1 A&P I Exam 1 Review Slides Summer 2013 Lectures 1-6 Chapters 1, 2, and 3.

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A&P I Exam 1 Review SlidesSummer 2013

Lectures 1-6Chapters 1, 2, and 3

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Anatomy – study of structure - Gross anatomy – macroscopic (types?) - Cytology (microanatomy) – cells - Histology (microanatomy) – tissues

Physiology – study of function - Specialized, e.g., neuro-, cellular-, patho- - Comparative physiology

Structure is always related to function; if structure changes, function changes

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

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General Function of Organ Systems

A&P I A&P II

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Serous Membranes

Be able to label ALL parts of this diagram; (What system is each organ a part of?)

** See the gserianne.com Web site for downloadable blanks to label

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Serous Membranes

Be able to label ALL parts of this diagram (What system is each organ a part of?)

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Body’s maintenance of a stable internal environment**Absence of homeostasis = DISEASE

Homeostatic Mechanisms – monitor aspects of the internal environment and corrects any changes

•Receptors - provide information about environment•Control center - tells what a particular value should be•Effectors - causes responses to change internal environment

HomeostasisA CRITICAL (and very testable) concept in physiology

Negative feedback – deviation from set point progressively lessens

Positive feedback – deviation from set point gets progressively greater

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Homeostasis

• Remember that homeostasis does NOT mean constant!– Continual variations occur in body systems– Gives rise to ‘normal ranges’ (See Appendix B)

• Examples of negative feedback– Temperature regulation, blood pressure, blood

glucose levels

• Examples of positive feedback– Blood clotting, milk production, uterine contraction

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Levels of Organization

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Important Definitions of Organizational Terms

• Cell – The basic unit of biological structure and function (what is a ‘basic unit’ of something?)

• Tissues – A group of cells working together to perform one or more specific functions

• Organs – Two or more tissues working in combination to perform several functions

• Organ System – Interaction of organs functioning closely together

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Thoracic Membranes•Visceral pleura•Parietal pleura•Visceral pericardium•Parietal pericardium

Visceral layer – covers an organParietal layer – lines a cavity or body wall

Abdominopelvic Membranes•Visceral peritoneum•Parietal peritoneum

Serous Membranes

Serous fluid – thin, watery, slippery fluid typically separating serous membranes

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Atomic Number

Atomic Number • number of protons in the nucleus of one atom • each element has a unique atomic number• equals the number of electrons in the atom in an electrically neutral, i.e., uncharged, atom

Written as a subscript to the left of the element's symbol. Example: 11Na

In a neutral atom, # protons = # electrons.

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Atomic Mass Number (Weight)

• Atomic Mass Number– the number of protons plus the number of

neutrons in one atom – electrons contribute negligibly to the weight

of the atom, so for our purposes we can consider the atomic weight = atomic mass number

Written as a superscript to the left of an element’s symbol.

Example: 23 Na

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Determining Atomic Number & Atomic Mass Number

126 C

What is the atomic number?

What is the atomic mass number (weight)

What is the number of protons?

What is the number of electrons?

What is the number of neutrons?

146 C What about this form of Carbon???

14From: Trefil, Hazen, The Sciences, 4th ed., Wiley Press, 2004

The “magic numbers”

Periodic Table of the ElementsGroups

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Ions

Ion• an atom that has gained or lost one or more electron(s)• an electrically charged ‘atom’• atoms form ions to become stable

Cation (CA+ION)• a positively charged ion• formed when an atom loses one or more electron(s) (oxidation)

Anion• a negatively charged ion• formed when an atom gains one or more electron(s) (reduction)

To remember oxidation/reduction, think:“OIL RIG”

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Isotopes

Isotopes• atoms with the same atomic numbers but with different atomic weights• atoms with the same number of protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons• oxygen (atomic number 8) has the following isotopes (16O, 17O, 18O)• unstable isotopes (radioisotopes or radionuclides) are radioactive; they emit subatomic particles. • **Not all isotopes are radioactive

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96%

Most common elements in the human body (by weight)

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Types of Chemical Bonds

• There are three major types of chemical bonds to know…

– Ionic (electrovalent) bonds – attraction between oppositely charged ions

– Covalent bonds – sharing of electrons

– Hydrogen bonds – weak, electrostatic interaction between atoms

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Chemical Bond Summary

TYPE OF BOND DEFINITION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

IONIC when atoms lose or gain electrons becoming ions, and then oppositely charged ions are attracted to one another

bond is broken by water salts, NaCl

COVALENT when 1 or more pair(s) of electrons is/are shared by atoms

(single, double, triple)

strong bond the bonds holding a molecule of H20 together, CO2

HYDROGEN when a (slightly positive) hydrogen atom that is already covalently bonded to a molecule is attracted to a slightly negative atom.

