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How to Plan and Conduct How to Plan and Conduct
Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research
© Fraser Health Authority, 2007
The Fraser Health Authority (“FH”) authorizes the use, reproduction and/or modification of this publication for purposes other than commercial redistribution. In consideration for this authorization, the user agrees that any unmodified reproduction of this publication shall retain all copyright and proprietary notices. If the user modifies the content of this publication, all FH copyright notices shall be removed, however FH shall be acknowledged as the author of the source publication.
Reproduction or storage of this publication in any form by any means for the purpose of commercial redistribution is strictly prohibited.
This publication is intended to provide general information only, and should not be relied on as providing specific healthcare, legal or other professional advice. The Fraser Health Authority, and every person involved in the creation of this publication, disclaims any warranty, express or implied, as to its accuracy, completeness or currency, and disclaims all liability in respect of any actions, including the results of any actions, taken or not taken in reliance on the information contained herein.
Rosa Haywood (604-587-4436), Research Ethics
Coordinator, Research Ethics Board.
Susan Chunick (604-587-4681), Director, Research
Administration and Development (RAD).
Michael Wasdell (604-587-4637), Epidemiologist.
Grant Facilitator.
Who we are:Who we are:
Camille Viray (604-587-4628), RAD Administrative
Assistant.
RESEARCH ETHICS BOARD
STATUS REPORT 01 December 2008Total Studies 528
(From 2005 September 01 to Date)
ACTIVE STUDIES =210 PENDING APPROVAL = 31
461
82
10
70
0 10
20
40
60
80
100
Sponsor FH Grants Non-FHGrants
Grant-Aid Unfunded FH Internal Other
Funding for ACTIVE StudiesType of Ethics Review for ACTIVE Studies
100
110Full Board
Expedited
Active Studies by Department AreaActive Studies by Department Area
Access & UtilizationAccess & Utilization 11 Environmental HealthEnvironmental Health 22 NeurologyNeurology 11 PhysiotherapyPhysiotherapy 44
Acute ProgramsAcute Programs 22 Family MedicineFamily Medicine 11 NursingNursing 55 PlanningPlanning 11
AdministrationAdministration 22 FinanceFinance 11 ObstetricsObstetrics 66 Professional PracticeProfessional Practice 33
Biomedical EngineeringBiomedical Engineering 11 Food & NutritionFood & Nutrition 22 Occupational TherapyOccupational Therapy 11 PsychiatryPsychiatry 1818
CardiologyCardiology 3131 Health ServicesHealth Services 44 OncologyOncology 88 Public Health PreventionPublic Health Prevention 11
Chronic CareChronic Care 11 Infection ControlInfection Control 11 Operating RoomOperating Room 11 Residency FacilityResidency Facility 22
Critical Care (ICU)Critical Care (ICU) 77 Internal MedicineInternal Medicine 11 OrthopaedicsOrthopaedics 1919 RespiratoryRespiratory 22
Decision Support ServicesDecision Support Services 11 Material ManagementMaterial Management 11 Palliative CarePalliative Care 33 Social WorkSocial Work 22
DentistryDentistry 11 MedicineMedicine 55 PathologyPathology 11 SurgerySurgery 22
Diversity ServicesDiversity Services 11 Mental HealthMental Health 88 PediatricsPediatrics 77 Workplace HealthWorkplace Health 99
Elder ResearchElder Research 22 Multiple SclerosisMultiple Sclerosis 1212 People ServicesPeople Services 11 Non FH ResearchNon FH Research 22
EmergencyEmergency 44 NephrologyNephrology 55 PharmacyPharmacy 1414
FH Health Research Intelligence FH Health Research Intelligence Unit Unit
How can we help?How can we help? Grant Facilitator-WriterGrant Facilitator-Writer Conducting a search for funding opportunitiesConducting a search for funding opportunities Automatic notification of new funding sources and deadlinesAutomatic notification of new funding sources and deadlines Identifying a research teamIdentifying a research team Preparing letters of intentPreparing letters of intent Identifying resources required for conducting researchIdentifying resources required for conducting research Formulating the research budgetFormulating the research budget Writing the grant application in collaboration with Writing the grant application in collaboration with
researchersresearchers Understanding FH and funding agency requirements Understanding FH and funding agency requirements
regarding preparation of specific documentsregarding preparation of specific documents
FH Health Research Intelligence FH Health Research Intelligence Unit Unit
How can we help?How can we help? EpidemiologistEpidemiologist Specifying the research goal, Specifying the research goal,
objectives and hypothesisobjectives and hypothesis Identifying outcomesIdentifying outcomes Specifying variables for Specifying variables for
analysisanalysis Identifying sources of dataIdentifying sources of data Developing data collection Developing data collection
tools for quantitative or tools for quantitative or qualitative studiesqualitative studies
Developing the analysis planDeveloping the analysis plan Analyzing quantitative dataAnalyzing quantitative data Understanding how to use Understanding how to use
statistical software, such as statistical software, such as SPSSSPSS
What is Qualitative
What is Qualitative Research?Research?
