1

All life functions/ process are based on the chemical reactions in our bodies!

These are single substances which cannot be broken down any more. there are 110 different elements that are known to man.

An Element:

2

The four most common elements in living things are:

1) Carbon

2) Hydrogen

3) Oxygen

4) Nitrogen

Black = Carbon; Yellow = Hydrogen; Red = Oxygen

These four elements make up 96% of the human body

3

Each element is identified by one or two letter abbreviation called a symbol

Carbon- C

What are they? An element needed in small quantities

for proper growth and development Examples: copper, zinc, iron

How do plants and animals obtain them? Found in proteins, minerals, vitamins,

carbohydrates

4

5

An atom is the basic unit of matter.

The center of the atom is called the:

1) Protons - Positively charged particles

2) Neutrons - Neutral (uncharged) particles

Electrons

Atoms: The building blocks of elements

nucleus

6

Each element has distinct characteristics that result from the number of electrons in the nuclei of atoms

3) Electrons – Negatively charged particles

Atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons but may contain different numbers of

7

Neutrons

8

Biochemistry

Compounds – These are two or more elements combined.

These elements are bonded together.

Ex). Molecular modelof water. It is a compound becausethere are three elements bondedtogether.

9

Biochemistry

Covalent Bonding - The elements share atoms toform a molecule.

10

Biochemistry

Ionic Bonding - The atoms transfer the electrons. The atoms acquire a charge and then become ions.

• What is meant by the term ion?

11

IONis an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge

Mixture- the mixing of compounds and elements without changing their properties or makeup.

Solution- a uniform mixture of two or more substances (these substances dissolve the other substance)

12

• pH scale- a scale which describes how acidic or basic a solution is

• Acid- a compound that donates H+ ions to a solution (0-6 on the pH scale)

• Base- a compound that removes H+ ions from a solution (8-14 on the pH scale)

13

14

15

Formula - A formula shows the ratio of elements, or the structure of the compounds. There are two types of formulas:

1) Empirical Formula - This shows the symbols of theelements, followed by a numerical subscript whichidentifies the ratio of the atoms.

Ex: H2O means there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom

16

H2O2 = two hydrogen and two oxygen

How many of each is in a molecule of sugar? C6H12O6

6 Carbon12 Hydrogen6 Oxygen

17

Biochemistry

Structural Formula - This formula shows how the atomsare arranged (its structure!!).

For example, sugarC6H12O6 looks like this.

18

Biochemistry

Glucose and fructose have the same molecular formula C6 H12O6, but they have different structural formulas

19

Inorganic Compounds – Do not contain both carbon and hydrogen.

They may contain one or the other, but they don't contain both.

Examples of inorganic compounds:

Water - H2OSalts - NaCl

Acids - HCl

Bases - NaOH

*** Water is essential for life functions of cells.It is a solvent for other substances to dissolve in.Most chemical reactions occur only in water solutions

CO2

20

Biochemistry

Organic compounds - These are formed in nature byactivities of living organisms. ***They always contain both carbon and hydrogen.

Carbon is special because it can form 4 covalent bonds while most others can only form 2 bonds. Therefore, it can form long chains and rings.

Count the number of bonds to carbon

21

Biochemistry

Enzymes - ALL enzymes are proteins!!!

Enzymes control chemical reactions. They help the reactions to occur, but they are not changed or used up in the reaction!!!

Therefore, they can be used over and over again (although,eventually, they do break down (disintegrate) over time).

***Enzymes are classified as catalysts.

Catalysts are substances that increase the rate of areaction, but are not changed.

Name of enzymes:Enzymes end in the letters "ASE" (KNOW THIS!!!)They are usually named after the substrate that it acts upon

22

Biochemistry

Structure of Enzymes:

1) They are proteins - so they are made up of? ____

2) They may have a non-protein coat called a co-enzymeThe coenzyme helps the enzyme function properly and without it, some enzymes may not be able to function atall. Vitamins act as coenzymes.

3) Enzymes have an active site. This is where enzymeaction occurs. The enzymes are usually bigger thanthe molecules that they act upon.

Amino acids!!

23

Biochemistry

4) Enzyme-substrate complex - The enzyme forms a temporary association with the substances whose reaction it controls.

ActiveSite

The substance actedupon is called the substrate

The point where contactis made is called the active site

After the reaction is over, theenzyme separates from the substrateand may be used elsewhere.

24

Biochemistry

Which is the enzyme and which is the substrate? How do youknow? What kind of reaction is this?

The enzyme does not get changed inthis reaction - therefore it is the greenone. Another clue is that it is bigger than the substrate.

This is a hydrolysis reaction because the substrate is being broken down

25

26

Biochemistry"Lock and Key" Model - A lock has a specific shape. Only one specific key willopen that lock. This model is used to describe howenzymes work - their shape has to fit the substrate, otherwise, the enzyme will not work on the substrate.

Notice how theyfit together, like a lockand a key

27

Biochemistry

Hydrolysis with enzymeaction

28

Biochemistry

Dehydrationsynthesis ofproduct withuse of anenzyme

29

Biochemistry

Dehydration synthesis of a product with enzyme

30

Biochemistry

Chemical Nature of Enzymes

1) Rate of enzyme action

The rate varies with conditions in the cellular environment:

There are 3 factors that affect the rate of enzyme actions

a) pH level (acidic or basic) b) Temperature

c) How much (concentration) of enzyme OR substrate is available.

