1

Chapter 3

Processes

Dowon Cho (RTMM Lab)&

Jongwon Lee (SE Lab)

2

Index

• Threads

• Clients

• Servers

3

Processes

Process Control Block (PCB)

4

Processes (cont.)• Process

– Program in execution

• OS creates an extended machine multiple virtual CPUs

• OS keeps track of all processes (process tables)

• Processes are independent of one another

• OS protects processes from one another (with h/w support)

5

Processes (cont.)

• Process allow the OS to overlap I/O and computation, creating an efficient system

• Overhead– Process creation– Context switching – Swapping– All required kernel intervention

6

Threads

Thread Concept

7

Threads (cont.)

• Threads and Processes– Threads are not protected from each other

• Require care from developers

• Context switching is cheaper

• System call– Process must be blocked– Thread may still proceed

8

Threads (cont.)• Thread is executed entirely in user mode

• Cheap to manage threads– Create: setup a stack– Destroy: free up memory

• Context switch requires few instructions– Save CPU registers– Execution based on program logic

9

Threads (cont.)• Kernel is aware of and schedules threads

• It is expensive to manage threads

• It is expensive to context switch

• Almost expensive as using processes

10

Threads (cont.)

• Light-Weight Processes (LWP)– Support for hybrid (user-level and Kernel)

threads

– A process contains several LWPs

– Developer: creates multi-threaded application

– System: Maps threads to LWPs for execution

11

Threads (cont.)

Combining kernel-level lightweight processes and user-level threads.

12

Threads (cont.)• Each LWP offers a virtual CPU

• LWPs are created by system calls

• Thread table is kept in user space

• Thread table is shared by all LWPs

• LWPs switch context between threads

13

Threads (cont.)• When a thread blocks, LWP schedules

another ready thread• Thread context switch is completely done

in user-address space• When a thread blocks on a system call,

execution mode changes from user to kernel but continues in the context of the current LWP

• When current LWP can no longer execute, context is switched to another LWP

14

Threads (cont.)• LWP advantages

– Cheap thread management– A blocking system call may not suspend

the whole process– LWPs are transparent to the application– LWPs can be easily mapped to different

CPUs

15

Clients

• Main role of clients– To interact with human user and remote

server

• Client side software– User Interface (UI) + components for

achieving transparent

16

Clients (cont.)

• X-window system

17

Clients (cont.)• Goal

– Generally used to control bit-mapped terminals

• X-kernels– Contains all terminal-specific devices– Offer relative low-level interface for controlling the

screen– Capturing events from the keyboard and mouse

• 4 major components– X servers: Managing the screen, mouse and keyboard– X client: the application (where the real work gets done)– X protocol: Client/server communication– X library: the programming interface

18

Servers

• Design issues– How to organize the server– How client contacts with server– Whether and how a server can be

interrupted– Whether a stateful or stateless server

19

Servers (cont.)

• How to organize the server– Iterative server (sequential server)

• Itself handle the request and return a response to the request.

– Concurrent server • It does not handle the request but passes it

into threads

20

Servers (cont.)• How client contacts with server

– Clients sent the request to the endpoint (port) of the server• Approach 1

– Endpoint is assigned with the well-know service

• Approach 2– Not pre-assigned endpoint

» Solution 1: Each server has a special daemon to keep tracks of the current endpoint of each service

» Solution 2: using a single super server

21

Servers (cont.)

a) Client-to-server binding using a daemon as in DCEb) Client-to-server binding using a superserver as in UNIX

22

Servers (cont.)• Whether and how a server can be interrupted

– Approach 1• Client suddenly exits the application and restarts

immediately– Server thinks that the client had crashed and will tear down

the connection

– Approach 2• Send out-of-band data (which is processed by the server

before any other client data)– Solution 1

» Out-of-band data is listened by separated endpoint– Solution 2

» Out-of-band data is sent across the same connection with urgent

23

Servers (cont.)

• Whether a stateful or stateless server– Stateful server

• It maintains information on its clients (ex. File server)

– Stateless server• It does not keep information on the state of

its client• It can change its own state without having to

inform any client

24

Servers (cont.)

• Object Server– Tailored for distributed objects support– Provides environment for objects

• Not a service by itself

– Services are provided by objects– Easy to add services (by adding objects)

25

Servers (cont.)

Object server concept

Object

Data Code (methods)

Object server

Object Object

Object

26

Servers (cont.)

• Activation Policies– Decisions on how to invoke objects– All objects are alike

• Inflexible

– Objects differ and require different policies• Object type• Memory allocation• Threading

27

Servers (cont.)

• Each object has its own memory segment

• Objects can share memory segments

• Security?

• Memory resources?

28

Servers (cont.)

• One thread in the server

• Several threads in the server

• Separate thread for each object

• Separate thread for each request

• Concurrent access?

29

Servers (cont.)

• Object Adapters (wrappers)– A S/W implementation of an activation policy

– Generic to support developers

– Group objects per policy

– Several objects under an adapter

– Several adapters under a server

30

Servers (cont.)

• Object Adapters (wrappers)

31

Part 4. Code Migration

32

Code Migration

• Code Migration = moving processes between machines

• Process = 3 segments- Code segment (the code) : is the part that contains the set of instructions that make up the program

- Resource segment (references to external resources {files, printers, devices, other processes, etc})- Execution segment (current execution state of a process {stack, program counter, registers, private data…})

33

Why migrate code? (1)

• Main Reason:

• Better performance of overall systemIf processes are moved from heavily-loaded to lightly-loaded machines, overall system performance can be improved.

