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BIOENERGETICBIOENERGETICSS
Energy Flow
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What is Bioenergetics?
The study of energyenergy in living systemsliving systems (environments) and the organismsorganisms (plants and animals) that utilize them
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Energy Required by
all organisms
May be Kinetic or Potential energy
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Kinetic Energy Energy of
Motion Heat and
light energy are examples
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Potential Energy EnergyEnergy of of
positionposition Includes Includes
energy energy stored in stored in chemical chemical bondsbonds
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Two Types of Energy Reactions
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Endergonic Reactions
Chemical reactionChemical reaction that requires a net input of energyenergy.
Absorbs free energy and stores it
PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis
6CO2+ 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
SUNphotonsphotons
LightEnergy
(glucose)(glucose)
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Exergonic Reactions Chemical reactionsChemical reactions that
releases energyreleases energy Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O+ATP(glucose)(glucose)
EnergyEnergy
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Metabolic Reactions of
Cells
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What is Metabolism?
The sum totalsum total of the chemical chemical activitiesactivities of all cellscells.
Managing the material and energy resources of the cell
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Two Types of Metabolism
CataboliCatabolic c PathwayPathwayss
Anabolic Anabolic PathwayPathwayss
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Catabolic PathwayCatabolic Pathway Metabolic reactionsMetabolic reactions which
release energyrelease energy (exergonic)(exergonic) by breaking downbreaking down complex molecules in simpler compounds
Hydrolysis = add a water molecule to break apart chemical bonds
Cellular RespirationCellular Respiration C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O +
ATP(glucose)(glucose)
energy
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Anabolic PathwayAnabolic Pathway Metabolic reactions,Metabolic reactions, which
consume energyconsume energy (endergonic),(endergonic), to buildbuild complicated molecules from simpler compounds.
Dehydration synthesis = removal of a water molecule to bond compounds together
PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
SUN lightlightenergyenergy
(glucose)(glucose)
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Energy CouplingEnergy Coupling The transfer of energy from catabolism to anabolism
Energy from exergonic reactions drive endergonic reactions and vice versa
EX. Photosynthesis – cellular respiration cycle
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Energy TransformationEnergy Transformation Governed by the Laws of
Thermodynamics.
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1st Law of 1st Law of ThermodynamicsThermodynamics Energy can be transferred and
transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
Also known as the law of Conservation of Energy.
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2nd Law of 2nd Law of ThermodynamicsThermodynamics Each energy transfer or
transformation increases the entropy of the universe.
Entropy = a measure of disorder or randomness
HEAT is energy in its most random state.
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SummarySummary The quantity of energy in the
universe is constant, but its quality is not.
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Free EnergyFree Energy The portion of a system's energy
that can perform work.
G = H - TSG = H - TS G = free energy of a system H = total energy of a system T = temperature in oK S = entropy of a system
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Free Energy of a Free Energy of a SystemSystem
If the system has: more free energy it is less stable It has greater work capacity
Metabolic equilibrium = zero free energy so it can do no work DEAD CELL
Metabolic disequilibrium = produces free energy to do work
More unstable produces more free energy EX. Greater concentration/ temperature differences
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Free Energy Changes
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Spontaneous Process If the system is unstable, it has a
greater tendency to change spontaneously to a more stable state.
This change provides free energy for work.
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Chemical Reactions Are the source of energy for living
systems. Are based on free energy changes.
Exergonic: chemical reactions with a net release of free energy.Endergonic: chemical reactions that absorb free energy from the surroundings.
Reaction Types
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Exergonic/Endergonic
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3 main kinds of cellular 3 main kinds of cellular workwork Mechanical - muscle contractions Transport - pumping across
membranes Chemical - making polymers
All cellular work is powered by
ATP
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Cell EnergyCell Energy Couples an exergonic process to
drive an endergonic one. ATP is used to couple the
reactions together.
