1 Devon M. Simmonds University of North Carolina, Wilmington CSC385 Professional and Ethical Issues...

Professional Ethics

CSC385Professional Ethics

CSCCSC385

1

Devon M. SimmondsUniversity of North Carolina, Wilmington

CSC385Professional and Ethical Issues in

Computer Science

Course Introduction

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

2

Quick Info

Dr. Devon Simmonds CIS 2046 [email protected] http://people.uncw.edu/simmondsd/ 962-3819

mailto:[email protected]

http://people.uncw.edu/simmondsd/

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

3

COURSE INTRODUCTIONOutline

Course overview Motivation for course on professional

ethics Getting to know you Overview of Critical Thinking &

Arguments

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

4

What is CSC 385?

Professional and Ethical Issues in Computer Science What is the impact of computers on

Society The Individual Government Business and Commerce

As computer professionals, what responsibilities do we personally have?

Writing & Presenting in the discipline

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

5

Student Learning Outcomes1. Identify ethical issues as they impact computer

science and related disciplines; [WI2]2. Differentiate between the main ethical theories and

be able to use the ethical theories in evaluating the ethical issues impacting computer science and related disciplines. [WI5] [WI2]

3. Discuss ethical issues in writing, using appropriate reference to the established Code of Ethics of the professional society relevant to that student's field (ACM, IEEE, etc), and apply professional codes of ethics to analyze and resolve ethical questions. [WI5] [WI2]

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

6

Student Learning Outcomes4. Demonstrate the ability to write within the

computer science discipline including writing one or more research papers that demonstrate the students grasp of ethical issues, display a clear understanding of how the ideas of other persons may be properly cited and used in written documents, and illustrate use of popular formats for presenting published papers in computer science. [WI3] [WI4]

5. Prepare and present information on a technical topic, in a professional manner.

6. Identify and locate appropriate sources of information to support decisions and written ideas. [WI1]

7. Analyze and evaluate arguments using rules of logic and be able to formulate effective arguments based on sound premises. [WI2] [WI4] [WI5]

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

7

Class Format Lectures Student-led presentations/discussions

Each student will lead 1/2 sessions PowerPoint presentation (~25 slides) Discussion questions.

Several small writing assignments A major project Project presentation Resume Writing & Online Interview Exams (midterm + final)

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

8

How Do I Get an ‘A’? Come to every class and participate. Read the textbook and participate in

class discussions. Prepare you slides in advance and talk

with me about them prior to your presentation.

Do all the assignments Do a good paper Do well on the exams

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

9

Grading Criteria

See course page …

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

10

The Required Text Ethics and Technology:

Controversies, Questions, and Strategies for Ethical Computing. Herman T. Tavani, Wiley,

2010 ISBN-10: 0470509503 ISBN-13: 978-

0470509500 Paperback: 406 pages

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

11

The Required Text Writing for Computer

Science 2nd Ed. Justin Zobel, Springer,

2004 ISBN-10:

9781852338022 ISBN-13: 978-

1852338022 Paperback: 280 pages

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

12

Course

Motivatio

n

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

13

What is going on? The President has authorized the NSA to perform

wiretaps on people inside of the United States. “Congress gave me the authority to use necessary force to

protect the American people, but it didn’t prescribe the tactics,”

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.tir.org/metapsy/pictures/terrorism.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.tir.org/metapsy/terrorism.htm&h=355&w=428&sz=92&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=KFnDu_6OOAYuaM:&tbnh=105&tbnw=126&prev=/images?q=terrorism&gbv=2&svnum=10&hl=en

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

14

Important questions

Should the federal government be allowed to use the NSA to perform wire taps on American citizens?

Should any branch of government be allowed to “tap now” ask permission later?

