1

AMST 3100 The 1960sAMST 3100 The 1960s

Vietnam 1945-1963Vietnam 1945-1963

Powerpoint 9Powerpoint 9Read Farber Chapter 6Read Farber Chapter 6

2

Vietnam’s SignificanceVietnam’s Significance• The Vietnam War grew directly from the policies The Vietnam War grew directly from the policies

of the Cold War, and the consequences of the of the Cold War, and the consequences of the U.S. role in Vietnam are still being felt today. U.S. role in Vietnam are still being felt today.

• The youth culture of the 1960s was forced to The youth culture of the 1960s was forced to consider a distant struggle that was the consider a distant struggle that was the antithesis of what many thought America stood antithesis of what many thought America stood for. The war…for. The war…– pitted generations against each other.pitted generations against each other.– led to world fears of American imperialism led to world fears of American imperialism

that reverberate even now and call into that reverberate even now and call into question America’s role in the world.question America’s role in the world.

– crippled LBJ’s war on poverty and ultimately crippled LBJ’s war on poverty and ultimately led to his demise.led to his demise.

– led to the exposure of political leadership in a led to the exposure of political leadership in a web of lies and deception, crippling American web of lies and deception, crippling American faith in politics.faith in politics.

– contributed to a significant decline in contributed to a significant decline in American idealism.American idealism.

– killed roughly 58,000 American GI’s and up to killed roughly 58,000 American GI’s and up to 5 million Vietnamese.5 million Vietnamese.

3

The Starting PointThe Starting Point• 1940s Cold War Context:1940s Cold War Context:

– Climate of anticommunism.Climate of anticommunism.– Climate of American Climate of American

moralism.moralism.– Climate of superpower Climate of superpower

rivalry.rivalry.– Climate of (male) Climate of (male)

machismo among U.S. machismo among U.S. leadership.leadership.

• 1950s Cold War Context:1950s Cold War Context:– The Korean War: The Korean War:

containment via containment via confrontation.confrontation.

– The domino theory.The domino theory.– The U.S. as a “nation The U.S. as a “nation

builder.”builder.”Click on the map for a larger view of the U.S. domino theory perspective in 1950.

4

The Korean War (1950-The Korean War (1950-53)53)

• While the North did invade the While the North did invade the South, Truman mistakenly South, Truman mistakenly assumed that the Soviets were assumed that the Soviets were responsible for the Korean War. responsible for the Korean War. He viewed it as a test of U.S. He viewed it as a test of U.S. resolve to fight communism.resolve to fight communism.– In reality it was a civil war over a In reality it was a civil war over a

nation that had been divided into nation that had been divided into two halves by the politics of the two halves by the politics of the Cold War. This is significant to the Cold War. This is significant to the Vietnam experience.Vietnam experience.

• Aside from Korea, Truman and Aside from Korea, Truman and other U.S. presidents lumped other U.S. presidents lumped many Third World nationalist many Third World nationalist liberation movements as Soviet-liberation movements as Soviet-run communist take-overs. This run communist take-overs. This mistaken assumption would lead mistaken assumption would lead to numerous U.S. foreign policy to numerous U.S. foreign policy blunders during the 1940s-1970s.blunders during the 1940s-1970s.– In fact, many insurrections were In fact, many insurrections were

essentially essentially nationalistnationalist movements movements intended to bring sovereignty to intended to bring sovereignty to former colonies of Western former colonies of Western empires. empires.

U.S. artillery, Korea. In this war, unlike Vietnam, the U.S. had the support of the United Nations.

5

Key American Cold War Key American Cold War ErrorsErrors

• 1. The American failure to 1. The American failure to understand the effects of understand the effects of Western colonialism in the Western colonialism in the Third World.Third World.

• 2. Due to American Cold War 2. Due to American Cold War fears, Americans fears, Americans misinterpreted post-1945 Third misinterpreted post-1945 Third World liberation movements World liberation movements (nationalism) as Soviet-led (nationalism) as Soviet-led communism.communism.

• 3. The domino theory did not 3. The domino theory did not hold up if insurrections were hold up if insurrections were nationalist-inspired more than nationalist-inspired more than communist-inspired, yet the communist-inspired, yet the U.S. clung to the domino U.S. clung to the domino theory, partly because it sold theory, partly because it sold well.well.

This is a photo of the Shah of Iran, placed in power by the U.S. in 1953. In 1953-54, just as the Korean War was ending, the U.S. thwarted democracy in Iran and Guatemala and installed right-wing dictatorships friendly to American multinational corporations. In both cases, the CIA-sponsored coups were directed against legitimately elected leaders who had dared to speak of nationalizing some of their country’s resources (oil fields, banana plantations, etc). In effect the U.S. was a colonial power in the name of anticommunism.