When to Conduct Qualitative Research?
When to Conduct Qualitative Research?Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
Qualitative Methods of Data Collection
Qualitative Methods of Data Collection
How to Write up Qualitative Research for Publication?
How to Write up Qualitative Research for Publication?
Qualitative Data Analysis and Coding
Qualitative Data Analysis and Coding
Workshop OutlineWorkshop Outline
What is qualitative research?What is qualitative research?““The goal of qualitative research is the development of The goal of qualitative research is the development of concepts which help us to understand social phenomena concepts which help us to understand social phenomena in natural (rather than experimental) settings, giving due in natural (rather than experimental) settings, giving due emphasis to the meanings, experiences, and views of all emphasis to the meanings, experiences, and views of all the participants.”the participants.”
Pope & Mays. Pope & Mays. BMJ 1995; BMJ 1995; 311: 42-45..
Qualitative researchQualitative research focuses on the ‘why’ and ‘how’ focuses on the ‘why’ and ‘how’ which is sometimes missing in which is sometimes missing in quantitative quantitative research.research.
Qualitative “vs.” Quantitative?Qualitative “vs.” Quantitative?
QuantitativeQuantitative
Explanation, Explanation, predictionprediction
Test theoriesTest theories Known variablesKnown variables Larger sampleLarger sample Standardized Standardized
instrumentsinstruments DeductiveDeductive
QualitativeQualitative
Explanation, Explanation, descriptiondescription
Build theoriesBuild theories Unknown variablesUnknown variables Smaller sampleSmaller sample Observations, Observations,
interviewsinterviews InductiveInductive
• Guba and Lincoln (1981)Guba and Lincoln (1981)• Four criteria for judging the soundness of Four criteria for judging the soundness of qualitative research qualitative research
Traditional Criteria for Judging Quantitative Research
Alternative Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research
Internal validity Credibility
External validity Transferability
Reliability Dependability
ObjectivityConfirmability (Can findings be
confirmed by others?)
Validity: Qualitative ResearchValidity: Qualitative Research
http://www.childcareresearch.org/discover/datamethods/downloads/QualitativeResAssessTool.pdfhttp://www.childcareresearch.org/discover/datamethods/downloads/QualitativeResAssessTool.pdf
Guba, E.G., and Lincoln, Y. S. (1981) Effective evaluation: Improving the usefulness ofGuba, E.G., and Lincoln, Y. S. (1981) Effective evaluation: Improving the usefulness ofevaluation results through responsive and naturalistic approaches. San Francisco, CA:evaluation results through responsive and naturalistic approaches. San Francisco, CA:Jossey-Bass.Jossey-Bass.
When to Conduct Qualitative When to Conduct Qualitative Research?Research?
When you want to explore topics in more When you want to explore topics in more breadth and depthbreadth and depth than quantitative research than quantitative research Your research goal is to Your research goal is to exploreexplore a topic or an a topic or an
idea idea You want to You want to gain insightgain insight into a target audience’s into a target audience’s
lifestyle, culture, motivations, behaviours etc. lifestyle, culture, motivations, behaviours etc. You want to understand the reasons You want to understand the reasons behindbehind the the
results of quantitative research results of quantitative research You want to You want to get inputget input from key informants from key informants or othersor others
Many typesMany types Focus:Focus:
EthnographyEthnography Case studiesCase studies PhenomenologyPhenomenology Narrative ResearchNarrative Research Grounded TheoryGrounded Theory
Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types
Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types
EthnographyEthnography
• Derived from anthropologyDerived from anthropology
• The study of cultural groups in a natural setting, over a The study of cultural groups in a natural setting, over a prolonged period of time. prolonged period of time. Emphasis in ethnography is on Emphasis in ethnography is on studying entire culture.studying entire culture.
