Simple Things Students Can Do To Improve Their AP Exam Scores
1. 2 Frequency of scores on exam 2 Grade = n(right)/28 x 100.
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Transcript of 1. 2 Frequency of scores on exam 2 Grade = n(right)/28 x 100.
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Histogram
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Frequency
Frequency
Frequency of scores on exam 2
Grade = n(right)/28 x 100
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Photochemistry and biology
Photons can be toxic (cause DNA bases to dimerize)
Photons can be therapeutic: phototherapy
Photons can track thoughts, one molecule at a time(Chapter 25)Photons can image whole bodies and search for disease(Chapter 25)
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The Central Dogma of Chemical Biology
DNA mRNA Protein FunctionTranscription Translation
Biology is chemistry in action!
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• DNA
• 2’ Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid
Phototoxicity: Damage to DNA
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DNA: UV photochemistry
Photons cause two DNA bases to link: this kills the cells containing the irradiated DNA
Two DNA bases lined together
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Singlet molecular oxygen: excited states of ordinary oxygen
2s
2p
2σg2σu3σg
3σu*1πg*1πu
The Aufbau of the MOs of O2
Hund’s rule states:When there are two electrons to be placed in two orbitals of equal energy, the lowest energy configuration places one electron in each orbital with parallel spins, a triplet state
O O
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1πg
1πg1πg
E[kJ.Mol -1]156.994.2
0
1Σg+1Δg3Σg-
37.5 kcal/mol, 156.9 kJ/mol, 13121 cm-1τR = 6.7 min (to 1∆g)
22.4 kcal/mol, 94.2 kJ/mol 7882 cm-1τR = 64.6 min
(ground state)
Electronic states of molecular oxygen: two low lying spin paired singlet states
The singlet states of O2 can kill cancer cells (and other cells)
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Photodynamic therapy using singlet oxygenPhotodynamic therapy using singlet oxygen
(Abs 390 - 450 nm)
Porphyrin injectedinto patient
Only the affected organ irradiated with light
1O2 kills cancer cells in irradiated area
Patient cured!
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Irradiating babies with jaundice causes a photochemical change that causes the jaundice
pigment to become water soluble and to be excreted
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Diamond Graphite
C60H2@C60
Different forms of elemental carbon: from diamond to graphite to buckyballs!
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Discovery of DeuteriumNobel Prize: 1934
Discovery of C60
Nobel Prize: 1996
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CONVENTIONALPARADIGMS
GENERATEPUZZLES
SOLVEPUZZLES?
PARADIGMREINFORCED
YES NO
RESISTANTPUZZLES
ANOMALIESCRISISSCIENTIFICREVOLUTION
NEWPARADIGM
NORMALSCIENCE
REVOLUTIONARY SCIENCE
NOBELPRIZE
Flow diagram for revolutionary science:Extraordinary claims that become acceptedand are integrated into “normal science.”
The BIG One!
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Discovery of C60 “Buckyballs”
Pathological Science or Revolutionary Science?
The first “evidence” for the special stability
of C60
An Extraordinary Claim:Carbon can exist in an elemental form that has a structure reminiscent to a soccer ball.
Would you have predicted a Nobel Prize?
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Harold KrotoRobert Curl Richard Smalley
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1996“for the discovery of fullerene”
The proposal of Buckeyballs turned out to be revolutionary
science
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Buckyballs pulled into nanowires: Carbon nanotubes!
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Nanodevices: A carbon nanocar rolling on a gold surface
Thanks to Whitney Zoller
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Putting H2 inside a buckyball!
Collaborator: Professor Koichi Komatsu (Kyoto University)
H2@C60Open the buckyball Put in H2, then close
buckyball
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Chapter 19 Coordination Complexes 19.1 The Formation of Coordination Complexes19.2 Structures of Coordination Complexes19.3 Crystal-Field Theory and Magnetic Properties19.4 The Colors of Coordination Complexes19.5 Coordination Complexes in Biology
Chapter 24 From Petroleum to Pharmaceuticals24.1 Petroleum Refining and the Hydrocarbons24.2 Functional Groups and Organic Synthesis24.3 Pesticides and Pharmaceuticals
Chapter 25 Synthetic and Biological Polymers25.1 Making Polymers25.2 Biopolymers25.3 Uses for Polymers
C1403 Lecture 19 Monday, November 14, 2005
Infrared spectroscopy (IR tutor)
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
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The d block metal form coordination complexes with molecules and ions
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19.1 Coordination complexes
What is the electronic basis of the color of metal complexes?
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Coordination complex: A structure containing a metal (usually a metal ion) bonded (coordinated) to a group
of surrounding molecules or ions.