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Cellular Energy - Cellular Energy - ATPATP
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ATPATP Components:Components:
1. adenine: nitrogenous 1. adenine: nitrogenous basebase
2. ribose:2. ribose: five carbon five carbon sugarsugar
3.phosphate group: chain 3.phosphate group: chain of 3of 3
riboseribose
adenineadenine
P P P
phosphate groupphosphate group
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Adenosine Adenosine TriphosphateTriphosphate
Three Three phosphate phosphate groups-groups-(two(two with with high energy bondshigh energy bonds
Last phosphateLast phosphate group (POgroup (PO44) ) contains the contains the MOST MOST energyenergy
All three All three phosphate groups phosphate groups are are negatively negatively chargedcharged (repel (repel each other making each other making it very it very unstableunstable))
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Breaking the Bonds of Breaking the Bonds of ATPATP Occurs continually in cells Enzyme ATP-aseATP-ase can
weaken & break last POlast PO44 bondbond releasing energy & free PO4
Phosphorylated Phosphorylated = a phosphate group attaches to other molecules making them more unstable and more reactive (energy boost to do work)
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How does ATP How does ATP work ?work ? Organisms use enzymesenzymes
to break down energy-rich energy-rich glucoseglucose to release its potential energy
This energy is trapped and stored in the form of adenosine adenosine triphosphate(ATP)triphosphate(ATP)
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How Much ATP Do Cells How Much ATP Do Cells Use?Use?
It is estimated that each celleach cell will generate and consume approximately 10,000,000 10,000,000 molecules of molecules of ATP ATP per per secondsecond
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Coupled Reaction - Coupled Reaction - ATPATP The exergonic exergonic
hydrolysishydrolysis of ATPATP is coupled with the endergonic endergonic dehydration dehydration processprocess by transferringtransferring a phosphate groupphosphate group to another molecule.
HH22OO
HH22OO
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Hydrolysis ofHydrolysis of ATP ATPATP + H2O ADP + P (exergonic)
HydrolysisHydrolysis(add water)(add water)
P P P
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
P P P++
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
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Hyrolysis is ExergonicHyrolysis is Exergonic
EnergEnergy y
Used Used by by
CellsCells
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Dehydration ofDehydration of ATP ATPADP + ADP + P P ATPATP + + HH22O O (endergonic(endergonic)
P P P
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
P P P++
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
DehydrationDehydration(Remove (Remove HH22OO
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Dehydration is Dehydration is EndergonicEndergonic
Energy Energy is is restorerestored in d in ChemicChemical al BondsBonds
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ATP in CellsATP in Cells A cell's ATP content is recycled
every minute. Humans use close to their body
weight in ATP daily.
No ATP production equals quick death.
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What Are What Are Enzymes?Enzymes?
Most enzymes are Proteins Proteins ((tertiary and quaternary structures)
Act as CatalystCatalyst to accelerates a reaction
Not permanentlyNot permanently changed in the process
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EnzymesEnzymes Are specific for
what they will catalyzecatalyze
Are ReusableReusable End in –asease
-Sucrase-Sucrase-Lactase-Lactase-Maltase-Maltase
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How do enzymes Work?How do enzymes Work?
Enzymes work by weakening weakening bondsbonds which lowers owers activation energy
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Activation EnergyActivation Energy Energy needed to convert
potential energy into kinetic energy.
Potential Energy
Activation Energy
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EnzymesEnzymes
FreeEnergy
Progress of the reaction
Reactants
Products
Free energy of activationFree energy of activation
Without Enzyme
With Enzyme
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Enzyme-Substrate Enzyme-Substrate ComplexComplex
The substancesubstance (reactant) an enzymeenzyme acts on is the substratesubstrate
EnzymeSubstrate Joins
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Active SiteActive Site
A restricted regionrestricted region of an enzymeenzyme molecule which bindsbinds to the substratesubstrate.
Enzyme
Substrate
Active Site
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Models of How Enzymes Models of How Enzymes WorkWork
1. Lock and Key model2. Induced Fit model
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Lock and Key ModelLock and Key Model Substrate (key) fits to the active
site (lock) which provides a microenvironment for the specific reaction.