34

Why migrate code? (2)

Load-Balancing (for multiprocessors)- Move process from over-utilized to under-utilized CPU- Load distribution algorithms by which decisions are made concerning the allocation and redistribution of tasks with respect to a set of processors

Minimizing Communication Costs Exploiting parallelism

- Examples: - client application needs to do many database operations involving large quantities

of data => ship part of the client application to the server => send only the results across the network.

- Interactive database applications: client needs to fill in forms => ship part of the server application to the client

- Searching information in the Web by a small mobile prog. => make some copies of such a prog. => send each off to different sites

35

Why migrate code? (3)

Besides improving performance: Flexibility

Clients need not have all the S/W pre-installed: download on demand, then dispose.

- Remote object stub in Java

- Java applets

Security: Can you trust any code? (both client & server)

Need a standardized protocol for downloading & initializing code

Guarantee that downloaded code can be executed

36

Scenario of Migrating Code

• The principle of dynamically configuring a client to communicate to a server. • The client first fetches the necessary software, and then invokes the server.

Can be executed on the Client’s machine

Require the protocol for downloading and initializing code

37

Models for Code Migration

• Alternatives for code migration.

Transfer only the Code segment =>simplicityTransferred program only started from its initial state. e.g.Java applet.

Execution segment can be transferred as well (running process can be stopped & moved to another machine to resume execution).

Initiated at the machine where the code currently resides or is being executed, Uploading program to compute server.e.g, Search programRequire registration & authentication The initiative for code migration is taken by target machine.

e.g, Java applet

There is no need to start separate process, thereby avoidingCommunication at the target machine.Protected against malicious or inadvertent code execution

38

GR: Establish a global systemwide reference

MV: Move the Resource

CP: Copy the value of the resource

RB: Rebind process to locally available resource

Migration and Local Resources

• Actions to be taken with respect to the references to local resources • when migrating code to another machine.

Unattached Fastened Fixed

By identifier

By value

By type

MV (or GR)

CP ( or MV, GR)

RB (or GR, CP)

GR (or MV)

GR (or CP)

RB (or GR, CP)

GR

GR

RB (or GR)

Resource-to machine binding

Process-to-resource

binding

Binding by identifier: e.g, uses a URL for Website or IP address for FTP server. Binding by value: e.g, C or Java standard librariesBinding by type: local devices such as monitors, printers,

Unattached resources: can easily moved between different machines, typically (data) files associated only with the program that is to be migrated. Fastened resources: e.g, local databases, complete Websites (moveable but high costs)Fixed resources: local devices

39

Migration in Heterogeneous Systems

Requirements: - Platform supported: code segment may be recompiled to be executed in new platform- Ensure the execution segment can be represented at each platform properly.

Solutions: - Weak mobility: no runtime information needs to be transferred => just recompile the source code- Strong mobility: segment is highly dependent on the platform => migration stack: a copy of the program stack in a machine-independent way.(C, Java)

40

Migration in Heterogeneous Systems

Scenario: - Migration can take place only when a next subroutine is called.- When subroutine is called: marshalled data are pushed onto the

migration stack along with identifier for the called subroutine & the return label- Then all global program-specific data are also marshalled (current stack & machine-specific data are ignored)

41

Migration in Heterogeneous Systems

• The principle of maintaining a migration stack to support migration of an execution segment in a heterogeneous environment

end

42

Part 5. Software Agents

43

Software Agents

• Definition:• Is as an autonomous process capable of

reacting to, and changes in, its environment, possibly in collaboration with users and other agents

44

Software Agents

• Taxonomy:

Collaborative Agent : an agent that forms part of a multiagent system, in which agents seek to achieve some common goal through collaboration. e.g Cyber-meeting system

Mobile Agent : simply an agent having the capability to move between different machines.

45

Software Agents

• Taxonomy:

Interface Agent : assist an end user in the use of one or more application.

Information Agent : manage information from many different sources. ordering, filtering, collating information. e.g e-mail agent

46

Software Agents in Distributed Systems

• Some important properties by which different types of agents can be distinguished.

PropertyCommon to all agents?

Description

Autonomous Yes Can act on its own

Reactive Yes Responds timely to changes in its environment

Proactive Yes Initiates actions that affects its environment

Communicative YesCan exchange information with users and other agents

Continuous No Has a relatively long lifespan

Mobile No Can migrate from one site to another

Adaptive No Capable of learning

47

Agent Technology

• The general model of an agent platform (adapted from [fipa98-mgt]).

Management Component: provides the facilities for creating and deleting agents

Directory Service: describe of agent’s service by attributes

Agent Communication Channel: take care of of all communication between different agent platform

48

Agent Communication Languages

• Definition:

• Communication between agents takes place by means

• of an application-level communication protocol which is

• referred to as an agent communication language.

49

Agent Communication Languages

•  Components of a message

50

Agent Communication Languages

• Examples of different message types in the FIPA ACL [fipa98-acl], • giving the purpose of a message, along with the description of the actual message content.

Message purpose Description Message Content

INFORM Inform that a given proposition is true Proposition

QUERY-IFQuery whether a given proposition is true

Proposition

QUERY-REF Query for a give object Expression

CFP Ask for a proposal Proposal specifics

PROPOSE Provide a proposal Proposal

ACCEPT-PROPOSAL Tell that a given proposal is accepted Proposal ID

REJECT-PROPOSAL Tell that a given proposal is rejected Proposal ID

REQUEST Request that an action be performed Action specification

SUBSCRIBE Subscribe to an information source Reference to source

51

Agent Communication Languages

• A simple example of a FIPA ACL message sent between two agents • using Prolog to express genealogy information.

Field Value

Purpose INFORM

Sender max@http://fanclub-beatrix.royalty-spotters.nl:7239

Receiver elke@iiop://royalty-watcher.uk:5623

Language Prolog

Ontology genealogy

Content female(beatrix),parent(beatrix,juliana,bernhard)