Ligand (ligare is Latin, to bind): A ligand is a molecule or ion that is directly bonded to a metal ion
in a coordination complex
Coordination sphere: A metal and its surrounding ligands
Note: religion is derived from Latin: religare, to bind tightly
A ligand uses a lone pair of electrons (Lewis base) to bond to the metal ion (Lewis acid)
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Complex ions: Three common structural types
Octahedral:Most important
Tetrahedral Square planar
What determines why a metal takes one of these shapes?
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Lewis acids and bases
A Lewis base is a molecule or ion that donates a lone pair of electrons to make a bond
A Lewis acid is a molecule of ion that accepts a lone pair of electrons to make a bond
Examples: NH3 OH2 Cl- F-
Examples: H+ Co3+ Co2+ Mn+
Electrons in the highest occupied orbital (HO) of a molecule or anion are the best Lewis bases
Molecules or ions with a low lying unoccupied orbital (LU) of a molecule or cation are the best Lewis acids
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Lewis acid: Co3+
Lewis base: NH3Coordination complex:
Lewis base (electron pair donor) coordinated to a Lewis acid (electron pair
acceptor)
Coordination complex: Ligand (electron donor) coordinated to a metal
(electron acceptor)
The formation of a coordinate complex is a Lewis acid-base reaction
The number of ligand bonds to the central metal atom is termed the coordination number
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The basic idea is that the ligand (Lewis base) is providing electron density to the metal (Lewis
acid)
In terms of MO theory we visualize the coordination as the transfer of electrons from the highest occupied valenece orbital (HO) of the Lewis base to the lowest unoccupied orbital (LU) of the Lewis acid
HO LU
Lewis base Lewis acid
NH3 Co3+
The bond from ligand to metal is covalent (shared pair), but both electrons come from the ligand (coordinate covalent
bond)
Lewis base
Lewis acid
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Types of Ligands (electron pair donors: Monodentate (one tooth) Ligands
Latin: “mono” meaning one and “dens” meaning tooth
Anions
Molecules withlone pairs
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Types of Ligands: Bidentate (two tooth) Ligands
Some common bidentate (chelates):
(en)
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Types of Ligands: Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion (EDTA): a polydentate chelating ligand
Chelate from Greek chela, “claw”
EDTA wraps around the metal ion at all 6 coordination sites producing an exceedingly tight binding to the metal
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Alfred WernerSwitzerlandUniversity of ZurichZurich, Switzerlandb. 1866(in Mulhouse, then Germany)d. 1919
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1913"in recognition of his work on the linkage of atoms in molecules by which he has thrown new light on earlier investigations and opened up new fields of research especially in inorganic chemistry"
Alfred Werner: the father of the structure of
coordination complexes
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Conventions in writing the structure of coordination compounds:
Brackets [] are used to indicate all of the atomic composition of the coordinate complex: the central
metal atom and the ligands. The symbol for the central metal atom of the complex is first within the
brackets
Species outside of the [] are not coordinated to the metal but are require to maintain a charge balance
A coordination compounds is a neutral species consisting of a coordinate complex and
uncoordinated ions that are required to maintain the charge balance
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(2) Brackets [] are used to indicate all of the atomic composition of the coordinate complex: the central metal atom and the ligands. The symbol for the central metal atom of the complex is first within
the brackets
(3) Species outside of the [] are not coordinated to the metal but are require to maintain a charge
balance
(1) A coordination compounds is a neutral species consisting of a coordinate complex and
uncoordinated ions required to maintain the charge balance
[Co(NH3)6]Cl3
Composition of complex Free species
[Co(NH3)6]3+ 3 Cl-
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Ligand substitution reactions
For some complex ions, the coordinated ligands may be substituted for other ligands
Complexes that undergo very rapid substitution of one ligand for another are
termed labile
Complexes that undergo very slow substitution of one ligand for another are termed inert
[Ni(H2O)6]2+ + 6 NH3 [Ni(NH3)6]2+ + 6 H2O (aqueous)
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Werner’s explanation of coordination complexes
Metal ions exhibit two kinds of valence: primary and secondary valences
The primary valence is the oxidation number (positive charge) of the metal (usually 2+ or 3+)
The secondary valence is the number of atoms that are directly bonded (coordinated) to the
metal
The secondary valence is also termed the “coordination number” of the metal in a
coordination complex
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Exemplar of primary and secondary valence: [Co(NH3)6]Cl3
[Co(NH3)6]3+
What is the atomic composition of the
complex?
What is the net charge of the complex?
[Co(NH3)6]Cl3
How do we know the charge is 3+ on the
metal?