6

The Korean War Set The Korean War Set PrecedentsPrecedents

• It represented a decisive It represented a decisive moment in U.S. foreign policy moment in U.S. foreign policy by establishing precedents that by establishing precedents that shaped subsequent policy:shaped subsequent policy:

• 1. The central belief that military 1. The central belief that military containment works.containment works.

• 2. A willingness to support 2. A willingness to support capitalist right-wing dictatorships capitalist right-wing dictatorships in the name of anti-communism.in the name of anti-communism.

• 3. The feeling that increased 3. The feeling that increased brutality was “necessary” during brutality was “necessary” during times of war.times of war.

• 4. The idea that Asia was a key 4. The idea that Asia was a key battleground in the Cold War.battleground in the Cold War.

• 5. The use of executive lies and 5. The use of executive lies and public deception as “necessary” public deception as “necessary” for national security.for national security.

• 6. The President could by-pass 6. The President could by-pass Congress in making war.Congress in making war.

This is a photo of American GIs torturing a Vietnamese captive. The technique is called water-boarding, where the victim has water poured through their nose to stimulate the sensation of drowning. Such techniques were part of the Korean War “lessons” that brutality was necessary in war. The communists tortured Americans, too, sometimes in the most grotesque techniques imaginable.

7

VietnamVietnam• Vietnam was an extension of the Korean Vietnam was an extension of the Korean

involvement.involvement.• Truman supported the French colonialists Truman supported the French colonialists

during the Indochina War (1946-1954).during the Indochina War (1946-1954).• The Indochina War was a conflict between The Indochina War was a conflict between

the French imperialists, who sought to return the French imperialists, who sought to return Vietnam as a colony of France, versus the Vietnam as a colony of France, versus the Vietnamese nationalists (most of whom were Vietnamese nationalists (most of whom were also communists) who sought sovereignty for also communists) who sought sovereignty for Vietnam. Vietnam. – The U.S. supported the French, while The U.S. supported the French, while

China and the USSR supported the China and the USSR supported the nationalist communists. nationalist communists.

– The Indochina War was largely funded and The Indochina War was largely funded and partly supplied by the U.S. in exchange for partly supplied by the U.S. in exchange for French support for the American-desired French support for the American-desired NATO. NATO.

– The French and Americans sought to carve The French and Americans sought to carve out the southern region of Vietnam and out the southern region of Vietnam and turn it into “South Vietnam” in a nation-turn it into “South Vietnam” in a nation-building experiment. South Vietnam would building experiment. South Vietnam would be a pro-U.S. capitalist friend.be a pro-U.S. capitalist friend.

Richard Nixon visits Vietnam, 1953.

8

Vietnamese HistoryVietnamese History• Vietnam has a long history of invasion Vietnam has a long history of invasion

and colonization by outsidersand colonization by outsiders– China occupied Vietnam for 1200 years and China occupied Vietnam for 1200 years and

was finally repelled in 939 AD. Vietnam would was finally repelled in 939 AD. Vietnam would be largely independent until the 19be largely independent until the 19thth century. century.

– In the 19In the 19thth century, France invaded and century, France invaded and occupied Southeast Asia (including the occupied Southeast Asia (including the southern region of Vietnam) and for 100 years southern region of Vietnam) and for 100 years it was a French colony. While Buddhism is it was a French colony. While Buddhism is Vietnam’s dominant religion, the French Vietnam’s dominant religion, the French preferred Christianity.preferred Christianity.

– Japan invaded and occupied Vietnam during Japan invaded and occupied Vietnam during WWII.WWII.

– France, devastated by WWII, tried to re-France, devastated by WWII, tried to re-occupy Vietnam (with U.S. support) from occupy Vietnam (with U.S. support) from 1945-54 but was driven out.1945-54 but was driven out.

– The U.S. stepped in to occupy “South The U.S. stepped in to occupy “South Vietnam” in 1954 and was driven out by 1975. Vietnam” in 1954 and was driven out by 1975. The U.S. never won over the hearts and minds The U.S. never won over the hearts and minds of the indigenous population of the region. of the indigenous population of the region. They were outsiders, just as the French and They were outsiders, just as the French and Japanese were.Japanese were.

Japanese officer surrenders to an Indian officer in Saigon, 1945. The Vietnamese hoped they had finally won their independence, but the French, with American support, re-occupied Vietnam immediately after WWII. This re-occupation provoked the First Indochina War.

9

Ho Chi MinhHo Chi Minh• Leader of the Vietnamese nationalist Leader of the Vietnamese nationalist

movement to bring sovereignty to the region.movement to bring sovereignty to the region.– His most important characteristic is that he was a His most important characteristic is that he was a

nationalist. This is what made him appealing to the nationalist. This is what made him appealing to the Vietnamese. He was beloved.Vietnamese. He was beloved.

• A hero during the Japanese occupation who, A hero during the Japanese occupation who, with British and American support, helped with British and American support, helped drive them out.drive them out.

