1 Handwriting Comparison. 2 Introduction Any object with handwriting or print whose source or...

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Handwriting ComparisonHandwriting Comparison

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IntroductionIntroduction• Any object with handwriting or print whose

source or authenticity is in doubt may be referred to as a questioned document.

• Document examiners apply knowledge gathered through years of training and experience to recognize and compare the individual characteristics of questioned and known authentic writings.

• For this purpose, the gathering of documents of known authorship or origin is critical to the outcome of the examination.

• The uniqueness of handwriting makes this type of physical evidence one of the few definitive individual characteristics available.

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Questioned DocumentsQuestioned Documents Identify a questioned document. Understand common individual

characteristics associated with handwriting.

List important guidelines for collection of known writings for comparison to questioned documents.

Have a general idea of techniques used to uncover indented writings and pen inks.

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Questioned DocumentsQuestioned Documents~Any object handwritten/typewritten or

computer generated whose source of identity is in doubt.

• Letters• Checks• Drivers licenses • Contracts• Wills• Voter registrations• Passports• Petitions• Lottery tickets

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Character of HandwritingCharacter of Handwriting• Document experts continually testify to the

fact that no two individuals write exactly alike.

• Many factors comprise the total character of a person’s writing.

• The early stages of learning handwriting are characterized by a conscious effort to copy standard letter forms.

• However, as writing skills improve, nerve and motor responses associated with the act of writing become subconscious.

• The unconscious handwriting of two different individuals can never be identical.

• Graphologist – an expert in the field of handwriting analysis

• Graphology – the study of a person’s handwriting that allows the expert to characterize personality traits and psychological disposition.

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Handwriting AnalysisHandwriting Analysis

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Character of HandwritingCharacter of Handwriting• Variations are expected in angularity, slope,

speed, pressure, letter and word spacing, relative dimensions of letters, connections, pen movement, writing skill, and finger dexterity.

• Other factors to consider include the arrangement of the writing on the paper, such as margins, spacing, crowding, insertions, and alignment.

• Spelling, punctuation, phraseology, and grammar can be personal and help to individualize the writer.

• Furthermore, the writing style of one individual may be altered beyond recognition by the influence of drugs or alcohol.

Character of HandwritingCharacter of Handwriting• No single handwriting characteristic can

in itself be taken as the basis for a positive comparison.

• The final conclusion must be based on a sufficient number of common characteristics between the known and questioned writing samples.

• There are no hard and fast rules for a sufficient number of personal characteristics; it is a judgment call made by the expert examiner in the context of each case.

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Handwriting Handwriting CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Excellent resource guide on handwriting analysis.

Many factors can influence the handwriting of an individual, therefore, knowing the background of the individual providing the handwriting sample is very helpful.

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• The position of the address on an envelope also gives some clues to the writer’s personality. You must first compare the handwriting in the letter to that on the envelope. They must have the same general characteristics. If they look very different, the writer is one who dissimulates and lies and is generally not trustworthy. *Country customs for addressing envelopes must also be taken into consideration.

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The absence of margins (the whole paper is filled with writing) is indicative of bad judgment; selfishness; lavishness; intrusive personality; immaturity; neurosis

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The most positive signature is one that matches in every aspect the handwriting of the address and the text.

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On unlined paper use a ruler to establish baselines and height.

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Handwriting ExemplarsHandwriting Exemplars• The collection of an adequate number of

known writings (exemplars) is most critical for determining the outcome of a handwriting comparison.

• Known writing should contain some of the words and combination of letters present in the questioned document and be adequate in number to show the range of natural variations in a suspect’s writing.

• The writing implement and paper should also be alike.

• The writing of dictation and several pages may serve to minimize attempts at deception.

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ExemplarsExemplars• An exemplar is an authentic sample used for

comparison purposes, such as handwriting.• Exemplars are most critical for determining the

outcome of a comparison.• Known writings of the suspect furnished to the

examiner should be as similar as possible to the questioned document (writing implements and paper).

• If a person switches even from a pencil to a ballpoint pen styles and habits may be altered. As well as if a paper is ruled or un ruled, may also affect the handwriting of a person who has become particularly accustomed to one type or the other.

• Known writings should also contain some of the words and combinations of letters present in the questioned document.

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Natural VariationsNatural Variations• Natural variations are normal

deviations found between repeated specimens of an individual’s handwriting or any printing device.

• Known writings must be adequate in number to show the examiner the range of natural variations in a suspect’s writing characteristics.

• No two writings made by one individual are ever identical in every detail. This is even true for signatures, no one ever signs two signatures exactly alike.

• Variation is an inherent part of natural writing.

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AuthenticityAuthenticity• Multiple sources are available to the

investigator for establishing the authenticity of the writings of a suspect.