(typically with O, N)

Very weak bond; in molecules whose purpose is to easily break and then come back together

reactions between water molecules (i.e. ice to water to gas);

DNA chains

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Types of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis Reaction (also called condensation or dehydration synthesis reactions when water is released)

– chemical bonds are formed (requires energy) A + B ’ AB

Decomposition Reaction (also called hydrolysis when water is used for decomposition)

– chemical bonds are broken (liberates energy)AB ’ A + B

Exchange Reaction – chemical bonds are broken and formed AB + CD ’ AD + CB

Reversible Reaction – the products can change back to the reactants

A + B AB

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Summary of Reaction Types

SYNTHESIS REACTIONS DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Synthesis involves the building of a large molecule (polymer) from smaller building blocks (monomer).

Decomposition involves the breakdown of a polymer into individual monomers.

DESCRIPTIVE TERMS buildingconstructiveanabolic

breakdowndigestivedecompositioncatabolic

BOND FORMATION ORBREAKING?

Bonds are formed. Bonds are broken.

IS ENERGY REQUIREDOR RELEASED?NAME THAT TERM.

Energy is required to form the bond.(Endergonic)

Energy is released when the bond is broken.

(Exergonic)

HOW IS WATER INVOLVED?NAME THAT TERM.

Water is released when he bond is formed.

Dehydration synthesis

Water is required to break the bond.Hydrolysis

EXAMPLE Building a protein from individual amino acids;

Building a triglyceride from glycerol and 3 fatty acids, etc

Breaking a protein into individual amino acids;

Breaking starch down into monosaccharides, etc.

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Equilibrium

Figure from: Alberts et al., Essential Cell Biology, Garland Publishing, 1998

Note that equilibrium does NOT necessarily mean that the concentrations of reactants and products are equal!

At equilibrium, the ratio of products to reactants stays constant

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Acids, Bases, and Salts

Electrolytes – soluble inorganic substances that release ions in water (aqueous) and will conduct an electrical current

Acids – substances that release hydrogen ions (protons) in waterHCl H+ + Cl-

Bases – substances that release OH- (or other negative) ions in water that can combine with, and remove, H+ from solution

NaOH Na+ + OH-

Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base (anions/cations EXCEPT H+ or OH-)

NaCl Na+ + Cl-

HCl + NaOH H2O + NaCl

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pH (H+ concentration)

*pH of human blood plasma = 7.35 – 7.45 (AVG = 7.4)

- Acidosis 7.35- Alkalosis 7.45

- pH 7.8 causes uncontrolled skeletal muscle contractions

pH scale - indicates the concentration of FREE hydrogen ions insolution (think: “power of Hydrogen”)

*Notice: [H+], pH, [OH-] *Notice: [H+], pH, [OH-]

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Solutions

• Solutions contain – Dissolved substances: solutes

– The substance doing the dissolving: solvent, e.g. water

• Concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in a particular volume of solvent– Example: Grams per liter (g/L)

– Example: Milligrams per liter (mg/L)

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Moles and Molarity

• A ‘mole’ is the atomic/molecular weight of an element expressed in grams– Example: 1 mole of 23Na = 23 grams (g)– Example: 1 mole of 1H = 1 g

– Example: 1 mole of H2O = 18 g

• Molarity (M) is the number of moles of a solute dissolved in 1 Liter (L) of solvent, i.e., moles/L– Example: 1 mole Na in 1 L H2O = 1M Na solution

– Example: 2 moles Na in 2 L H2O = ?M Na solution

– Example: 1 millmole Na in 1 L H2O = ?M Na solution

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Organic Molecule Carbohy-drates (sugars)

Lipids (Fats) Proteins NucleicAcids

Composed of what atoms?