• Grateful to the American liberators and an Grateful to the American liberators and an admirer of the American Revolution, as is admirer of the American Revolution, as is apparent in the Vietnamese Declaration of apparent in the Vietnamese Declaration of Independence.Independence.

• A Marxist with a proletariat background. A Marxist with a proletariat background. • Advocate of guerilla warfare tactics against Advocate of guerilla warfare tactics against

foreign occupiers/imperialists.foreign occupiers/imperialists.• Not a puppet of the USSR or China. Not a puppet of the USSR or China.

Unfortunately, Truman and others lumped him Unfortunately, Truman and others lumped him as a puppet of the Soviets.as a puppet of the Soviets.

10

The First Indochina War The First Indochina War 1946-19541946-1954• In 1945, Vietnam was liberated In 1945, Vietnam was liberated

from Japanese occupation.from Japanese occupation.• Ho Chi Minh celebrated the Ho Chi Minh celebrated the

Americans as liberators and Americans as liberators and sends a letter to Truman sends a letter to Truman begging him to honor the begging him to honor the Atlantic Charter principles Atlantic Charter principles established by FDR. established by FDR.

• However, FDR caved in to However, FDR caved in to French and British demands to French and British demands to return Vietnam as a colony of return Vietnam as a colony of France. FDR felt he needed the France. FDR felt he needed the French and British as allies in French and British as allies in the emerging superpower the emerging superpower rivalry with the Soviets.rivalry with the Soviets.

• Truman carried out this policy Truman carried out this policy by supporting the French in the by supporting the French in the Indochina War of 1946-1954..Indochina War of 1946-1954..

• By 1954, the French lost a “last By 1954, the French lost a “last stand” battle (Dien Bien Phu) stand” battle (Dien Bien Phu) and signed the Geneva Accord of and signed the Geneva Accord of 1954.1954.

Medical attention is given to a French soldier during the battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954.

11

Geneva Accords, 1954Geneva Accords, 1954• 1. Established the 1. Established the

sovereignty of all of Vietnam.sovereignty of all of Vietnam.• 2. Allowed for the temporary 2. Allowed for the temporary

division of Vietnam into two division of Vietnam into two regions (North and South), regions (North and South), which were to be unified by a which were to be unified by a national referendum in 1956. national referendum in 1956. – This democratic referendum This democratic referendum

would decide what kind of would decide what kind of leadership would guide all of leadership would guide all of Vietnam.Vietnam.

• 3. Signed by the French and 3. Signed by the French and the Vietnamese, but the U.S. the Vietnamese, but the U.S. did not participate in the did not participate in the signing. signing. – This gave the U.S. a surface This gave the U.S. a surface

excuse when they ultimately excuse when they ultimately refused to obey this accord.refused to obey this accord.

The Geneva Convention of 1954 dealt with the problems of Southeast Asia and established the sovereignty of Vietnam, which was a major goal of the Vietnamese nationalists. While the French and Vietnamese signed the Accord, the Americans declined to participate. They had their own agenda for Vietnam.

12

The U.S. AgendaThe U.S. Agenda• The U.S. had no intention of allowing The U.S. had no intention of allowing

the unification of Vietnam.the unification of Vietnam.– The national referendum of 1956 would The national referendum of 1956 would

certainly have led to Ho Chi Minh’s certainly have led to Ho Chi Minh’s election as leader of all of Vietnam, and he election as leader of all of Vietnam, and he was a Marxist.was a Marxist.

– By the mid-1950s, the CIA and other U.S. By the mid-1950s, the CIA and other U.S. security agencies were trying to destabilize security agencies were trying to destabilize the Vietminh (the communist nationalists).the Vietminh (the communist nationalists).

– The U.S. decided to enter into the region The U.S. decided to enter into the region more directly to try to prop up South more directly to try to prop up South Vietnam as a noncommunist state.Vietnam as a noncommunist state.• The U.S. quickly installed a dictator in The U.S. quickly installed a dictator in

South Vietnam: Ngo Dinh Diem. He was South Vietnam: Ngo Dinh Diem. He was expected to be a U.S. puppet.expected to be a U.S. puppet.

• The U.S. set up “advisors” in South The U.S. set up “advisors” in South Vietnam, and proceeded to install the Vietnam, and proceeded to install the infrastructure necessary for stability.infrastructure necessary for stability.

• South Vietnam became a virtual puppet South Vietnam became a virtual puppet state of the American “empire” in what state of the American “empire” in what the Americans labeled “nation building.”the Americans labeled “nation building.”

The U.S. helped oust the former emperor, Bao Dai , and installed Diem in 1954 as Prime Minister, just after the Geneva Accords.

