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International Journal of Leadership in Education: Theory and Practice

Why trust the head? Key practices for transformational school leaders to build a purposeful relationship of trustDOI:10.1080/13603124.2013.844275

Paul BrowningPublished online: 16 Jan 2014

Abstract

Trust is widely recognized as one of the key qualities that a successful leader needs to bring about change within his/her organization. Literature has also shown that trust plays a pivotal role in effective school leadership. However, little research has been undertaken to identify specific actions of a transformational school leader enabling him/her to develop purposeful relationships of trust with his/her staff and Chair of the school’s governing body. Using a theoretical framework of transformational leadership in the context of the independent schooling sector in Australia, a multicase study of four highly trusted, transformational school leaders revealed 10 key trust building practices in the Head–staff dyad and three practices in the Head–Chair dyad. These practices were independent of the leader’s personal attributes. The study also revealed an inextricable link between trust and transformational leadership.

Introduction

Educational researchers have identified the importance and value of trust within schools and

school leadership: trust is a critical ingredient of the social context of schools because it

improves cooperation (Putnam, 1993; Tschannen-Moran, 2001); it enriches openness and health

in a school culture (Hoffman, 1994; Hoy, Tarter, & Witkoskie, 1992); it is essential to leadership

(Sergiovanni, 1992, 2005); and perhaps most importantly, it facilitates student achievement

(Bryk & Schneider, 2002; Goddard, Tschannen-Moran, & Hoy, 2001; Hoy, 2002). Trust has

consequences for a range of activities in the school including the way that teachers cooperate and

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work together, but trust is particularly important when the leader aims to take the staff

somewhere unknown, to bring about change (Sergiovanni, 2005).

The topic of trust is both intriguing and elusive. The idea of trust is hard to define but we

certainly know when it is missing. Baier (1986) noted ‘we notice trust as we notice air, only

when it becomes scarce or polluted’ (p. 234). Betrayal and distrust are particularly insidious

behaviours because the mission and objectives of the organization are so easily undermined

(Geist & Hoy, 2004). Sadly, when trust is low, most people perceive danger and go into a self-

protective mode; ‘they personalize everything and assess risks in dealing with everyone, tending

to cast themselves as the intended recipients of other people’s harmful actions’ (Reina & Reina,

2006, p. 25).

Our own understanding of the notion of trust will depend on the lens of our life experience, the

way that we view the world because of our past experiences (Caldwell & Hayes, 2007;

Rousseau, 1995). This notion was supported by Atkinson and Butcher (2003) when they claimed

that it is virtually impossible to have a universal definition of trust since it is a socially

constructed phenomenon. While there are numerous definitions of trust, this study used Mayer,

Davis, and Schoorman’s (1995) definition that trust is a willingness to depend on another party

as well as an expectation that the other party will reciprocate if one cooperates.

What organizational heads often fail to appreciate is how profoundly the organizational climate

(or culture) can influence outcomes (Goleman, 2000). Organizational climate in turn, is

influenced by leadership style; the way leaders motivate direct reports, gather and use

information, make decisions, manage change initiatives and handle crises. Leadership styles

account for 70% of organizational climate, which in turn leads to a 30% impact on organizational

performance (Goleman, 2000). Organizational culture is affected by trust. Trust can be fostered

or diminished by the behaviour of the leader (Tschannen-Moran, 2004).

Independent education in Australia

Australian school education is delivered by government and non-government schools. The non-government sector is made up of Catholic systemic schools and independent providers (some of which are grouped in small systems). In 2011, there were 1020 independent schools in Australia enrolling 500,558 students or 14.2% of total Australian school enrolments (Independent Schools Council of Australia [ISCA], 2012). As not-for-profit entities, independent schools are eligible to attract some government subsidies toward the cost of their students’ education; on average,

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government recurrent funding for students attending independent schools is less than half that for students in government schools (ISCA, 2012).Independent schools are so described because, while subject to government regulation, they operate autonomously of centralized bureaucracies. Many of these independent schools operate under the Carver Model of Governance, that is, the strategic direction of the school, development of policy, accountability and monitoring and supervision is provided through a Board or Council (Carver, 2002). The primary role of the Council in an independent school is to appoint and work through the CEO, or Head of the school (Carver, 2002).An independent school Head is accountable to the school’s governing body for the day-to-day running of the school including: human resource management, financial management (including payroll, superannuation, funding, loans and fees), asset development, governance management, public relations, crisis management, risk and compliance, philanthropy, student management, and directions in curriculum and pedagogy. However, the primary responsibility of Heads in independent schools is implementation of the vision and strategic plan set by the governing body. Vision is a view of the future of the organization, usually viewed as three to five years from the present. It provides a future direction, an overall framework for the organization’s mission and goals and an energizing force for employee participation and commitment (Morris, 1987). Strategy is the plan for achieving that vision.Independent school Heads are usually employed under a fixed-term contract, often five years in length. Their tenure and contract renewal is dependent on their ability to deliver key performance outcomes linked to the vision and strategy set by their governing body. They work closely with the Chair of the governing body, preparing regular reports and updates on the progress of the plan. Therefore the relationship between the Head and his/her Chair of the governing body is pivotal not only for the purposes of school improvement but also for their employment security. So it is vital that a Head fosters a positive relationship betweenhimself/herself and their Chair.

