture

ii. Wheels

iii. Writing

iv. Metallurgy (from warm climate peoples!)

3. Lowland river valleys in dry climates depended on irrigation and centralized bureaucracies

a. Nile river valley

b. Tigris and Euphrates valley

c. Yellow and Yangtze valleys

But irrigation systems followed, not accompanied, bureaucracies – Agriculture originated in hills and mountains.

4. Guns, infectious diseases, steel tools, manufactured products…

a. E.g. Small Pox. Yes, but immediate or proximate reasons.

Why Europeans rather Africans/Native Americans?

8. What is the megafauna "overkill" hypothesis? What are the main arguments in its favour?

Humans appear harmless but have weapons, fire(habitat change), much experience in hunting large species in other continents. Following human arrival megafauna disappeared everywhere in all habitats there are mastodon mammoth kill sites in north America in cuba megafauna survived until humans showed up. Disappearence of lesser species can result from changes in traditional food chain/ habitat related to disappearing megafauna (praries reverted back to forests), Indirect human influence rats on island.

Arguments of Blitzkrieg Scenario (44:00 mins)- Following human arrival, MF (mega fauna) disappeared

o Everywhere

o In all habitats

- Much evidence mastodon/mammoth kill sites in NA

- Cuba, MF survived until humans showed up

- Disappearance of lesser species can result from

o Changes in tradition food chain/ habitat related to disappearing mega-

fauna (prairies reverted – forests)

o Indirect human influence (rats on islands)

9. What are the main arguments against the megafauna overkill hypothesis? What are the alternative explanations for the disappearance of megafauna outside of Africa? What is Diamond's position in this debate?

The main arguments against the megafauna overkill hypothesis, humans were too few, certain megafauna still around north America (Elk, bears, bisons,etc), Humans and megafauna long co-exisence, minifauna(small rodents) also disappeared, archaeological evidence (few kill sites), some African megafauna do not fear humans. Other possible causes Climate change (23rd ice age) humans arrived at time of profound climate change when plants were already carbon starved, Natural causes germs from dogs, rodents etc.

Problems with Blitzkrieg Scenario- Humans were too few

- Certain mega-fauna still around – North America (elk, bears, bison, etc.)

- Humans and mega-fauna long coexistence

- Mini-fauna (small rodents) also disappeared

- Archaeological evidence (few kill sites)

- Some African MF – no fear of humans

Other Possible Causes- Climate Change (23rd Ice age)

o Humans arrived at time of profound climate change when plants were

already carbon-starved

- Natural causes

o Germs from dogs, rodents, etc.

Possible Reconciliation?Overkill doesn’t coincide with human arrivals, But with development of technologies of mass hunting/destruction, thereby reconciling humans/MF

10. Describe concisely the range of Polynesian environmental conditions. Describe concisely the types of societies that resulted from these conditions.

Polynesian environmental conditions Climate is warm tropical or sub tropical on most islands and can get to cold subantartic, their geology is coral atolls to continental pieces, highest record of rainfall ranges to too dry for agriculture and their physical geography consists of calpine mountain ranges to coral beaches. Polynesia's varying environments influenced Polynesian societies human population size, density, structure resulted from wild food, useful material fresh water, tropical agriculture, trade with other settlements this resulted in socieited in terms of subsistence ranged from hunter gatherer to intenstive food production in term of social organization fairly egalitarian to extremely stratified, in terms of political organization it ranged from tribes to multi island proto empire in terms of material culture it ranged from personal utensils to monumental stone architecture. Polynesian Environmental Conditions – varies a lotClimateWarm tropical cold sub AntarcticGeologyCoral atolls continental RainfallHighest recorded too dry for agriculture

Physical geography(alpine) mountain range coral beachesPolynesian SocietiesSubsistence:Hunter-gatherers intensive food productionSocial organization:Fairly egalitarian extremely stratifiedPolitical Organization:Tribes multi-island proto-empireMaterial culturePersonal utensils monumental stone architecture

11. According to Diamond, what factors did not really account for the success of Spanish Conquistadors? What factors were more significant? What is George Raudzens' main critique of Diamond's proximate (or most significant) factors? What was the key factor in his opinion?