• Common data collection methods: Observation and Common data collection methods: Observation and interviews.interviews.
E.g. Observing children in a classroom over the school E.g. Observing children in a classroom over the school year.year.
Case studiesCase studies
• In-depth exploration of an area (i.e. Program, event, In-depth exploration of an area (i.e. Program, event, individual) using a variety of data collection methods.individual) using a variety of data collection methods.
E.g. Researching an individual with a particular health E.g. Researching an individual with a particular health condition.condition.
Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types
Phenomenological researchPhenomenological research
• Identifying the essence of human experiences Identifying the essence of human experiences concerning a phenomenon, as described by participants concerning a phenomenon, as described by participants in a study. in a study.
• Involves studying a small number of subjects to develop Involves studying a small number of subjects to develop patterns and relationships of meaning and experiences.patterns and relationships of meaning and experiences.
E.g. Studying children at playtime, with imaginary toys E.g. Studying children at playtime, with imaginary toys in imaginary settings, game playing etc.in imaginary settings, game playing etc.
Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types
Narrative researchNarrative researchStudy of the lives of individuals as told by the individuals. Study of the lives of individuals as told by the individuals. The researcher re-tells the information into a narrative The researcher re-tells the information into a narrative chronology, combining views from the participant’s and chronology, combining views from the participant’s and researcher’s life.researcher’s life.
E.g. AutobiographyE.g. Autobiography
Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types
Grounded theoryGrounded theory
Researcher tries to derive a theory of a phenomena of Researcher tries to derive a theory of a phenomena of interest.interest.
Theory needs to be grounded or rooted in observationTheory needs to be grounded or rooted in observation
Analytic techniques:Analytic techniques:
CodingCoding- Open and selective coding of information- Open and selective coding of information
MemoingMemoing- Comments and thoughts of researcher are - Comments and thoughts of researcher are recordedrecorded
DiagramsDiagrams- Integrative diagrams used to bring concepts - Integrative diagrams used to bring concepts together and understand datatogether and understand data
Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types
Group Exercise 1Group Exercise 1
1) 1) Qualitative versus quantitativeQualitative versus quantitative
Identify whether specific research questions would Identify whether specific research questions would best use a qualitative or quantitative approachbest use a qualitative or quantitative approach
• Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdfhttp://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdf
SamplingSampling
Regardless of quantitative or qualitative, Regardless of quantitative or qualitative, important to consider sampling important to consider sampling
How will you choose those participants How will you choose those participants you wish to gather information from for a you wish to gather information from for a qualitative study?qualitative study?
ConvenienceConvenience PurposefulPurposeful TheoreticalTheoretical
SamplingSampling Convenience:Convenience: Selection of the most accessible subjects. Selection of the most accessible subjects.
Limitations-Possibility of poor quality data.Limitations-Possibility of poor quality data. Example: Investigator asks patients leaving hospital to talk about their Example: Investigator asks patients leaving hospital to talk about their
experience.experience. *Purposeful*Purposeful: Investigator actively selects the most Investigator actively selects the most
productive sample to answer the research question. productive sample to answer the research question. Intellectual strategy based on researcher’s knowledge, Intellectual strategy based on researcher’s knowledge, literature, evidence.literature, evidence.
Example: Example: Theoretical:Theoretical: Sampling is theory-based. Building theories, Sampling is theory-based. Building theories,
elaborating on theories by selecting participants that will elaborating on theories by selecting participants that will add to study (Commonly used-Grounded theory)add to study (Commonly used-Grounded theory)
Example:Example:
Reality: Combination of sampling methods typically used in order Reality: Combination of sampling methods typically used in order to best fit the research goal.to best fit the research goal. See handoutSee handout
Types of Qualitative MethodsTypes of Qualitative Methods
Wide range of qualitative methodologies:Wide range of qualitative methodologies: Interviews:Interviews:
structured, semi-structured, in-depth.structured, semi-structured, in-depth. Focus groups.Focus groups. Qualitative questionnaire.Qualitative questionnaire. Observation.Observation. Analysis of written documents (content Analysis of written documents (content
analysis).analysis). Conversation or discourse analysis.Conversation or discourse analysis.