Which is more important Freedom or Security? How do we know who is a terrorist and who is

not? Are NSA wiretaps a violation of the fourth

amendment?“The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized “

15

Events that were possibly linked to Internet Terrorism:

• 9/11

• The London Bombings

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Smartphones Are Used To Stalk, Control Domestic Abuse Victims

Article with Audio

17

mSpy, PhoneSheriff, MobiStealth, StealthGenie

http://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2014/09/15/346149979/smartphones-are-used-to-stalk-control-domestic-abuse-victims

My Story

University of Technology, JamaicaPh.D. Colorado State

University

My Story

United States

Research interests:software engineering/model-driven

development/software architecture/aspect-oriented & component-based development

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

21

Getting to Know You

The Man without a Face, oil on panel, 11x14, 2005 – Dae-Woong Nam

Name Background

Where from Work experience

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Welcome, Motivation & Academic Expectations

• Ethics in a global village

Apple vs Google vs Facebook vs Amazon vs Microsoft

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

23

What Is Cyberethics?

• Cyberethics is the study of moral, legal, and social issues involving cybertechnology.

• It examines the impact that cybertechnology has for our social, legal, and moral systems.

• It also evaluates the social policies and laws that we frame in response to issues generated by the development and use of cybertechnology.

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

24

What Is Cybertechnology?

• Cybertechnology refers to a wide range of computing and communications devices – from standalone computers, to "connected"

or networked computing and communications technologies, to the Internet itself.

• Cybertechnologies include: – hand-held devices (such as personal digital

assistants);– personal computers (desktops and laptops);– large mainframe computers.

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

25

Why the term cyberethics?

• Cyberethics is a more accurate label than computer ethics, which can suggest the study of ethical issues limited either to:– computing machines, – computing professionals.

• Cyberethics is also more accurate than Internet ethics, which is limited only to ethical issues affecting computer networks.

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Motivational Scenario-I Ownership of a Twitter Account

PhoneDog Media – Mobile phone co. Noah Kravitz – employee Kravitz created blog – Phonedog-Noah

17,000 followers before he left job PhoneDog sued Kravitz

Claiming Twitter followers was a company list. misappropriation of a trade secret and conversion

Settlement Kravitz asked court to dismiss case - court held that Twitter

accounts could constitute trade secrets and that failure to relinquish account could constitute misuse of a trade secret

Parties settled ~ December 19, 2012: it appears Kravitz has been permitted to retain ownership of the twitter account.

26

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Motivational Scenario-II The Washiontonienne – Jessica Cutler.

Former staff assistant to Senator Michael DeWine (R-Ohio)

Created diary on blogger.com Described sexual relations with “a few older men” Diary was made public and … Was sued Got book contract …

27

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385The Evolution of Cybertechnology and Cyberethics: Four Phases Computer technology emerged in the late

1940s, when some analysts confidently predicted that no more than six computers would ever need to be built.

The first phase of computing technology (1950s and 1960s) consisted mainly of huge mainframe computers that were unconnected (i.e., stand-alone machines).

One ethical/social question that arose during Phase 1 dealt with the impact of computing machines as “giant brains” and what that meant for being human.

Another question raised during this phase concerned privacy threats and the fear of Big Brother.

28

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385The Evolution of Cybertechnology and Cyberethics (Continued) In Phase 2 (1970s and 1980s), computing

machines and communications devices began to converge.

Mainframe computers and personal computers could be linked together via privately owned networks such as LANs and WANs.

Privacy concerns arose because confidential information could easily be exchanged between networked databases.

Intellectual property issues emerged because personal computers could easily duplicate proprietary software programs.

Computer crime was possible because people could break into the computers of large organizations.

29

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385The Evolution of Cybertechnology and Cyberethics (Continued) During Phase 3 (1990-present), the availability

of Internet access to the general public has increased significantly.

This has been facilitated by the phenomenal growth of the World Wide Web.

The proliferation of Internet- and Web-based technologies in this phase has raised ethical and social concerns affecting:

free speech, anonymity, jurisdiction.

30

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385The Evolution of Cybertechnology and Cyberethics (Continued) As cybertechnology evolves in Phase 4,

computers will likely become more and more a part of who or what we are as human beings.