Factors that did not account for the success of Spanish conquistadors were native allies, phychological novelty (horses and weapons), being mistaken for gods.A few proximate factors were more significant 1) weapons/horses types of weapons Spaniards have where better steel vs stone age technology, tactical advantage horses move around faster. 2) Smallpox already decimated inca empire led to cival war between atahuallpa and his half brother Huascar 3) Other proximate factors were naval power, political organization, writing.

George Raudzens main critique of diamonds proximate factors was that invasions ultimately succeeded not through fighting but when influx of settlers was large enough to overwhelm native populations in target areas massive death-rates came after the key American colonies were already permanently set. The Key factor in his opinion was European their oceanic transport monopoly, which reversed the odds and made firepower and diseases marginal

Spanish success not attributable to - Native allies

- Psychological novelty

o (horses/weapons)

- Being mistaken for Gods

But to a few proximate factors…- Weapons/Horses (Spaniards had better weapons then native armies, steel was an

important factor) Conquistador’s steel weapons

- Smallpox had already decimated Inca Empire

- Led to civil war between

o Atahuallpa

o Huascar (half brother)

- Other Proximate Factors

o Naval power

o Political organization

o Writing

12. What were the main advantages of horses over llamas? What are the main qualities that Spaniards were looking for in a sword? How were these qualities achieved?The horse was fundamental to the farming success of Eurasian societies, providing not only food and fertilizer but also, crucially, load-bearing power and transport transforming the productivity of the land. The Inca relied on llamas for meat, wool and fertilizer but the llama was not a load-bearing animal. Llamas can't pull a plow, nor can they transport human beings. The main qualities that Spaniards were looking for were stronger, longer, sharper swords, toughness, hardness, sword to have a certain pliability, an ability to bend and spring back into shape. These qualities were achieved via metal-working technology which had evolved from the simplest ore-extraction of the first Neolithic villages, to the highly-sophisticated forging of steel, in cities like Toledo and Milan plunging it into cold water, immense amount of experimentation,. Geography had endowed Europe with rich sources of iron and wood, and a climate conducive to high-temperature metallurgy

13. What are the military historians who are critical of Diamond's account main objections to his interpretation of what happened in the Americas?

Military Historians’ CritiqueMain Criticism:Invasions ultimately “succeeded” not through fighting, but when influx of settlers was large enough to overwhelm native populations in target areas.

Hegemony does not equal Conquest:Except for Mexico (1521), no real major invasion

- Wars

- Battles

- Reinforcements, etc.

Mexico- Tenochtitlan # regular soldiers unknown (8000 to around 300 000)

- Numerous natives fought with Spaniards

More internal revolution against Aztecs than Europeans invasion…

14. What were the main characteristics (strengths and weaknesses) of Native North American warriors' military tactics? Why do some historians argue that Inca civilization was "fibre-based" compared to European civilization? What was the Inca's army deadliest weapon?

Native American warriors practices running and marksmanship, they had a skulking way of war (raids, ambush, retreat, lighter weapons) They were ready to endure hardship(March 30 – 50 miles a day with no food) However these tactics powerless in siege warfare. The inca were fibre based rather than wood/metal given that their boats, bridges as well as weapons were are composed of fibre. The deadliest inca weapon would be the ATLATL(spear thrower) which could penetrate armour.

Fibre-based (rather than metal/wood)- Boats

- Bridges

- weapons

Inca Slinger:- can kill a horse

- can break sword in 2 pieces at distances over 30 paces

- “burning missiles” (red hot stones wrapped in pitch soaked cotton, caught fire in midair)

15. What are the processes through which sedentary populations grow faster than hunter-gatherers populations? How did hunter-gatherers space their children apart?