Transformational leadership

The theoretical framework for this study is transformational leadership: firstly, the governance structures found in many independent schools and subsequent contractual requirements for the Head to deliver key strategic performance targets provide an internal imperative for transformational leadership; secondly, the rapid social and technological change driving calls for urgent educational reform (Bellanca & Brandt, 2010) and the increased propensity for many national governments—and certainly the Australian Government—to legislate reform to meet their own policy agendas constitute strong external imperatives for change leadership.Transformational leadership can be defined in terms of articulating a compelling vision for followers (Bass, 1985). It energizes people by providing them with an exciting vision for the future rather than providing them with rewards and punishments (Bartram & Casimir, 2007). It occurs when leaders and followers are united in their pursuit of higher-level goals which are common to both (Sergiovanni, 2005). Burns (1978) states, ‘such leadership occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality’ (p. 20). Transformational leadership involves intellectually stimulating followers, encouraging them to learn new ways of doing their work (Bass, 1985) and ultimately improving their performance (Bartram & Casimir, 2007).Bass (1985) describes four components, or attributes and behaviours that have been isolated by numerous survey research analyses that describe transformational leadership from the

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perspective of a leader’s colleagues: charisma or idealized influence; inspirational motivation; intellectually stimulating; and individually considerate. Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Moorman, and Fetter (1990) expanded Bass’s original four-component framework to offer six transformational leadership behaviours or factors: identifying and articulating a vision, providing an appropriate role model, fostering an acceptance of group goals, high performance expectations, providing individualized support, andintellectual stimulation.Bass’s (1985) four components and Podsakoff et al’s. (1990) six-factor framework imply that a strong relationship needs to occur among all participants, a relationship that needs to be built around trust to be truly effective (Jung & Avolio, 2000; Kotter, 1996; Tschannen-Moran, 2004). This implication is supported by Taylor (2000), who states that the creation and facilitation of an environment of trust between the transformational leader and his/her staff is necessary for leadership-driven learning to occur. Staff members need to trust the leader in order to feel positively about them and to exert the extra effort to perform and achieve the vision (Bartram & Casimir, 2007); followers need to trust their leader because of the uncertainty inherent in changing the status quo.Leithwood, Leonard, and Sharratt (1998) have bridged the work of Bass into the educational context to create the ‘most specified model of transformational school leadership, one that has been the object of several dozen empirical studies’ (Leithwood, 2005, p. 10). However it was not selected to underpin the current study for two reasons. Firstly, they do not offer a diagnostic tool to measure transformational leadership; Podsakoff et al. have—the Transformational Leadership Measurement tool (TLM). Secondly, Leithwood’s model is not exclusively descriptive of the transformational leadership style. His model does not assume that the Head alone provides the leadership to create the conditions or dimensions described, but the Head shares leadership with teachers; that is, it incorporates the construct of distributed leadership (Hallinger, 2003; Stewart, 2006).While trust is important for the achievement of vision, Dirks and Ferrin (2002) report that transformational leadership is a strong predictor of trust. According to Gillespie and Mann (2004, p. 590), however, ‘empirical work on the relationship between specific transformational leadership behaviours and trust in the leader shows mixed and inconsistent findings’. This research sheds more light on the relationship between transformational leadership and trust and identifies specific practices that promote trust.

Purpose of the study

The study sought to add to the current research into actions that a leader can practise which effectively inspire, build and maintain trust in schools. Through literature review or research several previous studies have identified broad behaviours that a leader can demonstrate. Examples include: benevolence, honesty, openness, reliability and competence (Hoy & Tschannen-Moran, 1999); collegial leadership (Hoy, Smith & Sweetland, 2002); wisdom, educational ideals and care (Day, 2009); and servant leadership (Sendjaya & Pekerti, 2010). More recently, studies have begun to emerge looking more specifically at the actions and behaviours that inspire trust. However, those recent studies are limited, with most having being focused on instructional leadership in small school settings (Kagy, 2010).No identified study has sought to examine the actual trust actions used by a transformational school leader within the context of Australian independent education. This study aimed to fill the gap in the research by asking the question: What leadership practices contribute to the creation

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and maintenance of trust between a transformational school leader and (1) his/her staff and (2) Chair of governing body?While the context for this study is the Australian independent sector, it is noteworthy that transformational leadership dominated the preferred model of school leadership in the United Kingdom during the early 2000s (Gunter, 2001). Gurr (2002), in a study of transformational leadership behaviours in 19 Victorian government schools, believes that transformational leadership has much to offer education, creating a useful platform for understanding the complex phenomenon of educational leadership. It is anticipated therefore, that the findings of this study will have much broader implications, both nationally and internationally.