• An important consideration is the age of the genuine document relative to the questioned one.

• It is key to find standards that date closely in time to the questioned one.

• In typical adults, basic writing changes are very slow. Material written within 2-3 years of the disputed writing is valid for comparison.

• As the age difference between the genuine and unknown specimens become greater, the standard tends to become less representative.

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It may be difficult or impossible to obtain an adequate set of collected standards.

In situations such as these, handwriting may have to be obtained voluntarily or under court order from the suspect.

The case of Gilbert v. California, the Supreme Court upheld the taking of handwriting exemplars before the appointment of counsel. They reasoned that samples are identifying physical characteristics that lie outside the protection privileges of the 5th Amendment.

Also, in the case of U.S v. Mara, the court ruled that taking a sample didn’t constitute an unreasonable search and seizure of a person and hence didn’t violate the 4th Amendment rights.

As you can see, there is ample case law to support the constitutionality of taking handwriting specimens.

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Requested writing samples may be consciously altered by the writer, as opposed to non requested specimens, which are written without the thought that they may someday be used in a police investigation.

Although, the investigator can take certain steps to minimize attempts at deception.

The several page requirement normally provides enough material that is free of attempts at deliberate disguise or nervousness for a valid comparison.

The writing of dictation yields exemplars that best represent the suspect’s subconscious style and characteristics.

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Steps to Minimize a Steps to Minimize a Conscious Writing Effort Conscious Writing Effort

are:are:• 1. The writer should be allowed to write sitting comfortably without distractions.

• 2. Under any circumstances, the suspect shouldn’t be shown the questioned document.

• 3. The suspect should use a pen and paper similar to the documents.

• 4. The text should contain the same contents of the questioned document.

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Steps to Minimize a Conscious Steps to Minimize a Conscious Writing Effort are:Writing Effort are:

• 5. Dictation of the text should take place at least 3 times. Noticeable variations should appear among 3 repetitions.

• 6. When the suspect is required to combine other writings with a signature, signature exemplars can be best obtained. The writer may be asked to fill out about 20-30 checks or receipts that will include signatures.

• 7. Last but not least, before requested exemplars are taken from the suspect, a document examiner should be consulted and shown the questioned specimens.

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Other Document Other Document ProblemsProblems

~Indented writings are impressions left on papers positioned under a piece of paper that has been written on.

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Indented WritingIndented Writing

~By applying an electrostatic charge to the surface of a polymer film that has been placed in contact with a questioned document.

~Then impressions are revealed by applying toner powder to the charged film.

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~ The work of the examiner goes beyond visual examination.

~Chromatography is used for ink comparisons.

~The use of thin layer chromatography can be use to prove that a document has been fraudulently backdated.

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Typewriter IssuesTypewriter Issues

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Criminals use typewriters Criminals use typewriters and computer printers to and computer printers to

write:write:• Threatening letters

• Ransom notes

• Extortion notes

• Fraud

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When a typewriter is involved, the document

examiner tries to:

Determine the make & model of the typewriter.

Match up the note with a suspect typewriter, if one is available.

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Typebar TypewriterTypebar Typewriter• A typebar typewriter is one in which

the typeface elements are permanently fastened into the machine. Because each machine has permanent, non-removable typeface components, text can sometimes be associated to the specific machine used by comparing characteristics, such as typeface damage or alignment defects, in the text and machine.

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Typeface TypewriterTypeface Typewriter

• The other type of typewriter has typeface that is affixed to an interchangeable element: a ball, printwheel, or (rarely) thimble. The style of type is specific to the individual element, not to the machine. Therefore, although text may be associated with a specific element, it can rarely be associated with a particular machine.

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Identifying the make and model means that the

examiner must have access to a database of typefaces used in various typewriter

models, new and old.

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Most manufactures use either pica or elite typefaces, but the size, shape, and style of the letters

vary, making identification possible.

Pica Typeface Elite Typeface

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RibbonsRibbons

• Typewriters that use ribbons can help the examiner link the typewriter to the document.

• An examination of the type of impressions left on the ribbon may reveal portion of the ribbon on which a particular text was typed.

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Case StudyCase Study

Ted Kaczynski- A.K.A. “The Unabomber”

Forensic document examiners matched the type written Manifesto to one of the typewriters recovered from his cabin.

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2 Basic Typewriters2 Basic Typewriters

Typebar Typewriter

Typeface Typewriter

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Alterations, Erasures and Alterations, Erasures and ObliterationsObliterations

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Alterations, Erasures and Alterations, Erasures and ObliterationsObliterations

• Documents are often altered or changed after their original preparation so the original intent may be hidden and a forgery can be perpetrated.

• Document examiners must deal with evidence that has been changed in several ways, such as through alterations, erasures, and obliterations.