Focus: 3 MethodsFocus: 3 Methods
Focus GroupsFocus Groups
InterviewsInterviews
Qualitative QuestionnairesQualitative Questionnaires
Types of Qualitative MethodsTypes of Qualitative Methods
Focus GroupsFocus Groups Group recruited to discuss particular topicGroup recruited to discuss particular topic ONEONE focus group is focus group is ONEONE unit of analysis unit of analysis Each focus group should take 1-2 hoursEach focus group should take 1-2 hours Ideal size: 6 – 12 people (plus a moderator/note Ideal size: 6 – 12 people (plus a moderator/note
taker)taker) Several groups are necessary for validitySeveral groups are necessary for validity Homogeneity and anonymity are important factors Homogeneity and anonymity are important factors
to considerto consider People may open up with others who are People may open up with others who are perceived to think along perceived to think along similarsimilar lines and lines and whom they may whom they may never seenever see again again
Advantages/Disadvantages of Advantages/Disadvantages of Focus GroupsFocus Groups
Advantages:Advantages: Socially oriented research procedureSocially oriented research procedure Format allows the moderator to probeFormat allows the moderator to probe Discussions have high face validityDiscussions have high face validity Can be relatively low costCan be relatively low cost Can provide speedy resultsCan provide speedy results Enable researchers to increase the sample Enable researchers to increase the sample
size of qualitative studiessize of qualitative studies
Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research.Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Disadvantages:Disadvantages: Researcher has less control in the group interview Researcher has less control in the group interview
than in an individual interview.than in an individual interview. Data are more difficult to analyze.Data are more difficult to analyze. Technique requires Technique requires carefully trained moderators.carefully trained moderators. Groups can vary considerably.Groups can vary considerably. Groups are difficult to assemble.Groups are difficult to assemble. Discussion must be conducted in an environment Discussion must be conducted in an environment
conducive to conversation.conducive to conversation.Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research.Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Thousand Oaks, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.CA: Sage Publications.
Advantages/Disadvantages of Advantages/Disadvantages of Focus GroupsFocus Groups
When/When Not to Use Focus When/When Not to Use Focus GroupsGroups
Consider the use of a focus group when:Consider the use of a focus group when:
Insight is needed in exploratory or preliminary studies.Insight is needed in exploratory or preliminary studies. There is a communication or understanding gap between There is a communication or understanding gap between
groups or categories of people.groups or categories of people. The purpose is to uncover factors relating to complex The purpose is to uncover factors relating to complex
behavior or motivation.behavior or motivation. The researcher desires ideas to emerge from the group.The researcher desires ideas to emerge from the group. The researcher needs additional information to prepare for a The researcher needs additional information to prepare for a
large-scale study.large-scale study. The client/intended audience place high value on capturing The client/intended audience place high value on capturing
the open-ended comments of the target audience.the open-ended comments of the target audience.
Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research.Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Sage Publications.
When/When Not to Use Focus When/When Not to Use Focus GroupsGroups
Do NOTDo NOT use focus groups when: use focus groups when:
The environment is emotionally charged and more The environment is emotionally charged and more information of any type is likely to intensify the information of any type is likely to intensify the conflict.conflict.
The researcher has lost control over critical aspects of The researcher has lost control over critical aspects of the study.the study.
Statistical projections (of numerical data) are needed.Statistical projections (of numerical data) are needed. Other methodologies can produce better quality Other methodologies can produce better quality
information or more economical information of the information or more economical information of the same quality.same quality.
The researcher cannot ensure the confidentiality of The researcher cannot ensure the confidentiality of sensitive information.sensitive information.
Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research.research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Focus Group Question DesignFocus Group Question Design
Using the overall purpose, develop specific Using the overall purpose, develop specific questions questions
Points to keep in mind when considering Points to keep in mind when considering questions:questions:
• • Should be “open-ended” to provide wide variety and Should be “open-ended” to provide wide variety and depth of responses. Simple “yes/no” questions provide depth of responses. Simple “yes/no” questions provide very specific informationvery specific information
• • Should be clearly stated so participants are not confusedShould be clearly stated so participants are not confused• • Should be neutral to avoid influencing the responses of Should be neutral to avoid influencing the responses of
participantsparticipants• • Should be ordered from easy, general questions to more Should be ordered from easy, general questions to more
difficultdifficult
Focus Group MethodologyFocus Group Methodology After questions are developed, the methodology After questions are developed, the methodology
for the focus group is designed. for the focus group is designed.