31

Biochemistry

a) pH. pH is measured on a scale of 0-14. The lowend is acidic. The high end is basic. 7 is neutral (middle)

0-1 2 3 4 5 6 (7) 8 9 10 11 12 13 14stronglyacidic

moder-atelyacidic

slightlyacidic

neutral slightlybasic

moderatelybasic

stronglybasic

How to remember if a pH is acidic or basic: go from left to rightwhen you read - low numbers on left, high numbers on rightAlphabet: "A" is left of "B" - low numbers are acidic, high numbers are basic

32

Biology

33

Biochemistry

Each enzyme acts most effectively within a certain pH range

Ex: Pepsin (found in your stomach) works best in acidic conditions. Your stomach is very acidic. Would pepsinwork in your mouth?

B) TemperatureThe rate of the reaction is generally slow at low temperatures.As the temperature increases, so does the rate of the reaction,but only up to a point!! If the temperature gets too high,then the shape of the enzyme changes and no longer functions.

34

Biochemistry

When an enzyme's shape is changed due to high temperatures, it is said to be denatured. They can'tfit into the substrate any more.

35

Biochemistry

**** Human enzymes become denatured at temperaturesnear 400 C which is a few degrees above body temperatureHuman body temperature is 370 C

C) Relative amount (aka: concentration) of enzyme or substrate

The rate of the enzyme activity will increase as the amount of substrate increases, but only up to a point.The rate levels off as more substrate is added (becauseyou only have so much enzyme available to work on thesubstrate)

36

Biochemistry

37

Biochemistry

There are 4 major kinds of organic compounds found in living things:

1) Carbohydrates 2) Proteins

3) Lipids (Fats) 4) Nucleic Acids

38

There are 3 types of carbohydrates: A) Monosaccharides Mono = 1B) Disaccharides Di = 2C) Polysaccharides Poly = 3 or more

A) Monosaccharides These are simple sugars. Theyusually end in the letters "ose" - glucose, fructose, galactose etc. These have the molecular formula ofC6H12O6

1) Carbohydrates - These are compounds that are made up of C, H & O.

The elements are usually in a ratio of 2(H) : 1(O)

Ex: C6H12O6

12:6 = 2:1

39

Biochemistry

B) Disaccharides - These are carbohydrates made up of2 simple sugars put together.

Ex: Maltose, Sucrose, Lactose

Sucroseis two glucosemoleculesput together

40

Biochemistry

C)Polysaccharaides: These are carbohydrates madeup of many sugar units synthesized into long chains calledpolymers.

Examples: starches, cellulose etc.

41

Dehydration Synthesis

2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen are missing - in order to putthese two molecules together, a water molecule mustbe taken out. This process is called dehydration synthesis

(dehydration = lose water)(synthesis = put together)

42

Biochemistry

Hydrolysis - This is the opposite process of dehydrationsynthesis. It is when you add water to a compound andthe compounds separate (break down) Hydro = waterLysis = break up

43

Biochemistry

2) Proteins - Proteins contain C, H, O, and N. They mayalso contain sulfur. They are used to make cellstructures such as the membrane as well as other things

*** All enzymes are proteins!!

*** Many hormones are proteins

44

Biochemistry

The units which make up proteins are calledYou will learn this also as "the building blocks of proteins" An amino acid has two distinctparts: 1) an amino group 2) a carboxyl group

H N

H

- C

O

OHAmino Group

Carboxyl Group COOH

Amino Acids- building blocks

45

Every amino acid has both of these groups (amino groupand carboxyl group). However, each amino acid is different by what is between the two groups. The different group in the middle vary, and are representedby the letter "R"

Biochemistry

46

47

48

49

50

A protein consists of many of these amino acid unitslinked together. They are linked together (synthesized)by the process of???????? __________________

Dehydration Synthesis

51

Dehydration Synthesis of a protein

Dipeptide (AKA: Protein)

52

Polypeptide (AKA: Protein)

53

A protein with many amino acids linked together AKA: Polypeptide

54

3) Lipids - These are fats and oils (ask me about a fat lip)Lipids are made of C, H< O, but are in a different ratiothan carbohydrates.

The H:O ratio is greater than 2:1 lipids are used for:

1) Stored Energy

2) Cell Structures (cell membranes)

3) Cushioning Organs

55

Biochemistry

A lipid consists of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol

1glycerol

3 fattyacids

56

Biochemistry

A lipid is made by the process of dehydration synthesisof 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol molecule.

Fluid-MosaicModelof Cell Membrane

1. DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid Building blocks are nucleotides

Nucleotides consist of a phosphate group, sugar and a nitrogenous base

DNA holds all of our genetic information

2. RNA- is the single stranded messenger molecule made by DNA to leave the nucleus to make an amino acid

57

To test for monosaccarides, simple sugars! Example: glucose Benedicts solution is blue add heat, will turn orange for a + result

• To test for polysaccarides, starches Example: potatoes Use Iodine; a amber/ brown in color Will turn dark blue/ black in presence of

starch, a + result!58

To test for proteins, amino acids Example: peanuts, chicken

-use biuret indicator; blue in color-Will turn purple/ lavender for +

To test for lipids, oils, waxes Example: butter, vegetable oil Use brown paper bag/ paper towel If translucent, a positive test for lipids

59