C, H, O C, H, O C, H, O, N, S C, H, O, N, P

Building Blocks (monomers)

Monosaccharides, e.g. hexoses (6-carbon)

Triglycerides: glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Phospholipid: glycerol, 2 FA, phosphate

amino acids nucleotides: pentose sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base

Specific types & functions of monomers

Mono-; glucose, fructose, galactose

Glucose = body’s energy source

TG: energyPhospholipid: cell

membrane component

Steroid: cell membrane component and chemical messenger (i.e. cholesterol)

20 different amino acids; each differs from the others because of its unique R group

N/A

Specific types and functions of polymers

Disaccharides:sucrose, lactose,

maltose; energy_____________PolysaccharidesStarch (plant);Glycogen (animal);

energy storage.

N/A proteins (>100 amino acids);

Many functions:ENZYMES,antibodies, structure,

transport, chemical messengers,

storage

DNA: deoxy-ribonucleic acid; genetic material; RNA:

ribonucleic acid; aids DNA in protein synthesis.

OtherInformation

Saturated (only single bonds between C’s in fa chain) vs. Unsaturated (at least 1 double bond in fa chain)

Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds

Dipeptide = two aa

Tripeptide = three aa

DNA controls cellular activity by instructing our cells what proteins to make (i.e. Enzymes through protein synthesis).

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Enzymes and Metabolic Reactions

Biological catalysts, i.e., speed up reactions without being changed in the process.

• control rates of metabolic reactions• lower activation energy needed to start reactions• globular proteins with specific shapes

• not consumed in chemical reactions

• substrate specific

• shape of active site determines which substrate(s) the enzyme can act on

Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson

Many times the name of an enzyme ends with suffix ‘ase’

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Cofactors and CoenzymesCofactors

• make some enzymes active• ions or coenzymes

Coenzymes• complex organic molecules that act as cofactors (so coenzymes ARE cofactors)• vitamins• NAD+

Vitamins are essential organic substances that human cells cannot synthesize, i.e., they must come from the diet

- required in very small amounts

- examples - B vitamins: Thiamine (B1), niacin

The protein parts of enzymes that need a nonprotein part (coenzymes, cofactors) to work are called apoenzymes

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ATP – An Activated Carrier Molecule

• each ATP molecule has three parts:• an adenine molecule• a ribose molecule• three phosphate molecules in a chain

These two components together are called a ?

High-energy bonds

Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010

• ATP carries its energy in the form or P (phosphate)

• ATP is a readily interchangeable form of energy for cellular reactions (“common currency”) – makes it valuable!


Be able to explain or diagram this

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Cell Membranes

Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001

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Passage of Materials through the Cell Membrane

oxygen, carbon dioxide and other lipid-soluble substances diffuse freely through the membrane

Carrier/channel proteins required for all but fat-soluble molecules and small uncharged molecules

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Cellular Transport ReviewTRANSPORTPROCESS

ISENERGYNEEDED?

CONCEN-TRATIONGRADIENT

GENERALDESCRIPTION

EXAMPLEIN HUMANS

SIGNIFICANCE

SIMPLEDIFFUSION

NO [HIGH]TO[LOW]

spreading out of molecules to equilibrium

O2 into cells; CO2

out of cells.

Cellular Respiration

FACILITATED DIFFUSION

NO [HIGH]TO[LOW]

Using a special cm carrier protein to move something through the cell membrane (cm)

Process by which glucose enters cells

OSMOSIS NO [HIGH]TO[LOW]

water moving through the cm to dilute a solute

maintenance of osmotic pressure.

Same

FILTRATION NO [HIGH]TO[LOW]

using pressure to push something through a cm (sprinkler hose)

manner in which the kidney filters things from blood

removal of metabolic wastes

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

YES [LOW]TO[HIGH]

opposite of diffusion at the expense of energy

K+-Na+-ATPase pump

maintenance of the resting membrane potential

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Cellular Transport Review

TRANSPORTPROCESS

ISENERGYNEEDED?