Research design

The research design to achieve this aim was a qualitative, multicase study based on the case study methodology described by Stake (1995). The purpose of the study was not to explain or predict why some people are more trusted than others, but to understand what transformational leaders do to effectively generate trust. It was therefore important to draw on a purposeful sample of cases, that is, cases based on their ability to provide the most relevant and useable information (Stake, 1995). This study therefore was undertaken in two phases. Phase One was the identification of the four cases to be studied, that is, four highly trusted transformational leaders; Phase Two was the multicase study of those four highly trusted leaders.

Selection of cases

Cases for the study were drawn from the Australian independent education sector. To take into account other potential variables that can impact trust, Heads were selected according to the following criteria:They were transformational leaders;They were leading schools with a staff greater than 120. Trust is easy to establish in smaller communities because trust is often implicitly built upon the development of personal relationships (Bryk & Schneider, 2002; Putman, 2000);Their schools had an open employment policy. Some 84% of Australian independent schools have a religious affiliation (ISCA, 2012), which may impact employment and student enrolment policies. According to Putman (1993) and Uslaner (2002), religion has an uneasy relationship with trust; andThey were highly trusted.

Some 385 independent school Heads from across Australia were invited to participate in the study. Of these, 177 met selection criteria 2 and 3. To determine alignment with criteria 1 and 2, the researcher was allowed to administer to volunteer Heads the TLM tool developed by Podsakoff et al. (1990), and Nyhan and Marlowe’s (1997) Organizational Trust Inventory (OTI) with their Chair of Council and members of staff.The TLM was selected because it has high internal consistency reliabilities (coefficient alphas) that met or exceeded Nunnally’s (1978) recommended level of .7 (i.e. ∝ = .78 – .91) and it has been successfully used in other studies, most recently in Schaubroeck, Lam, and Peng’s (2011) research into cognition-based and affect-based trust as mediators of leader behaviour. The OTI was developed to measure an individual's trust in their supervizor and work organization. The

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OTI is a 12-item scale, with eight items measuring trust in the supervizor and four items measuring trust in the organization. It also has high internal reliabilities (i.e. ∝ = .92 – .96) and has been used in other studies examining trust including the work of Pillai, Schriesheim, and Williams (1999).Nineteen schools returned significantly reliable data from the TLM and OTI. The four highest scoring schools on both those tools were then invited to participate in Phase Two, the multicase study.The researcher visited each of the four schools for a week to understand the context and to gather data. Data was gathered through:Interviews with the Chair and staff using a semi-structured approach (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006; Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009).Observation. As an observer-as-participant, the researcher was able to validate data collected from the interviews (Baker, 2006).

Staff members at each school were invited to be part of a focus group. Groups generally consisted of a mixture of teaching and administrative staff so as to gain a perspective of the leadership practices that engender trust from a wide range of people employed by the organization. The number of interviews and the size of the groups varied from school to school. Some individuals wished to meet with the researcher in a one-on-one interview to convey a very personal story; the researcher allowed this to occur but ensured the anonymity of each person/s. The iterative process of data collection and analysis eventually led to a point of data saturation; that is, no new information emerged from the focus group interviews (McCraken, 1988). This typically occurred around the fourth and fifth interview but for one case it did not occur until the eighth interview. To examine the trust relationship between the Head and the Chair, the traditional one-on-one interview form was used.The final stage of each interview was the analysis. Qualitative data analysis ideally occurs concurrently with the interview as the researchers generate an emerging understanding about the research topic (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006). Therefore, the last stage of the interview involved the researcher analysing the data using a technique known as meaning condensation (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009). Meaning condensation entails an abridgment of the meanings expressed by the participants in the focus groups; long statements are rephrased by the researcher and compressed into briefer statements. These were then reiterated to the group for confirmation and clarity of understanding.After the interview was concluded the condensed statements were coded (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009). The codes for the data analyzis were derived from the Podsakoff et al. (1990) six factor transformational leadership framework. A seventh category, other, was added for statements that could not be linked to any of the six transformational behaviours in the framework. These were analysed at a later point.In conjunction with the interviews with staff and the Chair the researcher spent time as an observer-as-participant, shadowing the Head to gather information about their daily interaction with their staff. The purpose of shadowing was to observe the Head’s interactions with staff and to see first-hand the practices that engender trust as described in the interviews.Construct validation of the collected data occurred with a triangulation exercise to see how well the information collected interpreted and supported the phenomenon of trust being studied. Specific practices observed by the researcher, or discovered during the interviews, were collated into a survey and distributed to staff at each school. Staff members were asked to confirm that they had observed the identified practice of their Head and then indicate on a three point Likert-

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scale their personal value of the action in terms of it building their trust in their leader. The intention of this exercise was to omit any of the practices from the final report on each case if they had only been observed by a few staff members (less than 20) or if staff did not rate them very highly.