Selecting and growing those few species of plants and animals that we can eat, sedentary populations obtained far more edible calories per acre. As a result, one acre can feed many more herders and farmers typically, 10 to 100 times more—than hunter-gatherers. Also food was stored this sustained and encouraged population growth. domestic animals, livestock fed more people in four distinct ways: by furnishing meat, milk, and fertilizer and by pulling plows. First and most directly, domestic animals became the

societies major source of animal protein, replacing wild game. A hunter-gatherer mother who is shifting camp can carry only one child, along with her few possessions. In practice, nomadic hunter-gatherers space their children about four years apart by means of lactational amenorrhea, sexual abstinence, infanticide, and abortion. By contrast, sedentary people, unconstrained by problems of carrying young children on treks, can bear and raise as many children as they can feed. The birth interval for many farm peoples is around two years, half that of hunter-gatherers.

16. Why did Diamond once argued that agriculture was bad for human health (at least compared to the type of food collected by hunter-gatherers)? What are the main counter-arguments used by people who argue that the hunting-gathering lifestyle was not superior to farming? According to these latter people, why would hunting-gathering people remain stable over time?

Why agriculture is bad for health? (14:00 mins)

1. Diet (cheap calories but poor nutrition)

a. H-G: varied diet = better nutrition

b. Early farmers: 1 or few starchy crops

2. Greater risk of starvation if crop failure

3. Crowding: living with large animals spread of parasites and infectious diseases

But Backlash…- Very low birthrate

- High death rate (40% children died < 15)

- Infanticide and senilicide

- Very high homicide rate

- Life expectancy (20 < X < 29)

H-G populations stable because- Low meagerness of resources

- Low fat intakes

Might have resulted in - Low birth rate

- Spontaneous abortions because not enough food to support baby

17. What are the three (3) plants that have been most critical in terms of allowing the human population to double 10 times in the last 10,000 years? What were the three (3) new traits that wheat evolved to become more suitable to human beings? What was the traditional explanation for the development of larger brains among early humans? Why does Dr. Wrangham argue that the traditional explanation is insufficient? What was the key factor in his opinion?

Population increase due to:• Maize• Rice• Wheat

The wheat plant evolved three new traits to suit human beings:• the seeds grew larger • the “rachis” which binds the seeds together became less brittle so whole ears of

grass, rather than individual seeds, could be gathered; • the leaf-like glumes that covered each seed loosened, thus making the grains

“free-threshing”

The traditional explanation for the development of larger brains among early humans has been due to a shift from a vegetable-based diet to a meat-based one. Meat has more calories than plant matter, the theory went. A smaller gut could therefore support a larger brain.

Dr Wrangham disagrees. When you do the sums, he argues, raw meat is still insufficient to bridge the gap. He points out that even modern “raw foodists”, members of a town-dwelling, back-to-nature social movement, struggle to maintain their weight—and they have access to animals and plants that have been bred for the table. Pre-agricultural man confined to raw food would have starved. Dr. Wrangham believes that the increase in brain size occurred when humans began to cook their food. This is because according to studies, cooking increases the share of food digested in the stomach and small intestine, where it can be absorbed, from 50% to 95%.

18. Draw Jared Diamond's schematic overview of the chains of causation leading up to proximate historical factors from ultimate historical factors (or, in other words, the factors underlying the broadest patterns of history).

19. What were the main benefits from livestock?- Meat

- Milk products

- Fertilizers (manure)

- Land transport

- Leather, wool

- Other materials (bones, sinews, bladders, etc.)

- Military assault vehicles

- Plow traction

- Germs that killed previously unexposed people

19. According to Diamond, what are the five (5) regions of the world where we are certain that food production arose independently? What were the main plants and animals domesticated in three (3) of these regions?

