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Derivatives: An Introduction

Sept 14, 2015

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Outline

Introduction Types of derivatives Participants in the derivatives world Uses of derivatives Effective study of derivatives

Size of the market - OTC

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Size of the market – Exchanges

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Introduction

There is no universally satisfactory answer to the question of what a derivative is

Often when a market participant suffers a large newsworthy loss, the term “derivatives” is used almost as if it were an explanation– “anything that results in a large loss”– “dreaded D word”– “beef derivative”

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Introduction

Futures and options markets are sometimes essential parts of the financial system

Futures and options markets have a long history of being misunderstood

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Introduction (cont’d)

“What many critics of equity derivatives fail to realize is that the markets for these instruments have become so large not because of slick sales campaigns, but because they are providing economic value to their users”

– Alan Greenspan, 1988

Who also famously said:

“ I know you think you understand what you thought I said but I'm not sure you realize that what you heard is not what I meant”

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Introduction (cont’d)

‘In our view, however, derivatives are financial weapons of mass destruction, carrying dangers that, while latent now, are potentially lethal’

– Warren Buffett 2002 Berkshire Hathaway annual report

’derivatives are something like electricity: dangerous if mishandled, but bearing the potential to do good’

– Arthur Leavitt- Chairman SEC 1995

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Types of Derivatives

Categories of derivatives Options Futures contracts Swaps Product characteristics

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Categories of Derivatives

FuturesListed, OTC futuresForward contracts

OptionsCallsPuts

SwapsInterest rate swapForeign currency swap

Derivatives

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Options

An option is the right to either buy or sell something at a set price, within a set period of time– The right to buy is a call option– The right to sell is a put option

You can exercise an option if you wish, but you do not have to do so

You must have a counterparty

Option Obligations

Buyer Seller

Call option Right to buy asset Obligation to sell asset

Put option Right to sell asset Obligation to buy asset

Genentech Stock

Option MaturityExercise

PricePrice of Call

OptionPrice of Put

Option

Dec-06 $70 $14.30 $0.7575 9.90 1.4080 6.50 2.7585 3.70 5.1090 1.90 8.70

Mar-07 $70 $15.10 $2.2075 12.20 2.6580 9.00 4.60

85 6.20 7.7090 4.10 9.46

Jan-08 $70 $20.50 $4.3075 18.0 5.780 14.9 7.385 12.0 10.490 9.9 12.7

Long term options are called 'LEAPS"

Selected prices for puts and calls September 2006

Option Value

The value of an option at expiration is a function of the stock price and the exercise price.

Example - Option values given a exercise price of $80

00001020ValuePut

302010000Value Call

110100908070$60PriceStock

Option Value

Call option value (graphic) given a $80 exercise price.

Share Price

Cal

l opt

ion

valu

e

80 95

$15

Option Value

Put option value (graphic) given a $80 exercise price.

Share Price

Put

opt

ion

valu

e

70 80

$10

Option Value

Call option payoff (to seller) given a $80 exercise price.

Share Price

Cal

l opt

ion

$ pa

yoff

80

Option Value

Put option payoff (to seller) given a $80 exercise price.

Share Price

Put

opt

ion

$ pa

yoff

80

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Futures Contracts

Futures contracts involve a promise to exchange a product for cash by a set delivery date

Futures contracts deal with transactions that will be made in the future

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Futures Contracts (cont’d)

Futures contracts are different from options in that:

– The buyer of an option can abandon the option if he or she wishes

– The buyer of a futures contract cannot abandon the contract

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Futures Contracts (cont’d)

Futures Contracts Example

The futures market deals with transactions that will be made in the future. A person who buys a December U.S. Treasury bond futures contract promises to pay a certain price for treasury bonds in December. If you buy the T-bonds today, you purchase them in the cash, or spot market.