Findings

Four cases of highly trusted transformational school leaders were studied in isolation revealing the key practices the individual Heads used to generate trust between themselves and their staff and Chair of Council. A cross-case analyzis of those four cases then occurred, where the researcher looked for the binding concepts, themes or functional relationships that linked the cases together and shed light on the most prominent practices that engender trust between a Head and his/her staff, and a Head and his/her Chair of Council. The most important findings were conveyed as assertions.

Assertion 1: A High level of trust existed in four different contexts and was not dependent on the personal attributes of the leader

The commonality of context of all four cases selected was that Heads were leading large, non-systemic independent schools in Australia; however, the history, structure, purpose, values and vision of each school was very different. Each school had its own complexities and situational differences. The contextual background of each of the four cases is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 Four different schools (contexts).

The study not only found substantive differences in each of the contexts, or schools, but also in the personalities of each of the Heads. Whereas each Head was a highly trusted transformational leader, each with more than 11 years’ leadership experience, they had their own particular personality traits and idiosyncrasies: two introverts who have a clear boundary between professional and personal and two extraverts who blur the boundary; two people who have to work very hard on their inter-personal skills and two for whom interacting with people comes naturally; three who have a deep sense of care and compassion for people and one who values professionalizm above being liked; one who has been at their school for a year and three who have served their communities for more than 11 years. Data from this study showed that trust in a transformational leader was not dependent on personal attributes or an individual’s ability to develop relationships. This was particularly ostensible between the two most highly trusted Heads who have two distinctly different personalities; one is an introvert who does not ‘do the social discussions, the chats well’ while the second is an extrovert who is ‘a people’s person’.

Assertion 2: Multiple practices were employed by the leader to engender the trust of their staff

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The study differed from many others in that it examined the concept of trust from the perspective of the people who offered it to the leader, the staff members. They were aware of the purpose of the focus group interview prior to attending. This provided the participants with at least five days to reflect on the behaviour of their leader. Many came to the interview with notes in readiness to share. The opening question of each interview asked staff members to articulate their understanding of trust. As Hall (2009) found when she undertook a study into the meaning of trust, the understanding of the concept differed considerably from participant to participant. This in turn impacted on the identification of the practices that were important for each interviewee. For example, if trust was defined as keeping confidences, then keeping confidences was a practice that the person identified. Further examples are (the staff member’s definition of trust is in italics followed by a practice they identified later in the interview):Trust is knowing that the person is there to support you and that you can count on them. Someone you can go to if you need help—[I trust John because] he stood by me on an issue with a member of staff; that really meant a lot to me. (Emily, Administration staff, Case 1)Trust would be to trust somebody to allow them to use their own initiative, their own judgement, to follow through on something without stepping in and coming over the top of them to say, ‘do it this way.’’—I trust her because [Ella] trusts me. She doesn’t come in over the top of my faculty and tell me what to do. She has put me in charge of it and she lets me be in charge of it. (Sally, Dean of Faculty, Case 2)As each person has his/her own life experience and understanding of the concept of trust, it follows that no one leadership practice alone will engender the collective trust of a staff. One practice may be of value to one person but have no value to another. To engender a greater number of people’s trust, a leader must therefore employ a range of practices. This finding was further supported with the data collected from the confirmation survey. In each of the four confirmation surveys there were incidences of a number of staff who had seen the practice but did not place any value in it in terms of their offering of trust, or they only rated the practice as being of some value.The four Heads who were the focus of this study each employed between 11 and 15 practices. However, while the evidence suggests that a range of practices should be employed, more practices did not equate to a higher level of trust. Indeed, the most trusted Head employed 12 practices, while the fourth most trusted Head used 15 practices to engender trust. It cannot be concluded from this study how many, or which practices are more important, or which combinations of practices have greater impact on the generation of trust.

Assertion 3: There were 10 practices most commonly evident in the Head–staff dyad

As the researcher studied four highly trusted transformational school leaders a consistency emerged. In all, 21 practices that engender the staff’s trust in the Head were identified. Of the 21, five practices were common across all four cases, five were common in three of the cases, five were common in two cases; and the remaining six were only evidenced in a single case. All but one of the practices could be coded against the transformational leadership framework of Podsakoff et al. (1990).The research set about to identify the key practices commonly used by highly trusted transformational school leaders. Among the four cases there were 10 commonly used practices. The practices peculiar to one or two cases are not included in the final assertion. While those

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practices were important for the development of trust between the staff and the Head in that particular context, they were not commonly evident across the cases.

Openly admits mistakes;Offers trust to staff;Actively listens;Provides affirmation;Makes informed/consultative decisions;Is visible around the school;Remains calm and level-headed;Mentors and coaches staff;Cares for staff; andKeeps confidences.