James Moor (2005) notes that computing devices will soon be a part of our clothing, and even our bodies.

Computers are already becoming ubiquitous, and are beginning to “pervade” both our work and recreational environments.

Objects in these environments already exhibit what Philip Brey (2005) calls “ambient intelligence,” which enables “smart objects” to be connected to one another via wireless technology.

31

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

32

Table 1-1: Summary of Four Phases of Cyberethics

Phase

Time Period Technological Features

Associated Issues

1 1950s-1960s Stand-alone machines (large mainframe computers)

Artificial intelligence (AI), database privacy ("Big Brother")

2 1970s-1980s Minicomputers and PCs interconnected via privately owned networks

Issues from Phase 1 plus concerns involving intellectual property and software piracy, computer crime, privacy and the exchange of records.

3 1990s-Present Internet and World Wide Web Issues from Phases 1 and 2 plus concerns about free speech, anonymity, legal jurisdiction, virtual communities, etc.

4 Present toNear Future

Convergence of information and communication technologies with nanotechnology research and bioinformatics research, etc.

Issues from Phases 1-3 plus concerns about artificial electronic agents ("bots") with decision-making capabilities, bionic chip implants, nanocomputing research, etc.

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Are Cyberethics Issues Unique? Verizon v. RIAA 2003 RIAA subpoena ISPs (Comcast, Verizon,

etc., universities) for names of users who Downloaded? Music.

Verizon refused, challenged RIAA in court Claiming violation of constitution – 1st amendment

(freedom of speech, religion,…) Federal District Judge John Bates agreed completely

with the RIAA. DC Court of Appeals Judge Douglas Ginsburg ruled in

favor of Verizon.

33

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Are Cyberethics Issues Unique? Amy Boyer Cyberstalking case 10/1999 20y Amy Boyer is murdered by

stalker. Stalker – Liam Youens used the

Internet/software tools, e.g. search engines. Paid small fee toDocusearch.com for her

address, workplace, etc. Created web sites about Boyer

On one site he posted personal info, photo, etc. Another site explicit details of the murder plans.

34

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Are Cyberethics Issues Unique? Consider the Verizon v. RIAA case

in light of the ethical issues it raises. The case raises concerns about

privacy, anonymity, surveillance, and intellectual property rights.

Are any of these issues new or unique ethical issues?

35

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Are Cyberethics Issues Unique (Continued)?

Next, consider the Amy Boyer case. Is there anything new or unique about

this case from an ethical point of view?

Boyer was stalked in ways that were not possible before cybertechnology.

But do any new or any unique ethical issues arise in this case?

36

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Uniqueness Issue (Continued) There are two points of view on

whether cybertechnology has generated any new or unique ethical issues:

(1) Traditionalists argue that nothing is new – crime is crime, and murder is murder.

(2) Uniqueness Proponents argue that cybertechnology has introduced (at least some) new and unique ethical issues that could not have existed before computers.

37

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Uniqueness Issue (Continued) Both sides seem correct on some

claims, and both seem to be wrong on others.

Traditionalists underestimate the role that issues of scale and scope that apply because of the impact of computer technology.

For example, cyberstalkers can stalk multiple victims simultaneously (scale) and globally (because of the scope or reach of the Internet).

Cyberstalkers can also operate without ever having to leave the comfort of their homes.

38

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Uniqueness Issue (Continued) Uniqueness proponents tend to

overstate the effect that cybertechnology has on ethics per se.

Walter Maner (2004) argues that computers are uniquely fast, uniquely malleable, etc.

There may indeed be some unique aspects of computer technology.

39

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Uniqueness Issue (Continued) But uniqueness proponents tend to

confuse unique features of technology with unique ethical issues.

Their argument is based on a logical fallacy:

Cybertechnology has some unique technological features.

Cybertechnology generates some ethical issues. Therefore, some of the ethical issues generated

by cybertechnology must be unique.40

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Uniqueness Issue (Continued)

Traditionalists and uniqueness proponents are each partly correct.