Methodology:Methodology: this is the step where the this is the step where the procedures for conducting the focus group are procedures for conducting the focus group are developed: developed:
How many peopleHow many people How many sessions will be held How many sessions will be held How participants will be recruitedHow participants will be recruited How they will be contacted.How they will be contacted.
How many people per group?How many people per group?
It is important to have a sufficient number of people to It is important to have a sufficient number of people to generate ideas and create discussions. It is equally generate ideas and create discussions. It is equally important not to have too large a group. important not to have too large a group.
Too large a group can prevent participants from being Too large a group can prevent participants from being involved in discussions.involved in discussions.
Ideal size: 6 – 12 people (plus a moderator/note taker)Ideal size: 6 – 12 people (plus a moderator/note taker)
Focus Group MethodologyFocus Group Methodology
What to Look for in a FacilitatorWhat to Look for in a Facilitator Good understanding of topic area and goal of Good understanding of topic area and goal of
projectproject Does not make participants uncomfortable Does not make participants uncomfortable
(objective)(objective) (E.g. Manager asking about employee satisfaction).(E.g. Manager asking about employee satisfaction).
Can make each participant feel safe enough to Can make each participant feel safe enough to express themselvesexpress themselves
Can take charge and lead group if it gets off Can take charge and lead group if it gets off track track (E.g. keep single participant from dominating (E.g. keep single participant from dominating
discussion)discussion)
WHOWHO:: identify a target group that can provide identify a target group that can provide the most useful data the most useful data
WHENWHEN:: determine when to conduct the focus determine when to conduct the focus group (the information to be collected group (the information to be collected determines the timeframe for the conduct of the determines the timeframe for the conduct of the focus group)focus group)
LOGISTICSLOGISTICS:: coordinating rooms, dates, and coordinating rooms, dates, and times, as well as contacting the participants so times, as well as contacting the participants so that they can block out their calendars. that they can block out their calendars.
FOCUS GROUP REQUIREMENTSFOCUS GROUP REQUIREMENTS Participants must feel confident and trust what they say Participants must feel confident and trust what they say
will be treated with the same confidentiality as responses will be treated with the same confidentiality as responses on a survey questionnaire. on a survey questionnaire.
Only the facilitator will have access to the participants’ Only the facilitator will have access to the participants’ names. names.
Only the facilitator will have access to the participants’ Only the facilitator will have access to the participants’ comments. comments.
No observers are allowed in a focus group. No observers are allowed in a focus group. Ground rulesGround rules should be posted and discussed with should be posted and discussed with
participants, including: participants, including:
• Participate fully Participate fully • Respect comments of all participants Respect comments of all participants • What is said here, stays here What is said here, stays here
Group Exercise 2Group Exercise 2 2.) Focus Group Exercise2.) Focus Group Exercise
Imagine that you want to undertake a research project about Imagine that you want to undertake a research project about a particular patient or client group you deal with as part of a particular patient or client group you deal with as part of your work. It may be a group defined by age or clinical your work. It may be a group defined by age or clinical problem. You want to collect information using focus groups problem. You want to collect information using focus groups composed of members of your own professional group. composed of members of your own professional group.