Admit mistakes

Leaders are not infallible. As one member of staff described her Head: He is very human; he displays a human error side of him … He is happy to admit when he makes mistakes. (Sam, teacher, Case 1).How leaders deal with their mistakes sets the tone for the rest of the organization and is a key factor in the creation of trust (Reina & Reina, 2006). A leader’s willingness to display his/her vulnerabilities, both personally and professionally, engendered staff’s admiration and trust. Staff members viewed this not as a weakness but as a key strength of leadership, connecting them to their Head on a very human level: Often she says when she finds [something] a problem, she doesn’t always have to know the answer, or be right, she will often express when she is confused about the way forward. (Silvia, support staff, Case 3)

Offer trust to staff members

One of the most powerful actions for gaining the trust of others is to firstly give it. This was certainly evidenced in comments made by staff members: ‘she trusts me, and that is huge …’ (Jack, Director of Faculty, Case 2). Tozer (1997) states that to gain the trust of others we first have to give it; for leaders this means taking a risk and trusting in others first. All four Heads saw a key responsibility of their role as being the empowerment of staff through the offering of trust; the role of the Head is not to interfere with a staff member’s work, but to provide feedback, mentoring and support if required. Consequently staff members valued being appreciated and treated like colleagues and professionals, knowing that the Head was there in the background if they needed support and advice.

Actively listen

All four Heads practised what Covey (1989) defined as empathic listening, or active listening. This type of listening is about opening oneself to the talker, seeking to identify what they are truly trying to say, to the point where one can actually feel what they are feeling.

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You feel like he is listening to you and talking to you, whereas you know some people, they listen to you but they don’t. (Janet, teacher, Case 4)In the eyes of the staff the Head listens far more than he/she speaks. The Head has the ability not to be distracted, to give eye contact, ask clarifying questions, and listen carefully not just to what is said audibly by the staff member, but also for the words that are not uttered. The Head was then able to demonstrate that he/she had heard by repeating back to the person what was said, identifying succinctly the issue and the emotions felt.

Provide affirmation

Humans have an innate desire to be appreciated and valued. Recent research has shown that organizations that excel at employee recognition are 12 times more likely to generate strong business results than those that do not (Bersin & Associates, 2012). Chris, the Head of Case 4, spends much of his time seeking ways to value the staff of his school, ‘because if you have got good teachers, you have got a good school … If they [the staff] know that you value the work they do, they’re far happier’.All four Heads employed a range of appreciation strategies including publicly thanking a member of staff at a staff meeting, sending an email or a handwritten thank you note, leaving a basket of fruit in a staff room to thank people for extra effort, or simply personally speaking to the person to affirm them. Acknowledgement was not only given for the significant contributions but also for the small things a person had done. Staff members found affirmation very motivating, leading to a strengthening of trust because it left them with the impression that their leader knew them and the work they did.

Make informed and consultative decisions

Followers look to their leader to provide clear direction; to form that direction decisions have to be made. Several staff at each school spoke of previous Heads who were not good decision-makers which subsequently left staff members feeling directionless, or in ‘no-mans’ land, wondering what has happened and if it [the issue] [had] been swept under the carpet’ (Renaye, Dean, Case 2).Some decisions were made promptly. Staff members often needed an answer in the moment and invariably their Head was able to do that for them if the issue warranted it. For larger decisions, or decisions that would potentially impact on others, the Head used a consultative process, ensuring that the views of all stakeholders were taken into account. Trust was not linked to the need to receive an affirmative decision; trust was linked with the Head’s ability to make a decision and enact it. Trust is the knowledge that the leader is not going to make some arbitrary, ‘off the cuff’ decision that impacts staff without involving them in the process (Barna, 2009). Staff members at each school participating the in study knew that their opinions would be considered carefully and respectfully by the Head: ‘I trust her decisions because she consults with staff before making them, but I also trust her judgement’ (Lauren, Administrative Staff, Case 2). Reina and Reina (2006) state that a good leader is one who has enough self-trust and self-confidence to involve others and ask for input in the decision-making process.

Be visible around the school

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Being visible to the school community is an effective strategy for building trust between a Head and their staff. Kouzes and Posner (2003) described this strategy as being part of leadership credibility. Many staff interviewed reported how much they valued seeing the Head around the school grounds, speaking with parents, students and individual staff, modelling and reinforcing behaviours and expectations. They also commented on how much they valued the leader’s presence in the staff room, at school assemblies, chapel services, functions and performances. Staff trusted their Head because he/she was part of the school; they could see that he/she was committed to the fundamental purpose of the school and its values.

Remain calm and level headed

Covey (2006) links the behaviour of respect, that is, acting in a manner that shows a fundamental value of people, to the development of trust. People by nature want to know what they are going to get. If the leader acts in a reasonable and predictable way people will respect and trust them (Barna, 2009; Hargreaves & Fink, 2006). Each of the leaders studied possessed the ability to control their emotions and remain calm and level-headed. Knowing that the Head’s behaviour would predictably be calm and level-headed, and focused on the agenda of the staff member rather than the Head, gave many staff members’ confidence and provided them a feeling of safety. Even when faced with difficult or challenging issues staff members knew that their leader would be ‘unflappable’ and not ‘knee jerk to anything’ (Beth, Head of Junior School, Case 1).