13

U.S. Nation BuildingU.S. Nation Building• To the U.S. policy makers, Vietnam To the U.S. policy makers, Vietnam

was just another Third World country was just another Third World country with internal dissent and with with internal dissent and with communism threatening to take over.communism threatening to take over.– There was not a great deal of debate over There was not a great deal of debate over

what to do in the Truman/Eisenhower what to do in the Truman/Eisenhower administrations. administrations.

– In Iran and Guatemala the U.S. set up In Iran and Guatemala the U.S. set up puppet dictators relatively easily at this puppet dictators relatively easily at this same time. same time.

• The U.S. was convinced it could The U.S. was convinced it could avoid the errors of the French.avoid the errors of the French.– The French were colonialists, but the U.S. The French were colonialists, but the U.S.

had no intention of creating a European-had no intention of creating a European-style colony. They wanted South Vietnam style colony. They wanted South Vietnam to ultimately stand on its own as a to ultimately stand on its own as a friendly-to-U.S. capitalist state.friendly-to-U.S. capitalist state.

– To the American leaders, the French did To the American leaders, the French did not know how to fight. World War II not know how to fight. World War II showed that the Americans knew how to showed that the Americans knew how to fight.fight.

John Foster Dulles, one of the architects of the U.S. foreign policy that installed Diem, was celebrated in 1954 by Time Magazine as Man of the Year.

14

Ngo Dinh Diem – an Unlikely Ngo Dinh Diem – an Unlikely UnifierUnifier• Installed as Prime Minister of Installed as Prime Minister of

South Vietnam by the U.S. in 1954-South Vietnam by the U.S. in 1954-5. In 1955 he became President of 5. In 1955 he became President of the new republic in a fraudulent the new republic in a fraudulent election guided by the U.S.. In election guided by the U.S.. In effect, he was a right wing effect, he was a right wing dictator.dictator.

• He was selected largely because he was He was selected largely because he was educated in America and not connected to educated in America and not connected to the hated French colonial aristocracy. He the hated French colonial aristocracy. He was “fresh” at a time when it was hard to was “fresh” at a time when it was hard to find someone who was not connected to find someone who was not connected to the French regime.the French regime.

• Upper class, in a culture of peasants Upper class, in a culture of peasants (proletariats).(proletariats).

• An Asian Catholic (in a Buddhist region).An Asian Catholic (in a Buddhist region).• An anti-communist.An anti-communist.• A nationalist.A nationalist.• A reluctant puppet of the Americans.A reluctant puppet of the Americans.• Stubborn, aloof, and elitist.Stubborn, aloof, and elitist.

15

DiemDiem• Diem was given unlimited Diem was given unlimited

support by the U.S. to buy off support by the U.S. to buy off his opponents.his opponents.

• With the support of the With the support of the Americans, Diem proceeded Americans, Diem proceeded to subvert the 1954 Geneva to subvert the 1954 Geneva Accords which promised to Accords which promised to impose unity on the divided impose unity on the divided nation by 1956.nation by 1956.– Diem refused to permit the Diem refused to permit the

election. election.

• Diem proceeded to legitimize Diem proceeded to legitimize his own authority and held a his own authority and held a rigged referendum in South rigged referendum in South Vietnam. Vietnam. – He received 600,000 votes He received 600,000 votes

in Saigon, a city of in Saigon, a city of 400,000.400,000.

This is a photo of Diem in 1957 when he visited the U.S.. President Eisenhower stands next to him. Foster Dulles stands behind Eisenhower.

16

Nation BuildingNation Building• In the 1950s, the military side of In the 1950s, the military side of

the equation always came first. the equation always came first. • John Foster Dulles (Sec. of State) John Foster Dulles (Sec. of State)

thought that the primary thought that the primary requirement for South Vietnam requirement for South Vietnam nationhood was the creation of a nationhood was the creation of a strong military.strong military.

• During the 1950s, virtually all of During the 1950s, virtually all of America’s military energy was America’s military energy was devoted to building a conventional devoted to building a conventional army (the ARVN – Army Republic army (the ARVN – Army Republic of Vietnam), with little effort to of Vietnam), with little effort to develop anti-guerrilla tactics.develop anti-guerrilla tactics.

• The resultsThe results– 1. The rural country, which was most 1. The rural country, which was most

of Vietnam, was never controlled.of Vietnam, was never controlled.– 2. The military build-up reinforced the 2. The military build-up reinforced the

image of the U.S. as yet another image of the U.S. as yet another colonial power.colonial power.

The primary architects of nation-building, Eisenhower and Dulles, meet in 1956. Dulles had an almost religious fever against communism. He felt if South Vietnam was made into a right-wing dictatorship it would be better for U.S. interests than if it was to become communist, even if Ho Chi Minh was open to a democratic system.