CONCEN-TRATIONGRADIENT

GENERALDESCRIPTION

EXAMPLEIN HUMANS

SIGNIFICANCE

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

YES [LOW]TO[HIGH]

opposite of diffusion at the expense of energy

K+-Na+-ATPase pump

maintenance of the resting membrane potential

ENDOCYTOSIS YES [LOW]TO[HIGH]

bringing a substance into the cell that is too large to enter by any of the above ways;

Phagocytosi: cell eating;

Pinocytosis: cell drinking.

Phagocytosed (foreign) particles fuse with lysosomes to be destroyed

help fight infection

EXOCYTOSIS YES [LOW]TO[HIGH]

expelling a substance from the cell into ECF

Exporting proteins; dumping waste

Same

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Osmotic Pressure/Tonicity

Osmotic Pressure (Osmolarity) – ability of solute to generate enough pressure to move a volume of water by osmosis

*Osmotic pressure increases as the number of nonpermeable solutes particles increases

• isotonic – same osmotic pressure as a second solution

• hypertonic – higher osmotic pressure

• hypOtonic – lower osmotic pressure

0.9% NaCl5.0% Glucose

Crenation

The O in

hypotonic

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Cellular Organelles

CELL COMPONENT DESCRIPTION/STRUCTURE

FUNCTION(S)

CELL MEMBRANE Bilayer of phospholipids with proteins dispersed throughout

cell boundary; selectively permeable (i.e. controls what enters and leaves the cell; membrane transport)

CYTOPLASM jelly-like fluid (70% water) suspends organelles in cell

NUCLEUS Central control center of cell; bound by lipid bilayer membrane; contains chromatin (loosely colied DNA and proteins)

controls all cellular activity by directing protein synthesis (i.e. instructing the cell what proteins/enzymes to make.

NUCLEOLUS dense spherical body(ies) within nucleus; RNA & protein

Ribosome synthesis

RIBOSOMES RNA & protein; dispersed throughout cytoplasm or studded on ER

protein synthesis

ROUGH ER Membranous network studded with ribosomes

protein synthesis

SMOOTH ER Membranous network lacking ribosomes

lipid & cholesterol synthesis

GOLGI “Stack of Pancakes”; cisternae modification, transport, and packaging of proteins

Table 1 of 2

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Cellular Organelles

CELL COMPONENT DESCRIPTION/STRUCTURE

FUNCTION(S)

LYSOSOMES Membranous sac of digestive enzymes destruction of worn cell parts (“autolysis) and foreign particles

PEROXISOMES Membranous sacs filled with oxidase enzymes (catalase)

detoxification of harmful substances (i.e. ethanol, drugs, etc.)

MITOCHONDRIA Kidney shaped organelles whose inner membrane is folded into “cristae”.

Site of Cellular Respiration; “Powerhouse of Cell”

FLAGELLA long, tail-like extension; human sperm locomotion

CILIA short, eyelash extensions;human trachea & fallopian tube

to allow for passage of substances through passageways

MICROVILLI microscopic ruffling of cell membrane increase surface area

CENTRIOLES paired cylinders of microtubules at right angles near nucleus

aid in chromosome movement during mitosis

Table 2 of 2

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A Closer Look at Mitochondria

Strategically placed in cell where ATP demand is high

Concentration of enzymes in the matrix is so high that there is virtually no hydrating water. Enzyme-linked reactions and pathways are so crowded that normal rules of diffusion do not apply!

Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001

(Impermeable to charged or polar molecules)

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Overview of Cellular RespirationFigure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001

Cellular respiration

(aerobic)

AnaerobicATP

*Most ATP from here

ATP

• Structural – Functional Relationship - Inner membrane:• Contains Matrix where TCA cycle takes place• Has enzymes and molecules that allow Electron Transport System to be carried out

e-

+ e-

ETS

e-

e-

4040

Overview of Glucose Breakdown


NAD+

NAD+

NAD+FAD

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GLYCOLYSIS TCA ETC

Where it takes place

Cytoplasm Mitochondria Mitochondria

Products Produced ATPNADH

Pyruvate

ATPNADH,FADH2

CO2

ATPNAD+,FAD

H2O

Purpose Breakdown of glucose (6 carbons) to 2

molecules of pyruvate (3 carbons)