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Induced FitInduced Fit A change in
the shapeshape of an enzyme’s active site
Induced Induced by the substrate
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Induced Fit ModelInduced Fit Model Substrate “almost” fits into the
active site, causing a strain on the chemical bonds, allowing the reaction.
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EnzymesEnzymes Usually specific to one substrate.
Each chemical reaction in a cell requires its own enzyme.
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Factors that Affect Enzymes
Environment (Temperature & pH)
Cofactors Coenzymes Inhibitors Allosteric Sites
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EnvironmentEnvironment Factors that change protein
structure will affect an enzyme. Examples:
pH shifts temperature salt concentrations
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Temperature & pHTemperature & pH High temperaturesHigh temperatures denaturedenature
enzymes (Most enzymes like (Most enzymes like normal body temperaturesnormal body temperatures)
Most enzymes function near neutral pH (6 to 8)
Denatured (unfolded) by ionic ionic saltssalts
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Cofactors Cofactors Inorganic substancesInorganic substances (zinc, iron, copper) (zinc, iron, copper)
are sometimes need for proper enzymatic enzymatic activityactivity.
Non-protein helpers can bond to the active site of enzymes to help in reactions
Example:Example: IronIron must be present in the
quaternary structure of hemoglobinhemoglobin in order for it to pick up oxygenoxygen.
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CoenzymesCoenzymes Organic molecules that act as
cofactors which help enzymes. Examples:
vitamins
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Two examples of Enzyme Two examples of Enzyme InhibitorsInhibitors
a. a. Competitive inhibitorsCompetitive inhibitors:: are chemicals that resembleresemble an enzyme’s normal substrateenzyme’s normal substrate and competecompete with it for the active active sitesite.
Enzyme
Competitive inhibitor
Substrate
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InhibitorsInhibitorsb.b. Noncompetitive inhibitorsNoncompetitive inhibitors::
Inhibitors that do not enter thedo not enter the active active sitesite, but bind tobind to another partanother part of the enzymeenzyme causing the enzymeenzyme to change its change its shapeshape, which in turn alters the active sitealters the active site.
Enzymeactive site altered
NoncompetitiveInhibitor
Substrate
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Control of MetabolismControl of Metabolism Is necessary if life is to function. Controlled by switching enzyme activity
"off" or "on” or separating the enzymes in time or space.
Types of Control1. Switching on or off the genes
that encode for specific enzyme production
2. Allosteric sites3. Feedback inhibition4. cooperativity
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Allosteric RegulationAllosteric Regulation The control of an enzyme complex by the
binding of a regulatory molecule. Regulatory molecule may stimulate or inhibit
the enzyme complex.
Allosteric site is a specific receptor site on some part of the enzyme molecule away from the active site
When activated, this site changes the shape of the enzyme to inhibit it or to stimulate it
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Allosteric RegulationAllosteric Regulation
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Feedback InhibitionFeedback Inhibition When a metabolic pathway is
switched off by its end-product. End-product usually inhibits an
enzyme earlier in the pathway. Prevents the cell from wasting
chemical resources
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CooperativityCooperativity One substrate molecule can
trigger the same favorable shape-change in all the other subunits of the enzyme
Amplifies the response of the enzymes to substrate
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ReviewReview
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How many high energy How many high energy phosphate bonds does ATP phosphate bonds does ATP have?have?
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Which is true of Which is true of photosyntheis?photosyntheis?
Anabolic Anabolic or or CatabolicCatabolic
ExergonicExergonic OrOrEndergonicEndergonic
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The breakdown of ATP is The breakdown of ATP is due to:due to:
DehydrationDehydration ororHydrolysisHydrolysis
HH22O addedO added oror HH22O removedO removed
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Which Reactions are Which Reactions are often Coupled in often Coupled in
OrganismsOrganisms
HydrolysisHydrolysis or or DehydrationDehydration
AnabolismAnabolism or or CatabolismCatabolism
EndergonicEndergonic oror ExergonicExergonic
BOTHBOTH
BOTHBOTH
BOTHBOTH