Traditionalists correctly point out that no new ethical issues have been introduced by computers.

Uniqueness proponents are correct in that cybertechnology has complicated our analysis of traditional ethical issues. 41

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Uniqueness Issue (Continued)

So we must distinguish between any:

(a) unique technological features; (b) (alleged) unique ethical issues. Consider two scenarios from the

text: (1) computer professionals designing

and coding a controversial computer system;

(2) software piracy.42

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Alternative Strategy for Analyzing the Uniqueness Issue

James Moor (2000) argues that computer technology generates “new possibilities for human action” because computers are logically malleable.

Logical malleability, in turn, introduces policy vacuums.

Policy vacuums often arise because of conceptual muddles.

43

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Case Illustration of a Policy Vacuum: Duplicating Software In the early 1980s, there were no

clear laws regarding the duplication of software programs, which was made easy because of personal computers.

A policy vacuum arose. Before the policy vacuum could be

filled, we had to clear up a conceptual muddle: What exactly is software?

44

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Case Illustration of a Policy Vacuum: Duplicating Software In the early 1980s, there were clear

laws regarding the theft of property. Intellectual property laws did not cover

software. Was software an idea? A form of writing? (protected by copyright

laws) A set of machine instructions? (protected by

patents). So cybertechnology deserved special

recognition as a branch of applied ethics. 45

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Cyberethics as a Branch of Applied Ethics Applied ethics, unlike theoretical ethics,

examines "practical" ethical issues. It analyzes moral issues from the

vantage-point of one or more ethical theories.

Ethicists working in fields of applied ethics are more interested in applying ethical theories to the analysis of specific moral problems than in debating the ethical theories themselves. 46

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Cyberethics as a Branch of Applied Ethics (continued)

Three distinct perspectives of applied ethics (as applied to cyberethics):

Professional Ethics; Philosophical Ethics; Descriptive Ethics.

47

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Perspective # 1: Professional Ethics According to this view, cyberethics is

the field that identifies and analyzes issues of ethical responsibility for computer professionals.

Consider a computer professional's role in designing, developing, and maintaining computer hardware and software systems.

Suppose a programmer discovers that a software product she has been working on is about to be released for sale to the public, even though it is unreliable because it contains “buggy” software.

Should she “blow the whistle”?

48

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Professional Ethics Don Gotterbarn (1995) has suggested

that computer ethics issues are professional ethics issues.

Computer ethics, for Gotterbarn, is similar to medical ethics and legal ethics, which are tied to issues involving specific professions.

He notes that computer ethics issues aren’t about technology per se. For example, we don’t have automobile

ethics, airplane ethics, etc. 49

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Criticism of Professional Ethics Perspective Is Gotterbarn’s model for computer

ethics too narrow for cyberethics? Cyberethics issues affect not only

computer professionals; they effect everyone.

Before the widespread use of the Internet, Gotterbarn’s professional-ethics model may have been adequate.

50

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Perspective # 2: Philosophical Ethics

From this perspective, cyberethics is a field of philosophical analysis and inquiry that goes beyond professional ethics.

Moor (2000) defines computer ethics as:

...the analysis of the nature and social impact of computer technology and the corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology. [Italics Added.]

51

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Philosophical Ethics Perspective (continued) Moor argues that automobile and

airplane technologies did not affect our social policies and norms in the same kinds of fundamental ways that computer technology has.

Automobile and airplane technologies have revolutionized transportation, resulting in our ability to travel faster and farther than was possible in previous eras.

But they did not have the same impact on our legal and moral systems as cybertechnology.

52

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Philosophical Ethics: Standard Model of Applied Ethics Philip Brey (2004) describes the

“standard methodology” used by philosophers in applied ethics research as having three stages:

1) Identify a particular controversial practice as a moral problem.

2) Describe and analyze the problem by clarifying concepts and examining the factual data associated with that problem.