17

Nation BuildingNation Building• Nevertheless, most Nevertheless, most

Americans believed Americans believed they were being they were being successful.successful.– The ARVN was getting The ARVN was getting

bigger.bigger.– Diem had entrenched Diem had entrenched

his power.his power.– Western goods flowed Western goods flowed

into Saigon.into Saigon.– The U.S. corporate The U.S. corporate

media routinely media routinely echoed political and echoed political and military authority military authority without question.without question.

The mainstream American media did not challenge the basic assumptions behind U.S. nation-building. Americans were deeply concerned about the spread of communism.

18

DiemDiem• Most Americans were a bit naïve. In Most Americans were a bit naïve. In

fact, Diem was no hero.fact, Diem was no hero.• The CIA knew he was hated by the The CIA knew he was hated by the

Vietnamese people and advised Diem to Vietnamese people and advised Diem to break up the huge land estates of the break up the huge land estates of the corrupt aristocracy – land reform was corrupt aristocracy – land reform was essential. Yet Diem resisted this advice.essential. Yet Diem resisted this advice.

• In 1961 Diem and his American advisors In 1961 Diem and his American advisors initiated a highly unpopular peasant initiated a highly unpopular peasant relocation program, the Strategic relocation program, the Strategic Hamlet Program.Hamlet Program.

• What property Diem did redistribute What property Diem did redistribute went from local Buddhists to Catholics went from local Buddhists to Catholics migrating down from the north.migrating down from the north.

• Diem’s brother jailed and murdered Diem’s brother jailed and murdered thousands of political dissenters in thousands of political dissenters in Diem’s repressive and authoritarian Diem’s repressive and authoritarian regime.regime.

• The result was that the Vietnamese The result was that the Vietnamese people felt alienated from Diem and his people felt alienated from Diem and his South Vietnamese system. This provided South Vietnamese system. This provided fertile soil for dissent.fertile soil for dissent.

The Strategic Hamlet program, begun in 1961, uprooted peasants from their traditional farming and ancestor areas and placed them in compounds protected by spiked fences and armed guards. This program was so unpopular it drove many peasants to side with the communist nationalists. More on this later.

19

The Vietminh MobilizeThe Vietminh Mobilize• By 1957, the Vietminh mobilized a campaign of By 1957, the Vietminh mobilized a campaign of

discontent against Diem in the South.discontent against Diem in the South.• They encountered very receptive peasants.They encountered very receptive peasants.• By 1959, with very little resource support from By 1959, with very little resource support from

the north, the Vietminh succeeded in the north, the Vietminh succeeded in galvanizing support against Diem’s corrupt galvanizing support against Diem’s corrupt government.government.– A similar event was happening in Cuba as Castro was A similar event was happening in Cuba as Castro was

over-throwing the U.S.-backed right-wing dictator, over-throwing the U.S.-backed right-wing dictator, Batista.Batista.

• In late 1959, North Vietnam began a campaign In late 1959, North Vietnam began a campaign of arming the rebels in the south, and they of arming the rebels in the south, and they found that local rebels were already in control found that local rebels were already in control of the rural infrastructure.of the rural infrastructure.– The rebels were now ready for full-scale attacks on The rebels were now ready for full-scale attacks on

the ARVN.the ARVN.– The ARVN consisted of reluctant draftees who had The ARVN consisted of reluctant draftees who had

little loyalty to the Diem regime. Unlike the Vietminh, little loyalty to the Diem regime. Unlike the Vietminh, they were not motivated fighters. It was largely a they were not motivated fighters. It was largely a puppet army.puppet army.

ARVN soldiers were typically Vietnamese conscripts who were trained in conventional warfare. Generally they were a poor army, but there were some exceptions by the early 1970s.

20

Which way does the wind Which way does the wind blow?blow?

• Ironically, by 1959 Eisenhower Ironically, by 1959 Eisenhower was showcasing South Vietnam as was showcasing South Vietnam as a model of communist a model of communist containment.containment.

• In effect, the U.S. had made itself In effect, the U.S. had made itself hostage to the Diem regime, and hostage to the Diem regime, and by 1960 the U.S. had repeated by 1960 the U.S. had repeated most of the French errors that it most of the French errors that it had confidently stated it would had confidently stated it would avoid.avoid.

• Yet most Americans believed what Yet most Americans believed what they were told – that South they were told – that South Vietnam was a model for nation Vietnam was a model for nation building and successful building and successful containment.containment.

• America’s Cold War assumptions America’s Cold War assumptions had blinded it to the reality of the had blinded it to the reality of the situation. Imperialism in the situation. Imperialism in the service of Cold War containment service of Cold War containment was unpopular among the was unpopular among the Vietnamese, especially given the Vietnamese, especially given the post-WWII rush by former colonies post-WWII rush by former colonies of Europe toward sovereignty.of Europe toward sovereignty.

President Diem watches an honor guard ceremony in Saigon. Diem was aloof from the peasants.