Mentor and coach staff

‘The real power of effective leadership, “writes Brigadier Jim Wallace, former head of Australian Special Forces”, is maximizing other people’s potential’ (as cited in Dickson, 2009, p. 36). Wallace’s view of leadership rings true for the Heads who participated in this study. As a result, staff members felt empowered to manage difficult situations themselves.The practice included the giving of critical feedback, which many staff members interviewed valued. They saw it as being a vital part of their professional growth.I am someone that really likes honesty … for me she can be quite brutally honest and I love that. I want to hear that critical feedback but then she’ll tell me the positive as well. For someone to have the guts to tell me the good and the bad in a matter of fact way that’s what I actually trust. (Rebecca, Teacher, Case 2)Building the capacity of staff members, particularly senior staff, was seen as beneficial for everyone in the organization (John, Head of School 9), with the investment in staff often resulting in their career progression.

Care for staff members

Effective leaders care enough to want to learn about their staff so they can act with compassion and empathy towards them (Boyatzis & McKee, 2005). Even with a large staff, Heads in each case study extended a genuine care for individual members of the staff at their school. Each Head took the time to demonstrate a very real responsibility for the people in their community. Care was extended in very practical ways including: offering staff members an empathetic ear; granting time off work to support a family member; follow-up conversations to check up on a person; and attendance at weddings and funerals. While not every member of staff at each school

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had experienced the personal concern of the Head, they nonetheless had heard of his/her authentic compassion for others. For these people the stories of the Head’s care had led them to offer their trust to a leader who was compassionate towards students and staff.

Keep confidences

It was not surprising that the practice of confidentiality was evident. In any kind of relationship, confidentiality is essential to maintaining trust. When others have entrusted a person with private or sensitive information that person has a moral obligation to honour that trust; the breach of confidentiality may cost that relationship (Reina & Reina, 2006).You won’t find that she has betrayed your confidence. Well, I have never found that she has betrayed confidence where I have had some of those difficult discussions and then found [out] that somebody has told me back part of that discussion … I feel that I can have faith in her that I can have a discussion. (Annette, Director of Faculty, Case 2)

Assertion 4: Trust and transformational leadership were inextricably linked

The concept of transforming leadership was first introduced by Burns (1978) in his descriptive research on political leaders. Burns’s work was extended by Bass (1985) who replaced the word transforming with transformational leadership, defining the leadership style in terms of articulating a compelling vision for followers. Bass continued to describe four components, or attributes and behaviours that describe transformational leadership from the perspective of a leader’s colleagues: charisma or idealized influence; inspirational motivation; intellectually stimulating; and individually considerate. The four components have formed the basis of the most prominent TLM tool, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) developed by Bass and Avolio (1990).Podsakoff et al. (1990) also offer a transformational leadership framework. After an extensive review of the literature and research they expanded Bass’s original four component framework to offer six transformational leadership behaviours or factors. It has been this framework which has been used to code and analyse the data collected in this study. Podsakoff et al. (1990) and Bass’s (1985) transformational leadership framework imply that a strong relationship needs to occur among all participants, a relationship that needs to be built around trust to be truly effective (Jung & Avolio, 2000; Kotter, 1996; Tschannen-Moran, 2004). This implication is supported by Taylor (2000), who states that the creation and facilitation of an environment of trust between the transformational leader and his/her staff is necessary for leadership-driven learning to occur. Staff members need to trust the leader in order to feel positively about them and to exert the extra effort to perform and achieve the vision (Bartram & Casimir, 2007); followers need to trust their leader because of the uncertainty inherent in changing the status quo.While Gillespie and Mann (2004) stated that empirical work on the relationship between specific transformational leadership behaviours and trust in the leader resulted in mixed and inconsistent findings, quantitative and qualitative data from this study suggest a remarkable consistency. Using Nyhan and Marlowe’s (1997) OTI and the TLM developed by Podsakoff et al. (1990), quantitative data collected from 1252 staff members from the 19 independent schools in this study meeting criteria 2 and 3 showed a strong correlation between trust and transformational leadership (r = 0.92). Where Dirks and Ferrin (2002) reported that transformational leadership is a strong predictor of trust, the quantitative data from this study showed that the two are

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inextricably linked. All but one of the 21 trust engendering practices identified in the four case studies could be coded against the six factor transformational leadership framework of Podsakoff et al., further substantiating the assertion that trust and transformational leadership are inextricably linked.