3)Apply moral theories and principles to reach a position about the particular moral issue.

53

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Perspective #3: Cyberethics as a Field of Descriptive Ethics

The professional and philosophical perspectives both illustrate normative inquiries into applied ethics issues.

Normative inquiries or studies are contrasted with descriptive studies.

Descriptive investigations report about “What is the case.“

Normative inquiries evaluate situations from the vantage-point of the question: “What ought to be the case?”.

54

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Descriptive Ethics Perspective (continued) Scenario: A community’s workforce and

the introduction of a new technology. Suppose a new technology displaces

8,000 workers in a community. If we analyze the issues solely in terms

of the number of jobs that were gained or lost in that community, our investigation is essentially descriptive in nature. We are simply describing an impact that

technology X has for Community Y. 55

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Descriptive Ethics Perspective (continued) Descriptive vs. Normative Claims Consider three assertions: (1) "Bill Gates served as the Chief Executive Officer of

Microsoft Corporation for many years.” (2) "Bill Gates should expand Microsoft’s product

offerings.“ (3) “Bill Gates should not engage in business practices

that are unfair to competitors.”

Claims (2) And (3) are normative, (1) is descriptive; (2) is normative but nonmoral, while (3) is both normative and moral.

56

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Figure 1-1: Descriptive vs. Normative Claims

Descriptive Normative (Report or describe what is the case) (Prescribe what ought to be the case)

Non-moral Moral

Prescribe or evaluatein matters involvingstandards such as art and sports (e.g., criteria for a good painting or an outstanding athlete).

Prescribe or evaluate in matters having to do with fairness and Obligation (e.g., criteria for just and unjust actions and policies).

57

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385 Some Benefits of Using the Descriptive Approach Huff & Finholt (1994) claim that when

we understand the descriptive aspect of social effects of technology, the normative ethical issues become clearer.

The descriptive perspective prepare us for our subsequent analysis of ethical issues that affect our system of policies and laws.

58

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Table 1-2: Summary of Cyberethics Perspectives

Type of Perspective

Associated Disciplines

Issues Examined

Professional Computer ScienceEngineeringLibrary/Information Science

Professional ResponsibilitySystem Reliability/SafetyCodes of Conduct

Philosophical PhilosophyLaw

Privacy & AnonymityIntellectual PropertyFree Speech

Descriptive SociologyBehavioral Sciences

Impact of cybertechnology on governmental/financial/ educational institutions and socio-demographic groups

59

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Is Cyber-technology Neutral? Technology seems neutral, at least

initially. Consider the cliché: “Guns don’t kill

people, people kill people.” Corlann Gee Bush (2006) argues that

gun technology, like all technologies, is biased in certain directions.

She points out that certain features inherent in gun technology itself cause guns to be biased in a direction towards violence.

60

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Is Technology Neutral (continued)? Bush uses an analogy from physics to

illustrate the bias inherent in technology.

An atom that either loses or gains electrons through the ionization process becomes charged or valenced in a certain direction.

Bush notes that all technologies, including guns, are similarly valenced in that they tend to "favor" certain directions rather than others.

Thus technology is biased and is not neutral. 61

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385A "Disclosive" Method for Cyberethics Brey (2004) believes that because of

embedded biases in cybertechnology, the standard applied-ethics methodology is not adequate for identifying cyberethics issues.

We might fail to notice certain features embedded in the design of cybertechnology.

Using the standard model, we might also fail to recognize that certain practices involving cybertechnology can have moral implications. 62

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Disclosive Method (Continued) Brey notes that one weakness of the

“standard method of applied ethics” is that it tends to focus on known moral controversies

So that model fails to identify practices involving cybertechnology which have moral implications but that are not yet known.

Brey refers to these practices as having morally opaque (or morally non-transparent) features, which he contrasts with "morally transparent” features.

63

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Figure 1-2: Embedded Technological Features Having Moral Implications

Known Features Unknown Features

Transparent Features Morally Opaque Features

Users are aware of these features but do not realize they have moral implications.