21

American ImperialismAmerican Imperialism

• In the name of communist containment, the U.S. had subvertedIn the name of communist containment, the U.S. had subverted– The The sovereigntysovereignty rights of the southern Vietnamese. rights of the southern Vietnamese.– DemocracyDemocracy in the region, as promoted by the Geneva Accords. in the region, as promoted by the Geneva Accords.

• No truly free elections were permitted in South Vietnam under No truly free elections were permitted in South Vietnam under American policy. American policy.

• After all, how would the peasants likely have voted if they had been After all, how would the peasants likely have voted if they had been given an opportunity to participate in the Geneva Accord referendum given an opportunity to participate in the Geneva Accord referendum slated for 1956?slated for 1956?

– FreedomFreedom. South Vietnam was not a free society under the American . South Vietnam was not a free society under the American system.system.

• To American policy makers, a right-wing dictatorship was preferable and To American policy makers, a right-wing dictatorship was preferable and even desirable over a free, truly democratic, and sovereign South Vietnam. even desirable over a free, truly democratic, and sovereign South Vietnam. American leaders did hope that maybe someday in the future – after the American leaders did hope that maybe someday in the future – after the peasants “came around” – democracy and freedom could be considered.peasants “came around” – democracy and freedom could be considered.

22

U.S. Motivations in U.S. Motivations in VietnamVietnam

• To the U.S., the primary To the U.S., the primary motivation for getting involved in motivation for getting involved in Vietnam was to contain Vietnam was to contain communism. But there was communism. But there was another, lesser motivation – to another, lesser motivation – to open up new markets for capitalist open up new markets for capitalist expansion. expansion. – This latter motivation is entirely This latter motivation is entirely

self-interested. self-interested. • By the late 19By the late 19thth century, American century, American

foreign policy blurred these foreign policy blurred these motivations together because of motivations together because of the influence of powerful the influence of powerful multinational corporations and the multinational corporations and the military industrial complex on U.S. military industrial complex on U.S. foreign policy.foreign policy.– As an empire, the U.S. declares As an empire, the U.S. declares

certain regions of the world of certain regions of the world of “strategic interest” to its survival, “strategic interest” to its survival, and this includes both political and and this includes both political and economic considerations. At this economic considerations. At this time Southeast Asia was of time Southeast Asia was of strategic interest, especially in a strategic interest, especially in a political sense and to a lesser political sense and to a lesser extent in an economic sense.extent in an economic sense.

Even President Eisenhower, whose cabinet consisted of one corporate executive after another, warned Americans as he left office about the dangerously growing influence of the military industrial complex.

23

The Reaction at HomeThe Reaction at Home• Americans were socialized to believe that Americans were socialized to believe that

their country stood for sovereignty, freedom their country stood for sovereignty, freedom and democracy. and democracy.

• Americans were also socialized to be fairly Americans were also socialized to be fairly moralistic – we learned to view people and moralistic – we learned to view people and policies as “good” or “evil.”policies as “good” or “evil.”

• Students were socialized to view America as a Students were socialized to view America as a sort of holy land of freedom, while sort of holy land of freedom, while communism (tyranny) was evil. communism (tyranny) was evil.

• When college students examined Vietnam When college students examined Vietnam closely many were morally outraged that U.S. closely many were morally outraged that U.S. policy subverted these basic American values policy subverted these basic American values in favor of a right-wing dictatorship.in favor of a right-wing dictatorship.– Similarly for Iran, Guatemala, Cuba, and Similarly for Iran, Guatemala, Cuba, and

other regions.other regions.– Students became angry. They had been Students became angry. They had been

lied to. American foreign policy was not lied to. American foreign policy was not living up to its ideals, and it appeared to living up to its ideals, and it appeared to many by the early 1960s that American many by the early 1960s that American domesticdomestic policy did not live up to its ideals policy did not live up to its ideals either, given the legacy of racism.either, given the legacy of racism.

24

John KennedyJohn Kennedy• By the time Kennedy took office, the Vietminh By the time Kennedy took office, the Vietminh

had already turned to reunifying Vietnam via the had already turned to reunifying Vietnam via the countryside.countryside.– Their campaign was not noble. Assassination Their campaign was not noble. Assassination

was common. Both sides employed was common. Both sides employed despicable tactics, including murder and despicable tactics, including murder and torture.torture.

– Diem appointed his puppets as village Diem appointed his puppets as village mayors. The Vietminh targeted these puppets mayors. The Vietminh targeted these puppets – who were unpopular - for assassination.– who were unpopular - for assassination.

• By October, 1961, most of the South Vietnamese By October, 1961, most of the South Vietnamese countryside was under the control of the countryside was under the control of the Vietminh.Vietminh.

• In 1961, Kennedy believed that America could In 1961, Kennedy believed that America could and should shape the structure of developing and should shape the structure of developing nations. nations. – JFK believed that political/economic JFK believed that political/economic

instability was one of the sources of instability was one of the sources of communist appeal among peasants.communist appeal among peasants.