Consider the following questions:Consider the following questions: 1. What is the geographical spread of your potential participants? 1. What is the geographical spread of your potential participants? 2. Are there any specific inclusion criteria for selecting participants? 2. Are there any specific inclusion criteria for selecting participants? 3. Where or how could you obtain a list of potential participants? 3. Where or how could you obtain a list of potential participants? 4. Are there any pre existing groups and what are the advantages and 4. Are there any pre existing groups and what are the advantages and
disadvantages of using members?disadvantages of using members? Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002. http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdfhttp://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdf
Interviews and SurveysInterviews and Surveys
• Survey and question development is a full Survey and question development is a full workshop all on it’s own- January 26, 2009 (9 workshop all on it’s own- January 26, 2009 (9 am-12 pm RCH)am-12 pm RCH)
Five methods:Five methods:1.1. Face-to-face interviewsFace-to-face interviews
2.2. Exit surveyExit survey
3.3. Telephone surveyTelephone survey
4.4. Mail/self-administered surveyMail/self-administered survey
5.5. Web-based survey Web-based survey
Method of Method of data data collectioncollection
CostCost TimeTime Response Response raterate
LengthLength ComplexComplex
FACE TO FACE TO FACEFACE
HIGHHIGH MEDIUMMEDIUM HIGHHIGH LONGLONG HIGHHIGH
EXITEXIT** MEDIUMMEDIUM FAST-FAST-SLOWSLOW
MEDIUMMEDIUM SHORTSHORT LOWLOW
TELEPHONETELEPHONE MEDIUMMEDIUM FASTFAST MEDIUM-MEDIUM-HIGHHIGH
MEDIUMMEDIUM MEDIUMMEDIUM
MAILMAIL** LOWLOW SLOWSLOW VERY VERY LOWLOW
MEDIUMMEDIUM LOWLOW
WEB-BASEDWEB-BASED LOWLOW FASTFAST LOW-LOW-MEDIUMMEDIUM
SHORT-SHORT-MEDIUMMEDIUM
MEDIUMMEDIUM
* Can be anonymous* Can be anonymous
Data Collection MethodsData Collection Methods
InterviewsInterviews
Informal-Informal- Researcher is required to recollect Researcher is required to recollect discussiondiscussion
Unstructured-Unstructured- Researcher allows interview to Researcher allows interview to proceed at respondent’s pace and subjects to proceed at respondent’s pace and subjects to vary by interviewee (to an extent)vary by interviewee (to an extent)
Semi-structured-Semi-structured- Researcher uses an interview Researcher uses an interview guide, but respondent is given freedom to guide, but respondent is given freedom to respond respond
Structured- Structured- Researcher uses identical situation Researcher uses identical situation and adheres to interview scheduleand adheres to interview schedule
Questionnaire/Survey Design Questionnaire/Survey Design ProcessProcess
1) Define objectives and requirements1) Define objectives and requirements Keep “need to know” questions, be cautious about Keep “need to know” questions, be cautious about
“like to know”“like to know”2) Consult with experts familiar with, or are part of 2) Consult with experts familiar with, or are part of
interest group during developmentinterest group during development3) Draft questions while thinking about data collection 3) Draft questions while thinking about data collection
method and burden on respondentmethod and burden on respondent4) Review/revise the questionnaire4) Review/revise the questionnaire5) Pre-test or pilot the questionnaire5) Pre-test or pilot the questionnaire
Tip: Focus groups can be used to develop content of Tip: Focus groups can be used to develop content of surveysurvey
Keys points to rememberKeys points to remember
Write in everyday termsWrite in everyday terms Follow basic writing principles (direct/to Follow basic writing principles (direct/to
the point, no spelling errors, grammar etc).the point, no spelling errors, grammar etc). Use consistent wordingUse consistent wording Be clear about directions (what you would Be clear about directions (what you would
like the respondent to do).like the respondent to do).
Things to avoidThings to avoid
““And”-And”- potential double barrelled question potential double barrelled question ““If”-If”- potentially confusing potentially confusing
direction/questiondirection/question Asking Asking more than one questionmore than one question in a single in a single
question.question.
Final Task of Conducting a Focus Final Task of Conducting a Focus Group: Coding, Analysis and Group: Coding, Analysis and
ReportingReporting Communicate the findings clearly and accurately Communicate the findings clearly and accurately
so that they can be used for making decisions.so that they can be used for making decisions. The facilitator will compile and analyze the The facilitator will compile and analyze the
comments to determine trends and single comments to determine trends and single comments worthy of inclusion. comments worthy of inclusion.
Conclusions and recommendations will be Conclusions and recommendations will be based on this analysis.based on this analysis.