Examples can include:Web Forms and search-engine tools.

Users are not even aware of the technological featuresthat have moral implications Examples might include data-mining technology and Internet cookies.

64

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

A Multi-Disciplinary and Multi-Level Method for Cyberethics

Brey’s disclosive method is multidisciplinary because it requires the collaboration of:

computer scientists, philosophers, social scientists.

65

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

A Multi-Disciplinary & Multi-Level Method for Cyberethics (Continued)

Brey’s scheme is also multi-level because the method for conducting computer ethics research requires three levels of analysis, i.e., a:

disclosure level, theoretical level, application level.

66

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Table 1-3: Three Levels in Brey’s Model of Computer Ethics

Disclosive Computer ScienceSocial Science (optional)

Disclose embedded features in computer technology that have moral import

Theoretical Philosophy Test newly disclosed features against standard ethical theories

Application Computer SciencePhilosophySocial Science

Apply standard or newly revised/ formulated ethical theories to the issues

Level Disciplines Involved Task/Function

67

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

68

Critica

l Analysis

of Iss

ues: How?

68

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

69

A Three-step Strategy for Approaching Cyberethics IssuesStep 1. Identify a practice involving cyber-technology, or a featurein that technology, that is controversial from a moralperspective.

1a. Disclose any hidden (or opaque) features or issues that have moral implications

1b. If the ethical issue is descriptive, assess the sociological implications for relevant social institutions and socio-demographic and populations.

1d. If the normative ethical issues remain, go to Step 2. Step 2. Analyze the ethical issue by clarifying concepts and situating it in a context.

2a. If a policy vacuums exists, go to Step 2b; otherwise go to Step 3.2b. Clear up any conceptual muddles involving the policy vacuum and go to Step 3 .

Step 3. Deliberate on the ethical issue. The deliberation process requires two stages:

3a. Apply one or more ethical theories (see Chapter 2) to the analysis of the moral issue, and then go to step 3b.

3b. Justify the position you reached by evaluating it against the rules for logic/critical thinking (see Chapter 3).

1c. If the ethical issue is also normative, determine whether there are any specific guidelines, that is, professional codes that can help you resolve the issue (see Appendixes A-E).

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

70

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Critical Thinking and Logical Arguments

Brook Moore and Richard Parker (2007) define critical thinking as: the careful deliberate determination

of whether we should accept, reject, or suspend judgment about a claim.

Claims, or statements, can be used in a form of reasoning called a logical argument or argument.

71

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Logical Arguments

An argument can be defined as a:

form of reasoning that attempts to establish the truth of one claim (called a conclusion) based on the assumed truth of the evidence in other claims (called premises) provided to support the conclusion.

72

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Arguments (Continued)

An argument has three important characteristics or features in that it:

(i) is a form of reasoning; (ii) is comprised of claims (sometimes

also called statements or assertions); (iii) aims at establishing a conclusion

(i.e., one claim) based on evidence (provided by other claims called premises).

73

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Structure of an Argument

Premise 1 . optional . optional Premise N optional Conclusion

74

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Argument structure continued Premise 1. When I recently visited the Computer Science

Department at the University of Hiroshima I noticed that graduate students and professors there were field testing a new computer chip, whose code name is Chip X.

Premise 2. I have a copy of the design specifications for Chip X, which shows that it will be several times faster than any chip currently available in the US.

Premise 3. Lee Smith, a mutual colleague of ours who was recently an exchange student in the computer science program at the University of Hiroshima and who participated in the field testing of Chip X, will corroborate my account. ________________________________________

Conclusion. Chip X is currently being developed in Japan.

75

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Argument Structure vs. Argument Strength

Not all arguments are strong - i.e., not all arguments succeed in

establishing their conclusions. Any form of reasoning will qualify as an

argument if it satisfies the three conditions we specified.

See the next example.