– He believed the U.S. could help the Third He believed the U.S. could help the Third World modernize and thus bring stability. World modernize and thus bring stability. This help could be economic or military.This help could be economic or military.

Vietminh peasants in South Vietnam, near the DMZ, with rifles stacked to be used against the ARVN.

25

KennedyKennedy• Kennedy realized the mistake of Kennedy realized the mistake of

building up the ARVN – a conventional building up the ARVN – a conventional army – to fight a guerilla army, so he army – to fight a guerilla army, so he proposed a counterinsurgency force of proposed a counterinsurgency force of guerillas called the Green Berets.guerillas called the Green Berets.

• However, like Eisenhower, JFK refused However, like Eisenhower, JFK refused to see the Vietminh as nationalist to see the Vietminh as nationalist fighters legitimately fighting for fighters legitimately fighting for sovereignty.sovereignty.

• And like Eisenhower, JFK’s And like Eisenhower, JFK’s administration had its share of administration had its share of ethnocentric arrogance: ethnocentric arrogance: “North “North Vietnam can’t beat us. They can’t even Vietnam can’t beat us. They can’t even make ice cubes.”make ice cubes.”

• Only one of JFK’s key advisors opposed Only one of JFK’s key advisors opposed the war: George Ball (Under Sec. of the war: George Ball (Under Sec. of State for Economic Affairs).State for Economic Affairs).– Ball knew about Vietnamese history Ball knew about Vietnamese history

and their drive for sovereignty. He and their drive for sovereignty. He said that if the U.S. maintained the said that if the U.S. maintained the “fiction” of South Vietnam it would “fiction” of South Vietnam it would blow up into a military war.blow up into a military war.

Undersecretary of State, George Ball. One of the few Kennedy advisors who opposed American war policy in Vietnam.

26

Kennedy initially escalates Kennedy initially escalates the warthe war

• In May, 1961, Kennedy sent 500 In May, 1961, Kennedy sent 500 advisors to Vietnam, bringing the total advisors to Vietnam, bringing the total to 1400. to 1400.

• The military wanted a force of 13,000 The military wanted a force of 13,000 and put great pressure on Kennedy. He and put great pressure on Kennedy. He wavered at first, but began to escalate wavered at first, but began to escalate U.S. involvement over the next year.U.S. involvement over the next year.

• By the end of 1962, there were 11,300 By the end of 1962, there were 11,300 “advisors” in Vietnam and napalm was “advisors” in Vietnam and napalm was being used on rural villages.being used on rural villages.

• Increasingly, hawks portrayed Vietnam Increasingly, hawks portrayed Vietnam in terms of American machismo. Doves in terms of American machismo. Doves were “sissies” and “cowards.” were “sissies” and “cowards.”

• Kennedy and most other politicians Kennedy and most other politicians played to the hawks, but Kennedy was played to the hawks, but Kennedy was also determined also determined notnot to make Vietnam a to make Vietnam a full blown war.full blown war.– He would not bomb the North.He would not bomb the North.– He would not send troops to South He would not send troops to South

Vietnam.Vietnam.

This photo, taken around 1970, depicts Americans consulting a map as they help the ARVN. In the JFK era, the President was not authorized to have troops in Vietnam. Hence, advisors were sent to train and increase the combat readiness of the ARVN.

27

Strategic Hamlet ProgramStrategic Hamlet Program• Rural areas were increasingly controlled Rural areas were increasingly controlled

by the Vietminh (now called Viet Cong – by the Vietminh (now called Viet Cong – cong means communist). To prevent this, cong means communist). To prevent this, the U.S. initiated the Strategic Hamlet the U.S. initiated the Strategic Hamlet program between 1961-63. program between 1961-63. – This was a program of forced removal This was a program of forced removal

of civilians away from their ancestral of civilians away from their ancestral region to new villages controlled by the region to new villages controlled by the ARVN. A stockade was built around the ARVN. A stockade was built around the village and patrolled by soldiers – sort village and patrolled by soldiers – sort of like a concentration camp only it was of like a concentration camp only it was to “protect” the villagers. The program to “protect” the villagers. The program was ultimately run by Nhu Diem, the was ultimately run by Nhu Diem, the unpopular brother of the President.unpopular brother of the President.

– This strategy failed and actually led to This strategy failed and actually led to an increase in peasants joining the Viet an increase in peasants joining the Viet Cong. As was pointed out: "Peasants Cong. As was pointed out: "Peasants resented working without pay to dig resented working without pay to dig moats, implant bamboo stakes, and moats, implant bamboo stakes, and erect fences against an enemy that did erect fences against an enemy that did not threaten them but directed its not threaten them but directed its sights against government officials."sights against government officials."

Americans inspect punji stakes at a Vietnamese hamlet constructed under the Strategic Hamlet Program.