Open-ended Data codingOpen-ended Data coding It’s easy to code closed response or rating It’s easy to code closed response or rating
questions, but how do you code open-ended data?questions, but how do you code open-ended data? Objective:Objective: to create codes and classify responses to create codes and classify responses
into categories respondents would have chosen, had into categories respondents would have chosen, had they been offered categoriesthey been offered categories
Two phases: Two phases: 1) Scan responses1) Scan responses 2) Scan responses and then 2) Scan responses and then
codecode Themes will emergeThemes will emerge
Coding Focus Group DataCoding Focus Group Data
Thematic coding factors:Thematic coding factors:
1. 1. FrequencyFrequency- Number of times something is - Number of times something is mentionedmentioned
2. 2. SpecificitySpecificity- Details- Details
3. 3. EmotionEmotion- i.e. Enthusiasm, frustration in - i.e. Enthusiasm, frustration in responsesresponses
4. 4. Extensiveness- Extensiveness- How many different people said How many different people said somethingsomething
Emotion and ContextEmotion and Context It is important to take It is important to take emotion/contextemotion/context into into
account.account. For example: the phrase “He was alright".For example: the phrase “He was alright".**
Can be said in a variety of ways and mean something Can be said in a variety of ways and mean something different in every case. different in every case.
"He was ALRIGHT" (He was alright, I liked him) "He was ALRIGHT" (He was alright, I liked him) "HE was alright" (He was alright but I wasn't so keen on "HE was alright" (He was alright but I wasn't so keen on
the others) the others) "He WAS alright" "He WAS alright" (He used to be but he isn't now) (He used to be but he isn't now) "He was alright?" (Well you might think so but I don't)"He was alright?" (Well you might think so but I don't)
* Example from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.* Example from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdfhttp://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdf
Tapes are transcribed verbatimTapes are transcribed verbatim Text is sorted into themes by at least 2 Text is sorted into themes by at least 2
researchers to ensure validity using pile-sort researchers to ensure validity using pile-sort method or computerized versionmethod or computerized version CDC’s EasyText (free)CDC’s EasyText (free)
Themes are compared with note-taker’s notesThemes are compared with note-taker’s notes The complete focus group process usually takes The complete focus group process usually takes
about three to four monthsabout three to four months
Coding Focus Group DataCoding Focus Group Data
Group Exercise 3Group Exercise 3 3) Content Analysis exercise3) Content Analysis exercise
The following text is an excerpt from the transcript of an The following text is an excerpt from the transcript of an interview conducted by a community psychiatric nurse interview conducted by a community psychiatric nurse with a woman following discharge from hospital. The with a woman following discharge from hospital. The excerpt deals with the woman's recollection of being excerpt deals with the woman's recollection of being admitted and how she felt at that time. admitted and how she felt at that time.
Read the transcript carefully and complete the following tasks. Read the transcript carefully and complete the following tasks.
1) Make a note of all the items of data you consider to be potentially 1) Make a note of all the items of data you consider to be potentially interesting. interesting.
2) Identify “categories” of data. 2) Identify “categories” of data. 3) How many categories have you identified? 3) How many categories have you identified? 4) Do some items of data potentially relate to more than one category? 4) Do some items of data potentially relate to more than one category? 5) Can you identify major and minor categories? 5) Can you identify major and minor categories?
Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002. http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdfhttp://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdf
How to Write up Qualitative How to Write up Qualitative Research for PublicationResearch for Publication
Typical article format also works for qualitative research!Typical article format also works for qualitative research!Same standards as for any type of paperSame standards as for any type of paper
A link in reasoning from introduction to methodology to findings to A link in reasoning from introduction to methodology to findings to conclusion.conclusion.
Abstract Abstract IntroductionIntroduction
•What’s the question? What’s the question? •Why’s it important? Why’s it important? •How to address it?How to address it?
Theory/Framework and Research QuestionsTheory/Framework and Research QuestionsMethod Method Findings Findings Discussion Discussion Conclusion Conclusion ReferencesReferences
Consider the use of Consider the use of tablestables to summarize less exciting to summarize less exciting details details
Use of Use of quotesquotes from participants from participants Use Use diagramsdiagrams to show analyses and framework to show analyses and framework Thoroughly justify and explain your Thoroughly justify and explain your philosophy/theoryphilosophy/theory
and research method.and research method. Use the Use the standard research paper formatstandard research paper format as a guideline as a guideline
for qualitative write-up.for qualitative write-up.
How to Write up Qualitative How to Write up Qualitative Research for PublicationResearch for Publication
Writing Tips for Qualitative Writing Tips for Qualitative ResearchResearch
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