Generation of energy intermediates (NADH, FADH2, ATP) and CO2

Generation of ATP and reduction of O2 to H2O (Recall that reduction is the addition of

electrons)What goes on 1. Glucose is

converted to pyruvate, which is converted to acetyl CoA when there is sufficient O2 present.2. Acetyl CoA enters the TCA cycle.3. If O2 is not present, pyruvate is converted to lactic acid to replenish the supply of NAD+ so glycolysis can continue to make ATP

1. The energy in acetyl CoA is trapped in activated carriers of electrons (NADH, FADH2) and activated carriers of phosphate groups (ATP). 2. The carries of electrons that trap the energy from acetyl CoA bring their high energy electrons to the electron transport chain.

1. Chemiosmosis (oxidative phosphorylation) uses the electrons donated by NADH and FADH2 to eject H+ from the matrix of the mitochondria to the intermembrane space. 2. These H+ then flow down their concentration gradient through a protein (ATP synthase) that makes ATP from ADP and phosphate.3. During this process, the H+

that come through the channel in ATP synthase are combined with O2 to make H2O.

Summary Table of Cell Respiration

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Anaerobic Glycolysis & Lactic Acid

During glycolysis, if O2 is not present in sufficient quantity, lactic acid is generated to keep glycolysis going so it continues to generate ATP (even without mitochondria)

NOTE what happens with and without O2 being available…


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Cell Nucleus

• control center of cell

• nuclear envelope (membrane)

• porous double membrane• separates nucleoplasm from cytoplasm (*eukaryotes only)

• nucleolus• dense collection of RNA and proteins• site of ribosome production

• chromatin• fibers of DNA and proteins• stores information for synthesis of proteins Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson

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The Cell Cycle

• series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it forms until the time it divides

• stages • interphase• mitosis• cytoplasmic division• differentiation

Differentiated cells may spend all their time in ‘G0’ (neurons, skeletal muscle, red blood cells). Stem cells may never enter G0


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Why the Cell Cycle Must Have Controls

1. DNA/Cell replication must not proceed unless a ‘signal to proceed’ is received

2. DNA must be completely and correctly replicate before mitosis takes place otherwise it should not occur.

3. Chromosomes must be correctly positioned during mitosis so they are separated correctly

Major points summarized…same as lecture 6 slide

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What are the Controls of the Cell Cycle?

• cell division capacities vary greatly among cell types• skin and bone marrow cells divide often• liver cells divide a specific number of times then cease

• chromosome tips (telomeres) that shorten with each mitosis provide a mitotic clock (cell senescence)

• cells divide to provide a more favorable surface area to volume relationship

• growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division• hormones stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle cells in uterus• epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin

• tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control

• contact inhibition

• Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent kinases provide central control

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Mitosis and MeiosisFigures from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001

Mitosis – production of two identical diploid daughter cells

Meiosis – production of four genetically varied, haploid gametes

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The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

• INNKEEPER (INTERPHASE)

• POUR (PROPHASE)

• ME (METAPHASE)

• ANOTHER (ANAPHASE)

• TEQUILA (TELOPHASE/CYTOKINESIS)

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Interphase Cell


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Prophase

What structure joins the sister chromatids together?


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Metaphase


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Anaphase


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Telophase (and Cytokinesis)

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Cell Death

• Two mechanisms of cell death– Necrosis– Programmed cell death (PCD or apoptosis)

• Necrosis– Tissue degeneration following cellular injury or

destruction– Cellular contents released into the environment

causing an inflammatory response

• Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis)– Orderly, contained cell disintegration– Cellular contents are contained and cell is

immediately phagocytosed

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Stem and Progenitor Cells

Stem cell • can divide to form two new stem cells• can divide to form a stem cell and a progenitor cell• totipotent – can give rise to any cell type (Embryonic stem cells)• pluripotent – can give rise to a restricted number of cell types

Progenitor cell • committed cell further along differentiation pathway• can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells • pluripotent• *not self-renewing, like stem cells

Same as lecture 6 slide

1 A&P I Exam 1 Review Slides Summer 2013 Lectures 1-6 Chapters 1, 2, and 3.

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Transcript of 1 A&P I Exam 1 Review Slides Summer 2013 Lectures 1-6 Chapters 1, 2, and 3.