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Futures Contracts (cont’d)

A futures contract involves a process known as marking to market– Money actually moves between accounts each

day as prices move up and down

A forward contract is functionally similar to a futures contract, however:– There is no marking to market– Forward contracts are not marketable

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Swaps

Introduction Interest rate swap Foreign currency swap

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Introduction

Swaps are arrangements in which one party trades something with another party

The swap market is very large, with trillions of dollars outstanding

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Interest Rate Swap

In an interest rate swap, one firm pays a fixed interest rate on a sum of money and receives from some other firm a floating interest rate on the same sum– Popular with corporate treasurers as risk

management tools and as a convenient means of lowering corporate borrowing costs

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Foreign Currency Swap

In a foreign currency swap, two firms initially trade one currency for another

Subsequently, the two firms exchange interest payments, one based on a foreign interest rate and the other based on a U.S. interest rate

Finally, the two firms re-exchange the two currencies

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Product Characteristics

Both options and futures contracts exist on a wide variety of assets– Options trade on individual stocks, on market

indexes, on metals, interest rates, or on futures contracts

– Futures contracts trade on products such as wheat, live cattle, gold, heating oil, foreign currency, U.S. Treasury bonds, and stock market indexes

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Product Characteristics (cont’d)

The underlying asset is that which you have the right to buy or sell (with options) or the obligation to buy or deliver (with futures)

Listed derivatives trade on an organized exchange such as the Chicago Board Options Exchange or the Chicago Board of Trade

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Product Characteristics (cont’d)

OTC derivatives are customized products that trade off the exchange and are individually negotiated between two parties

Options are securities and are regulated by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

Futures contracts are regulated by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC)

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Participants in the Derivatives World

Hedging Speculation Arbitrage

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Hedging

If someone bears an economic risk and uses the futures market to reduce that risk, the person is a hedger

Hedging is a prudent business practice and a prudent manager has a legal duty to understand and use the futures market hedging mechanism

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Speculation

A person or firm who accepts the risk the hedger does not want to take is a speculator

Speculators believe the potential return outweighs the risk

The primary purpose of derivatives markets is not speculation. Rather, they permit the transfer of risk between market participants as they desire

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Hedgers and Speculators

Hedgers SpeculatorsRisk Transfer

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Arbitrage

Arbitrage is the existence of a riskless profit

Arbitrage opportunities are quickly exploited and eliminated

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Arbitrage (cont’d)

Persons actively engaged in seeking out minor pricing discrepancies are called arbitrageurs

Arbitrageurs keep prices in the marketplace efficient– An efficient market is one in which securities are

priced in accordance with their perceived level of risk and their potential return

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Uses of Derivatives

Risk management Income generation Financial engineering

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Risk Management

The hedger’s primary motivation is risk management– “Banks appears to have effectively used such

instruments to shift a significant part of the risk from their corporate loan portfolios”

Alan Greenspan, 2002

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Risk Management (cont’d)

Someone who is bullish believes prices are going to rise

Someone who is bearish believes prices are going to fall

We can tailor our risk exposure to any points we wish along a bullish/bearish continuum

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Risk Management (cont’d)

FALLING PRICES FLAT MARKET RISING PRICES

EXPECTED EXPECTED EXPECTED

BEARISH NEUTRAL BULLISH

Increasing bearishness Increasing bullishness

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Income Generation

Writing a covered call is a way to generate income– Involves giving someone the right to purchase

your stock at a set price in exchange for an up-front fee (the option premium) that is yours to keep no matter what happens

Writing calls is especially popular during a flat period in the market or when prices are trending downward

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Financial Engineering

Financial engineering refers to the practice of using derivatives as building blocks in the creation of some specialized product

Financial engineers:– Select from a wide array of puts, calls futures,

and other derivatives– Know that derivatives are neutral products

(neither inherently risky nor safe)

Valuation

The price of Apple shares were 114.71 per share – Market Cap was $654.17 billion on Sept 24.

Current Price 114.71

Valuation

Valuation

Suppose you bought vanilla options to put AAPL shares on July 13, 2015 when the stocks were $125.66. You were able to get the options for a strike price of $125 for almost nothing, so you bought options on 1,000.

What are they worth now?

Value of options with strike price 125 is 9.85. This means that the options are worth $9,850.

This amount is booked as profit, less what is paid (almost nothing).

Valuation

Now, let’s suppose you have a hedge fund that buys and sells this kind of asset as part of its operations. How do you account for outstanding hedging instruments on assets in which you have no ownership interest?

Hedge funds use Net Asset Value (NAV) to report values. These are usually audited. We have just seen how easily these values can disappear.

Valuation

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Effective Study of Derivatives

The study of derivatives involves a vocabulary that essentially becomes a new language e.g.– Implied volatility– Delta hedging– Short straddle– Near-the-money– Gamma neutrality– Etc.

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Effective Study of Derivatives (cont’d)

All financial institutions can make some productive use of derivative assets– Investment houses– Asset-liability managers at banks– Bank trust officers– Endowment fund managers– Mortgage officers– Pension fund managers– Etc.