AlterationsAlterations• Erasures by rubber erasers, sandpaper, razor

blade or knife to remove writing or typing disturb the fibers of the paper and are readily apparent when examined with a microscope.

• If an alteration is made to a document with ink differing form the original, it can sometimes be detected due to differences in the luminescence properties of the inks.

• Obliteration of writing by overwriting or crossing out to hide the original writing can be revealed by infrared radiation, which may pass through the upper layer of writing while being absorbed by the underlying area.

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Examples of Questioned Examples of Questioned DocumentsDocuments

• Letters, checks, drivers licenses, contracts, wills, passports, suicide notes, currency and lottery tickets are common questioned documents.

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Common Ways to Alter Common Ways to Alter DocumentsDocuments

• One of the most common ways to alter a document is through erasure. Erasure is the removal of writing, typewriting, or printing from a document by using a chemical or one of the following abrasive instruments:• India rubber eraser • Sandpaper• Razor blade• Knife

• All attempts at erasure disturb the upper fibers of the paper and those changes are apparent when the suspected area is examined under a microscope using light.

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Chemical ErasureChemical Erasure

• Strong oxidizing agents are placed over the ink which, under microscope examination, reveal a discoloration on the treated area of the paper.

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ObliterationObliteration

• The blotting out or smearing over of writing or printing to make the original unreadable. • Seldom used for fraudulent purposes

because its obviousness• It it’s done with the same ink it is harder

to detect however, photography with infrared-sensitive film may reveal the original writing

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Document Examination Document Examination EquipmentEquipment

• Microscope• Infrared Techniques• Electronic Imaging• High and Low Intensity Ultraviolet• Photography

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Counterfeit CurrencyCounterfeit Currency

• Counterfeiting of money is one of the oldest crimes in history

• During the Civil War, one-third to one-half of the currency in circulation was counterfeit

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Counterfeit CurrencyCounterfeit Currency• A national currency was

adopted in 1862 to resolve the counterfeiting problem

• On July 5th, 1865 the United States Secret Service was established to suppress the wide-spread counterfeiting of US currency

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How to Detect Counterfeit How to Detect Counterfeit MoneyMoney

• Portrait• The genuine portrait appears lifelike and

stands out distinctly from the background

• Federal Reserve and Treasury Seals• On a genuine bill, the saw-tooth points of

the Federal Reserve and Treasury seals are clear, distinct, and sharp

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• Border• The fine lines in the border of a genuine bill

are clear and unbroken

• Serial Numbers• Genuine serial numbers have a distinctive

style and are evenly spaced and they are printed in the same ink color as the Treasury Seal

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• Serial Numbers• Genuine serial numbers have a distinctive

style and are evenly spaced and they are printed in the same ink color as the Treasury Seal

• Paper• Genuine currency paper has tiny red and

blue fibers embedded throughout

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If You Receive Counterfeit If You Receive Counterfeit CurrencyCurrency

• Do not return it to the passer• Delay the passer if possible• Observe the passers’ description, as well as

that of any companions, and the license numbers of any vehicles used

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If You Receive Counterfeit If You Receive Counterfeit CurrencyCurrency

• Contact your local police department or the United States Secret Service field office

• Write your initials and the date in the white border areas of the suspect note

• Limit the handling of the note; carefully place it in a protective covering, such as an envelope

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Typewriters & Printing Typewriters & Printing DevicesDevices• The two requests most often made of the

examiner in connection with the examination of typewriters and printing devices are: • Whether the make and model of the typewriter and

printing devices used to prepare the questioned document can be identified

• Whether a particular suspect typewriter or printing device can be identified as having prepared the questioned document.

• In order to do this, the individual type character’s style, shape, and size are compared to a complete reference collection of past and present typefaces.

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Characteristics From Characteristics From UseUse• As is true for any mechanical device, use of a

printing device will result in wear and damage to the machine’s moving parts.

• These changes will occur in a fashion that is both random and irregular, thereby imparting individual characteristics to the printing device.

• The document examiner has to deal with problems involving business and personal computers, which often produce typed copies that have only subtle defects.

• Another area of investigation relates to the typewriter ribbon, which may contain type impressions.

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Digital TechnologyDigital Technology• In the cases of photocopiers, fax machines,

and computer printers an examiner may be called on to identify the make and model of a machine or to compare a questioned document with test samples from a suspect machine.

• A side-by-side comparison is made between the questioned document and the printed exemplars to compare markings produced by the machine.

• Examiners compare transitory defect marks, fax machine headers, toner, toner application methods, and mechanical and printing characteristics.

Other ProblemsOther Problems• Infrared photography and reflecting light at

different angles are sometimes successfully used to reveal the contents of a document that has been accidentally or purposely charred in a fire.

• In certain situations, indented writings (partially visible depressions underneath the visible writing) have proved to be valuable evidence.