28

The Situation The Situation DeterioratesDeteriorates• Despite the failure of Despite the failure of

American policies, the American policies, the military elite reported that military elite reported that the war was fast being the war was fast being won and some predicted won and some predicted victory by 1965.victory by 1965.– The American corporate The American corporate

press echoed this spin, and press echoed this spin, and the average American was the average American was not well informed about not well informed about Vietnam.Vietnam.

• In reality, the war was In reality, the war was being won by the Viet being won by the Viet Cong all along.Cong all along.

• The Strategic Hamlet The Strategic Hamlet program, the U.S. use of program, the U.S. use of napalm, and the U.S. napalm, and the U.S. bombing of southern bombing of southern villages had turned most villages had turned most peasants against the U.S.. peasants against the U.S.. – Many were joining the Viet Many were joining the Viet

Cong cause of “liberation.”Cong cause of “liberation.”

This photo depicts a napalm attack on a South Vietnam village. Napalm is usually gasoline based. When it has contact with skin it burns it off. The American military continues to use napalm, or variants of it.

29

Kennedy tries to de-Kennedy tries to de-escalateescalate

• By 1963 the situation was even worse. By 1963 the situation was even worse. • There were now 16,500 advisors in Vietnam.There were now 16,500 advisors in Vietnam.• Diem had refused to implement land reform for the Diem had refused to implement land reform for the

peasants and his policies were not popular. Kennedy peasants and his policies were not popular. Kennedy knew that Diem was a disaster and searched for knew that Diem was a disaster and searched for alternative policies.alternative policies.

• JFK, determined not to let Vietnam blow up into an all JFK, determined not to let Vietnam blow up into an all out war, decided by the Fall of 1963 to begin the out war, decided by the Fall of 1963 to begin the withdrawal of the U.S. advisors. About 1000 of the withdrawal of the U.S. advisors. About 1000 of the 16,500 advisors had been removed by the time he was 16,500 advisors had been removed by the time he was assassinated on Nov. 22, 1963. assassinated on Nov. 22, 1963. – Had he lived, some say it is likely the rest would have been Had he lived, some say it is likely the rest would have been

pulled out, leaving only a force large enough to guard the pulled out, leaving only a force large enough to guard the U.S. embassy. That is one view, at least. U.S. embassy. That is one view, at least.

– The National Security Action Memorandum No. 263 suggests The National Security Action Memorandum No. 263 suggests he intended the U.S. to remain in Vietnam, but cautiously.he intended the U.S. to remain in Vietnam, but cautiously.

30

Events of 1963Events of 1963• In the summer of 1963, In the summer of 1963,

the CIA approved the the CIA approved the assassination of Diem, assassination of Diem, with Kennedy’s tacit with Kennedy’s tacit approval.approval.

• Diem was killed in a coup Diem was killed in a coup d’etat on Nov. 2, 1963. d’etat on Nov. 2, 1963.

• Meanwhile, Kennedy Meanwhile, Kennedy lacked a clear policy to lacked a clear policy to pursue in Vietnam. pursue in Vietnam.

• JFK felt, at least during JFK felt, at least during the early part of his the early part of his administration, that the administration, that the U.S. could not show U.S. could not show weakness, lest the weakness, lest the communists exploit it. communists exploit it. These South Vietnamese

generals were behind the coup that assassinated Diem. It is believed they were paid with CIA funds.

31

Chafe: Four Interrelated Chafe: Four Interrelated Themes in JFK’s Cold Themes in JFK’s Cold War Vietnam PolicyWar Vietnam Policy• 1. JFK believed that communism was a monolithic 1. JFK believed that communism was a monolithic

conspiracy spearheaded by Russia and China to take over conspiracy spearheaded by Russia and China to take over the world. Vietnam was a domino in this plan.the world. Vietnam was a domino in this plan.

• 2. Khruschev seemed to endorse communist expansion.2. Khruschev seemed to endorse communist expansion.• 3. Due to a series of reversals elsewhere (Cuba and Laos), 3. Due to a series of reversals elsewhere (Cuba and Laos),

JFK felt he needed to take a strong stand somewhere. U.S. JFK felt he needed to take a strong stand somewhere. U.S. credibility was at stake.credibility was at stake.

• 4. Vietnam was a laboratory to test the U.S. strategy of 4. Vietnam was a laboratory to test the U.S. strategy of “flexible response” – the Green Berets.“flexible response” – the Green Berets.

Chafe argues that for these reasons, Kennedy was Chafe argues that for these reasons, Kennedy was responsible for escalating the Vietnam conflict, responsible for escalating the Vietnam conflict, just as Eisenhower had done when he committed just as Eisenhower had done when he committed the U.S. to nation-building in Vietnam in 1954.the U.S. to nation-building in Vietnam in 1954.

32

AMST 3100AMST 3100

End