Region Main Plants and AnimalsSouthwest Asia wheat, pea, olive sheep, goatChina rice, millet pig, silkwormMesoamerica corn, beans, turkey, squashAndes and Amazon Basin* potato, manioc llama, guinea pigEastern United States sunflower

*Andes of South America, and possibly the adjacent Amazon Basin as well

20. According to Diamond, what were the five (5) main contributing factors in the adoption of agriculture?

- Relative decline in availability of wild foods

- Climatic changes after last ice age increased range of domestic plants

- Cumulative development of technologies for harvesting and storing wild foods

- Rise of human populations rise in food production (autocalytic process)

- Farming populations (numbers) could displace H-G populations

21. What were the main criteria used by early farmers to select crops? What were the major types of change that did not involve early farmers making visible choices?

Early farmers didn’t understand genetics, but began selecting for:

- Size

- Taste (bitternesses; poisonous)

- Fleshiness

- Oiliness

- Fiber length

But what is good for humans might not necessarily be good for survival in the wild…

Other types of Changes not involving conscious choices:

1. Wild mechanisms for the dispersal of the seeds

Humans selected mutants that would not have survived in the wild

- Peas

- Lentils

- Flax and poppies

- Wheat and barley

2. Speed and simultaneousness of seed sprouting

Humans looked for opposite of nature, which has germination inhibitors to prevent quick and simultaneous germinating

Tilling and watering helped change that

Cumulative process

3. Plant Reproduction

Try to reproduce the original “good mutant”, especially those that do not reproduce themselves.

22. What were the main advantages of the Fertile Crescent in terms of developing agriculture when compared to other Mediterranean climatic zones?The fertile crescent had a larger area which meant different topography, it had a greater climatic variations (seasons to seasons year to year), wider range of altitudes and topographies, larger number of potential domesticated large mammals, less competition from hunter gatherer lifestyle than elsewhere(short coastlines, decimation of wild animals etc) In short there were better odds The fertile crescent also had a lot of hermaphroditic selfers.

23. Why does Diamond believe that Native Americans and Australians are not to blame for their lack of success in domesticating large herbivorous mammals?

1. Rapid acceptance of Eurasian domesticates by non-Eurasian peoples

2. Universal human penchant for keeping pets

3. Rapid domestication of Ancient 14

4. Repeated independent domestication of some

5. Limited successes of modern efforts at further domestications

24. What are the main characteristics needed for animal domestication?

1. Diet (herbivorous)

2. Growth rate (quick) – good energy converters that grow quickly

3. Problems captive breeding (cheetah’s mating rituals)

4. Nasty disposition (African buffalos, hippos, zebras)

5. Tendency to panic (deer and antelope flee; sheep and goats stand their ground)

6. Social structure

a. Herds

b. Hierarchy

c. Overlapping home ranges

25. In Diamond's opinion, why is an east-west continental axis preferable to a north-south continental axis?

Axis orientation affected rate and spread of

- Crops

- Livestock

- Writing

- Wheels

- Other inventions

Advantages of East-West Axis

Same latitude:- Same day length

- Seasonal variations

(To a lesser degree) Similar- Diseases

- Regimes of temperature and rainfall

- Habitats or biomes (types of vegetation)

Problems with the North-South Axis:- “Buffer Zones”

26. Why does Brian Fagan argue that our ancestors made themselves and us more vulnerable to the vagaries of nature and the weather once they switched from hunting and gathering to farming? Describe briefly two examples used by Fagan. Why does Ronald Bailey disagree with him?

Brian Fagan: Yes- HG could respond to environmental changes faster than farmers/urbanites which were tied to the land and cities.Ronald Bailey: NO – Our ancestors exchanged one set of vulnerabilities for another.

Bailey says:Farming

- Produced storable food surpluses

- That freed some portion of the population from food gathering activities

In the process- Increasing security of food supplies

- Allowing creation of larger scale societies in which people could trade surpluses

Virtually all food in our diet derived from organisms that have been genetically improved in some fashion

New DNA technologies are more precise and predictable than previous ones.