• It may be possible to determine what was written by the impressions left on a paper pad.

• Applying an electrostatic charge to the surface of a polymer film placed in contact with a questioned document will visualize indented writings.

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Ink and Paper Ink and Paper ComparisonsComparisons

• A study of the chemical composition of the ink used on documents may verify whether or not known and questioned documents were prepared by the same pen; and the paper itself may be analyzed.

• A nondestructive approach to comparing ink lines is accomplished with a visible-light microspectrophotometer.

• Thin-layer chromatography is also suitable for ink comparisons.

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61ExaminationExamination

VOICE

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Voice ExaminationVoice Examination• The human voice may prove to be

valuable evidence for associating an individual with a criminal act.

• The probability that any two individuals: • Will have the same size vocal cavities

• (Throat, nasal, and two oral cavities formed by positioning the tongue)

• Will coordinate their articulators • (Lips, teeth, tongue, soft palate, and jaw muscles)

• In a like manner is so small as to make the human voice a unique personal trait.

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Voice ExaminationVoice Examination

• Because we live in an era of telephone, radio, and tape recorded communication, the human voice now proves to be valuable evidence for associating an individual with a criminal act

• In order to do this, we use the sound spectrograph, which is an instrument that converts speech into a visual graphic display.

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History of the History of the SpectrographSpectrograph

• The sound spectrograph was developed at Bell Telephone laboratories in 1941. A Bell System engineer named Lawrence Kersta worked with this device and became convinced that voiceprints could provide a valuable means of personal identification.

• VOICEPRINT: A pictorial representation of the frequency, duration and amplitude of human voice sounds

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The Sound SpectrographThe Sound Spectrograph• The sound spectrograph is an instrument that

converts speech into a visual graphic display, called a spectrogram or voiceprint.

• Courts have been asked to accept its results as evidence of an individual’s participation in a crime.

• At this time, however, there are still conflicting opinions in the courts as to whether the voiceprint has gained a sufficient degree of general acceptance within the scientific community to satisfy its admissibility as scientific evidence.

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The Sound SpectrographThe Sound Spectrograph• The spectrum portrays three

parameters of speech: time, frequency, and the relative intensity or volume.

• When sufficient similarity exists between the questioned and the known voice, a positive conclusion is justified that both voices have emanated from the same person.

• The recent introduction of the computerized sound spectrograph simplifies the work today.

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The Sound SpectrographThe Sound Spectrograph• Examiners apply both aural and visual

techniques when comparing two voice samples.

• The examiner can than classify the recording into one of seven categories ranging from a positive identification, a probable identification, a possible identification, inconclusive, a possible elimination, a probable elimination, or a positive elimination.

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• Kersta believed that every voice has its own unique quality and character, and that there was small chance that any two individuals have the same size vocal cavities and coordinate their articulators the same way, which would make the voice a unique personal trait.

The Sound SpectrographThe Sound Spectrograph

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The Pros and ConsThe Pros and Cons• Because of Kersta’s claim, many criminal

investigators have shown great interest in the sound spectrograph. Many Law enforcement laboratories have purchased them and many courts have to been asked to accept the results of the sound spectrograph as evidence of an individual’s participation in a crime.

• However, there is some debate in the courts as to whether or not the voiceprint has gained a sufficient amount of general acceptance throughout the scientific community for it to be considered admissible as scientific evidence.

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• The National Academy of Science feels that the degree of accuracy and the error rates of the voice identification varies from case to case, therefore there is no adequate scientific basis for legal authorities to judge the reliability of the voice spectrograph.

The Pros and ConsThe Pros and Cons

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How it worksHow it works

• The two most important characteristics of the voice are frequency and intensity. Frequency is the speed at which air particles vibrate. Intensity is the amount of energy (loudness) in a sound wave or pulse. No two sound waves will have exactly the frequencies or intensities.

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• The expert who is using the sound spectrograph must get sound samples from the person in question. The sound samples are played In a continuous loop throughout the sound spectrograph. It will read the frequencies and intensities and print out what looks very similar to a recording of an earthquake tremor. The expert will then compare the samples in two ways: Aural (listening) and Visual. A common way to perform aural analysis is to re-record the selected segment. During the visual comparison the spectrograms are placed side by side for rapid comparison


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• The examiner can classify the recording into 7 categories as recommended by the American Board of Recorded Evidence

• Positive Identification- 20+ similarities and all differences accounted for

• Probable Identification- 15+ similarities and no unexplained differences

• Possible Identification- 10+ similarities and no unexplained differences


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• Inconclusive Decision- poor evidence• A possible elimination- 10+ sounds with no

similarities• Probable Elimination - 15+ sounds with no

similarities• Positive Elimination- 20 + sounds with no

similarities


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