3+ is required to balance the three Cl- ions
The secondary valence of [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 is
The primary valence of [Co(NH3)6]Cl3
is3 (charge on Co3+)
6 (six ligands)
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19.2 Structures of Coordination Complexes: The ammonia complexes of Co(III) = Co3+
CoCl3.6NH3
CoCl3.5NH3
CoCl3.4NH3
CoCl3.3NH3
In all of these complexes there are no free NH3 molecules(No reaction with acid)
3 “free” Cl- ions Orange-Yellow
2 “free” Cl- ions Purple
1 “free” Cl- ions Green
0 “free” Cl- ions Green
How did Werner deduce the structure of coordination complexes?
Ions releasedComposition Color
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Compound 1: CoCl3.6NH3 = [Co(NH3)6]3+(Cl-)3 = [Co(NH3)6](Cl)3
Conclude: 3 free Cl- ions, complex = [Co(NH3)6]3+
Compound 2: CoCl3.5NH3 = [Co(NH3)5Cl]2+(Cl-)2 = [Co(NH3)5Cl]
(Cl)2
Conclude: 2 free Cl- ions, complex = [Co(NH3)5Cl]2+
Compound 3: CoCl3.4NH3 = [Co(NH3)4Cl2]1+(Cl-) = [Co(NH3)4Cl2]
(Cl)
Conclude: 1 free Cl- ion, complex = [Co(NH3)4Cl2]1+
Compound 4: CoCl3.3NH3 = [Co(NH3)3Cl3] = complex
No free Cl- ions, both Cl- and NH3 in sphere
“free” Cl- is not in sphere; all NH3 molecules are is in sphere
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CoCl3.6NH3 CoCl3
.5NH3
CoCl3.4NH3
Isomers!
Coordination complexes: Three dimensional structures
Cl- Cl- Cl-
NH3
Co NH3
NH3H3N
H3N
NH3
Cl- Cl-
Cl
Co NH3
NH3H3N
H3N
NH3
Cl-
Cl
Co Cl
NH3H3N
H3N
NH3
Cl-
Cl
Co NH3
NH3H3N
H3N
Cl
CoH3N Co NH3
Bond toward you Bond away from you
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Coordination complexes: isomers
Isomers: same atomic composition, different structures
We’ll check out the following types of isomers:HydrateLinkageCis-transOptical (Enantiomers)
Different composition!
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Water in outer sphere (water that is part of solvent)
Water in the inner sphere water (water is a ligand in the coordination sphere of the metal)
Hydrate isomers:
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Linkage isomers
Bonding to metal may occur at the S or the N atom
Example: C NS
Bonding occurs from N atom to metal
Bonding occurs from S atom to metal
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Stereoisomers: geometric isomers (cis and trans)
Cl-
Cl
Co Cl
NH3H3N
H3N
NH3
Cl
Co NH3
NH3H3N
H3N
Cl
Cl-
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CoCl3.3NH3
Cis-trans isomers and beyond
Beyond cis and trans isomers:facial & meridian isomers and
enantiomers
facial (fac) meridian (mer)
3 NH3 ligands in one plane, 3 Cl ligands in
a perpendicular plane
3 NH3 and 3 Cl ligands are adjacent (on triangular face)
Cl
Co Cl
ClH3N
H3N
NH3
Cl
Co Cl
NH3H3N
H3N
Cl
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Optical isomers: enantiomers
Enantiomers are mirror images which are not superimposable
Enantiomers do not have a plane of symmetry
Any molecule which possesses a plane of symmetry is superimposable on its mirror image
Enantiomers rotate polarized light in different directions; therefore, enanotiomers are also termed
“optical isomers”
Mirror images are either superimposible or they are not
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Enantiomers: non superimposable mirror images
A structure is termed chiral if it is not superimposable on its mirror image
Two chiral structures: non superimposable mirror images:
Enantiomers!
Structure Mirror imageOf structure
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Two coordination complexes which are enantiomers
NH3
Co Cl
ClH2O
H3N
H2O
NH3
Co NH3
H2OCl
Cl
H2O
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EDTA complexes are optically active
No plane of symmetry
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Plane of symmetry Achiral (one structure)
Chirality: the absence of a plane of symmetryEnantiomers are possible
A molecule possessing a plane of symmetry is achiral and a superimposible on its mirror image
Enantiomers are NOT possible
No plane of symmetryChiral (two enantiomer)
NH3
Co H2O
H2OCl
Cl
NH3
NH3
Co Cl
ClH2O
H3N
H2O
NH3
Co NH3
H2OCl
Cl
H2O
Are the following chiral or achiral structures?
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Which are enantiomers (non-superimposable mirror images) and which are identical (superimposable mirror
images)?