76

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Argument Structure vs. Argument Strength (Continued)

Premise 1. An author's freedom to write a book on how to build a bomb is one that is protected by the First Amendment.

Premise 2. Authoring a book is similar to constructing a Web Site.

___________________________________________ Conclusion. Constructing a Web site on how

to build a bomb ought to be protected by the First Amendment.

77

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Figure 3-1: Valid and Invalid Arguments

Arguments

Valid Invalid

The assumed truth of the premises is sufficient to guarantee the conclusion.

Premises (even when true) do not guarantee the conclusion.

78

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385The Form of a Valid Argument A valid argument is valid in virtue of its

logical form, not its content. An example of a valid logical form is:

PREMISE 1. All A are B. PREMISE 2. C is A._____________________________________

CONCLUSION. C is B.

79

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Sound and Unsound Arguments

For an argument to be sound, it must be: (a) valid (i.e., the assumed truth of the

premises would guarantee the truth of the argument’s conclusion);

(b) the (valid) argument’s premises must also be true in the actual world.

80

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Arguments That Are Valid but not Sound

An argument can be valid but still not succeed. For example, the argument’s

premises might not be true in the actual world.

In this case the argument would still be valid but it would not be sound.

81

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Arguments that are Valid and Unsound

The following argument is valid, but unsound:

PREMISE 1. People who own iMac computers are smarter than those who own PCs.

PREMISE 2. My roommate owns an iMac computer.

PREMISE 3. I own a PC. _____________________________________CONCLUSION. My roommate is smarter than

me.

82

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Sound Arguments

Sound arguments are very rare. The following argument is sound:

PREMISE 1. CEOs of major computer corporations are high-school graduates.

PREMISE 2. Bill Gates was the CEO of a major computer corporation.

_______________________________CONCLUSION. Bill Gates is a high-school

graduate.

83

Professional Ethics



Valid Arguments

Sound Unsound

All the premises are true. At least one premise is false.

84

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Invalid Arguments An argument is invalid if you can

give one counterexample to the argument.

A counterexample is: a possible case where the premises can be

assumed to be true while, at the same time, the conclusion could be false.

Invalid arguments will be either: inductive, or fallacious.

85

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Invalid Arguments (Continued)

The following argument is invalid because a counter example is possible:

PREMISE 1. All CEOs of major United States computer corporations have been United States citizens.

PREMISE 2. Bill Gates is a United States citizen._____________________________________CONCLUSION. Bill Gates has been a CEO of a

major computer corporation in the United States.

86

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Inductive Arguments Not all invalid arguments are weak. Some invalid arguments are inductive. An argument is inductive when:

the conclusion would likely be true when the premises of the argument are assumed to be true.

Even though a counterexample to an inductive argument is possible, in the majority of cases where the premises are assumed true, the conclusion would also likely be true.

Invalid arguments that are not inductive are fallacious.

87

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Inductive Arguments (Continued)

The following is an example of an inductive argument:

PREMISE 1. Seventy-five percent of people who own iPods also own iMacs.

PREMISE 2. My roommate owns an iPod._______________________________

CONCLUSION. My roommate owns an iMac.

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Inductive Arguments (cont’d) Some inductive arguments, although invalid

can be stronger than some valid arguments. If premises of inductive arguments are true they

are stronger than Valid but unsound arguments (at least one premise is

false)

89

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Inductive vs Sound Arguments

PREMISE 1. Seventy-five percent of people who own iPods also own iMacs.

PREMISE 2. My roommate owns an iPod._______________________________CONCLUSION. My roommate owns an iMac.

PREMISE 1. All CEOs of major United States computer corporations have been United States citizens.

PREMISE 2. Bill Gates is a United States citizen._____________________________________CONCLUSION. Bill Gates has been a CEO of a major

computer corporation in the United States.

Stronger

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Fallacious Arguments Invalid arguments that are not inductive

are fallacious. An argument is fallacious when:

the conclusion would NOT likely be true when the premises of the argument are assumed to be true.