Assertion 5: An additional transformational leadership behaviour was identified not previously articulated in either the Bass or Podsakoff models: Transformational leaders make informed and consultative decisions

The only practice identified by this study that is not articulated in either the Bass (1985) or Podsakoff et al. (1990) transformational leadership frameworks was that the trusted leader makes informed and consultative decisions. However, it was a practice clearly evident in the behaviour of all four highly trusted transformational leaders participating in the study: each used similar decision-making processes. Ella (Case 2) based her decision-making on the ‘bigger picture’ (Jan, Head of House, Case 2). The decisions she would make were accepted by staff because they were made in the best interests of the school. However, to make those decisions Ella ensured that she consulted with the relevant stakeholders. Trust was increased because Ella not only made the decision, but followed through with action. Eileen’s (Case 3) practice was similar in that she made immediate decisions if the issue warranted it but, like Ella, she was both very reflective and consultative when larger decisions that had a broader impact had to be made. Staff members commented that Eileen was transparent in communicating those decisions and was not afraid to change her mind if a decision was not successful. Like Ella and Eileen, Chris (Case 4) also employed a very consultative process, listening to the views of the staff members before carefully reflecting on the issue and then making the decision. Staff members said that they felt comfortable expressing their views to Chris on any matter; they felt that their opinions were valued when a decision was to be made. He too, was not afraid to make the ‘no’ decisions but would always articulate why he had reached that point. John’s (Case 1) practice of decision-making was slightly different in that staff did not mention consultative processes. This was possibly due to the fact that John had only been at School 9 for a year when participating in the study. However, staff did talk about his ability to make decisions and build the trust by ‘following words with actions’. Like the other three Heads, John was also not afraid to make the ‘no’ decisions and then be honest with staff and explain why he had responded in the way he had.

Assertion 6: There were three key practices most commonly evident in the Head–Chair dyad

Each of the Chairs of Council in the four case studies articulated a high level of trust in their respective Head. Qualitative data collected from the interviews with the Heads and their respective Chair of Council revealed eight trust engendering practices on the part of the Head. Of these eight practices, two were evident in all four cases, one was evident in three cases, one was evident in two cases and the remaining four were peculiar to a single case.It is contended from the data that practices most prominent in the behaviour of highly trusted Heads in the Head–Chair dyad are: develop a relationship; be open and transparent; and meet regularly. While the third practice, meet regularly, was not clearly evident in the fourth case,

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particular nuances in the Head-Chair relationship at that school suggest that it has been a valued practice. The three key practices are closely linked.

Develop a relationship

The relationship between a Head of a school and his/her Chair exists out of necessity rather than choice. Most Chairs recognized they, and the Head, were two very different people who, if the circumstances were different, probably would not be friends. However, each of the Chairs interviewed commented that they enjoyed a positive relationship with their Head that was founded on a high level of trust.To foster a positive relationship, each Head recognized that they took the time to get to know their Chair, who they are, what they value, what they appreciate and how they like to operate. Ella, the Head of Case 2, bluntly defined the wisdom of developing a professional working relationship with her Chair. She recognized the importance of respect for the role and authority of the Chair. To ignore the relationship ‘would be to a Head’s peril’.It’s about politics, first and foremost … happy Chair, happy Principal, happy school. And you want the Chair and you aligned in such a way that no [Council] member can come between the two of you and that’s always been my premise. (Ella, Head of Case 2)Both the Head and the Chair acknowledged that the relationship required constant attention and work.

Be open and transparent

Very early on in her career as a Head, Eileen (Case 3) had received advice from a colleague to ‘never keep anything from the Chair’. Eileen, along with the three other Heads participating in the study, has found this practice one that is worth keeping. All four Chairs expressed they had trust in their Head because they knew that they would not keep anything from them. Their Head was open, transparent and honest with the information that they would provide. As Margaret (Chair of Case 3) stated, ‘that sort of openness … gives rise to trust’.The Chairs described their respective Head as pragmatic with the information that he/she shared with them. However, each Head said that, if in doubt, they would err on the side of caution and communicate with their Chair. Chris (Head of Case 4) justifies this wisdom: he never wants the Chair, or Council, to ‘come back in a couple of years’ time and say … ‘you never told us about this’.

Meet regularly

Any relationship, be it personal or professional, needs time and effort to grow. Three of the four Heads participating in the study stated that they regularly meet with their Chair of Council. The fourth did regularly meet but the level of trust is at a point that the Chair no longer sees the need.The regularity, time and place of the meeting are dependent on the particular circumstances and needs of the Chair and Head. The purpose of the scheduled meeting is to provide a forum for the Head to brief the Chair on any matters of importance, to provide the Head with a listening ear, or to discuss strategy or the forthcoming Council meeting. More importantly, the purpose is to provide the opportunity for the relationship between the Head and Chair to grow.

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Implications, limitations and further research

This study reviewed the literature on trust, presenting an argument for its value and importance in school leadership. A two-phase research program was designed to answer the central question: What leadership practices contribute to the creation and maintenance of trust between a transformational school leader and their staff and Chair of governing body? Six resultant assertions have been made.