(see 2nd example on previous page).

91

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Summary I

Arguments

Valid Invalid

The assumed truth of the premises is sufficient to guarantee the conclusion.

Premises (even when true) do not guarantee the conclusion.

92

Professional Ethics



Valid Arguments

Sound Unsound

All the premises are true. At least one premise is false.

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Inductive and Fallacious Arguments

Invalid Arguments

Inductive Fallacious

Conclusion likely follows from assuming the truth of the premises.

Conclusion does not likely followfrom assuming the truth of the premises.

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385A Comprehensive Scheme for Viewing Arguments

Arguments

Valid Invalid

Unsound Sound Inductive Fallacious

Strong Arguments Weak Arguments Weak Arguments

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Seven-step Strategy for Evaluating Arguments: I

Step 1. Convert the argument into standard form. (List the premises first, followed by the conclusion.)

Step 2. Test the argument for its reasoning strength to see whether it is valid or invalid. (Assume the premises to be true, and ask yourself whether the conclusion must also be true when those premises are assumed true. Is a counterexample to the argument possible?)

Step 3. Is the argument valid?

If yes, go to Step 4.

If no, go to Step 5.

Step 4. Is the (valid) argument also sound? That is, are the premises true in the actual world?4a. If the argument is valid and if all of the premises are true in the actual world, then the argument is also sound. (To determine truth-values for statements, see Appendix E.)4b. If the argument is valid, but one or more premises can be shown to be either false or not capable of being verified in the actual world, then argument is unsound.

(Part 1: Steps 1-4)

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Seven-Step Strategy For Evaluating Arguments: II

Step 5. Is the (invalid) argument inductive or fallacious? (How likely will the conclusion be true when the premises are assumed true?)5a. If the conclusion would likely be true because the premises are assumed true, the argument is inductive.5b. If the conclusion would not likely be true even when the premises are assumed

true, the argument is fallacious. (Keep in mind that a fallacious argument can be made up of Individual claims that are themselves true in the actual world.)

Step 6. Determine whether the premises in your argument are either true or false.

Step 7: Make an overall assessment of the argument. That is, describe the argument's strength of reasoning in conjunction with the truth conditions of the argument's premises. For example, is the argument inductive with all true premises? Is it inductive with some false premises? Is it fallacious with a mixture of true and false premises, and so forth? Remember that an inductive argument with premises that are all true is stronger than a valid argument with one or more false premises.)

(Part II: Steps 5-7)

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Logical Fallacies in Everyday Reasoning

The term "fallacy" does not mean false statement.

It means faulty reasoning. It is possible for an argument to

contain all true statements and still be fallacious.

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Informal Logical Fallacies

Many informal logical fallacies appear in everyday reasoning.

Logicians have categorized them in ways that are convenient for us to recognize.

We refer to these kinds of fallacious arguments as informal logical fallacies.

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385Class Activity I: define & give an example of each of these Fallacies

Ad Hominem Argument Slippery Slope Argument Fallacy of Appeal to Authority False Cause Fallacy Begging the Question Fallacy of Composition/Fallacy of Division Fallacy of Ambiguity Appeal to the People (Argumentum ad

Populum) The Many/Any Fallacy The Virtuality Fallacy

100

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Class Activity II: Discussion question 1:

Construct an argument to support or refute the view that all undergraduate students should be required to take a course in cyberethics.

Next evaluate your argument to see if it is valid or invalid.

If valid, is it sound? If invalid, is it inductive or fallacious?

101

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

Explore Our Web Site

102

Professional Ethics


CSCCSC385

103

This course is about ethical issues surrounding the use of cybertechnologies.

Cybertechnologies are here to stay! Next class ?????

SUMMAR Y

1 Devon M. Simmonds University of North Carolina, Wilmington CSC385 Professional and Ethical Issues...

Documents

Transcript of 1 Devon M. Simmonds University of North Carolina, Wilmington CSC385 Professional and Ethical Issues...