Implications for practice

An analysis of Ofsted results in the UK completed by Barber, Whelan and Clark (2010) showed that for every 100 schools with good leaders, 93 will have good standards of student achievement; and for every 100 schools that do not have effective leadership, only one will have good standards of achievement. While this study did not set out to look at the impact of trust on student achievement—Bryk and Schneider (2002) have already provided convincing empirical data to show that this is indeed the case—it is nonetheless interesting to note from anecdotal evidence (external national testing and final year results) that each of the four schools participating in the study consistently achieve very high academic results.It can be argued that good leadership means building trust. Certainly Kouzes and Posner (2003) affirm this: ‘… before people will be willing to follow a leader’s vision or act on a leader’s initiatives, they must trust their leader. This trust cannot be demanded. Leaders must earn it before they can expect their diverse constituents to accept and act upon their messages’ (p. 110).Data collected during Phase One of this study showed that there is little correlation between a Head’s length of ‘tenure’ and ‘trust in the leader’ (r = 0.34). The fragile link between trust and tenure, coupled with the convincing evidence that trust and transformational leadership are inextricably linked (Assertions 3 and 4), as well as commentary from current literature, provides a convincing argument that a lack of trust would inhibit transformational change in a school. It is therefore important that school leaders intentionally develop behaviours and practices that engender, build and sustain trust rather than hoping that they will become more trusted as time goes by.Assertions 3 and 6, which articulate key trust engendering practices, should inform Heads who wish to develop and strengthen trust between themselves and their staff and their Chair of Council. Practical use of the findings could include the development of an appraisal tool for current and aspiring leaders. This tool could take the form of a survey not unlike Nyhan and Marlowe’s (1997) OTI. Staff members could respond on a likert scale to a number of items developed from the key practices identified in this study. For example: On a scale of one to seven, indicate how well you believe your Head listens to your concerns. The appraisal tool could be used to identify a Head’s strengths and weaknesses in relation to trust building practices and their transformational leadership style. The weaknesses would subsequently be addressed through professional development, strengthening the leader’s trust relationships with their staff and Chair, thus enabling transformational change to occur in the organization. The tool might have other applications such as in the selection of a new Head for a school.

Implications for theory

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The findings of this study provide a new contribution to the theory of transformational leadership by postulating the existence of a behaviour not previously noted in the literature; that is, transformational leaders make informed and consultative decisions. Research on the transformational leadership style has not developed much beyond the work of Podsakoff et al. (1990). Their work, and the prior work of Bass (1985) and Burns (1978) forms the basis of leadership assessment tools such as the TLM tool, which was used in this study, and the more popular Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ Form 5X). Bass’s original model was inclusive of the notion of trust in the leader but literature has not considered nor linked the practice of decision-making to either trust or transformational leadership. While it is acknowledged that this study is limited in its design—the context was leadership in independent schools—this finding does suggest that further research to investigate the link between decision-making practices, trust and transformational leadership style should be undertaken.This study is one of the few that has explored the trust relationship between a Head (or Chief Executive Officer) and the Chair of the governing body. Research into this relationship has only just begun emerging (Lecovich & Bar-Mor, 2007) and yet it is a vital relationship influencing the success, or otherwise, of improvement plans developed by governing bodies (A. Kakabadse, N. Kakabadse, & R. Knyght, 2010). To this point, the limited studies have focused more broadly on the relationship between the two and have not sought to identify specific practices that can be given as advice to Heads. The relationship between a Head and his/her Chair is a vital one. To not foster that relationship in an appropriate, professional manner can be to the detriment of the Head’s employment. This study adds to the emerging literature in this field by researching the phenomenon of trust in the transformational leadership paradigm, identifying specific behaviours that strengthen the trust relationship between the Head and his/her Chair of the governing body. No other study identified has done this. In doing so, it also provides evidenced-based advice to independent school leaders who wish to strengthen the trust relationship between themselves and their Chair of the governing body.

Further research

Goleman (2000) suggests that leadership styles account for 70% of organizational climate. This is supported by quantitative data collected during Phase One of this study, which showed a strong correlation (r = 0.83) between ‘trust in the leader’ and ‘trust in the organization’. Put simply, the more staff members trust their Head, the greater the trust they have in their organization. This finding would suggest that it is the competency of the Head that contributes significantly to the culture of the organization, and therefore the presence of trust. Two schools participating in Phase One of the research who returned very low levels of trust provided anecdotal comments to further support this suggestion. These comments suggested that the previous leadership in both schools had had lasting, and significant impact on the staff’s ability to trust the Head, even when a change in leadership has occurred. Further research is required to examine the detrimental impact of poor leadership practice to provide an understanding of how long it takes an organization to recover. A question worthy of further research is: If a Head employs the trust engendering practices identified in this study how long will it take to re-establish the culture of trust needed for transformational change to occur? Another related question could be: Do Heads in low trust environments need to engage other trust building practices first before they can achieve a vision?

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There may be other contributing factors that impact or impede the development of trust in the leader. For example, the impact of change may have bearing on trust levels. This study did not take into consideration this possibility when selecting the four cases. The leadership behaviour of Heads in schools with low levels of trust could well include the 10 key practices, but the resulting impact of strategic initiatives, or change, may have a greater effect on trust. Research into trust and change is worthy of consideration with a potential question being: How can Heads lead through change: are there specific trust engendering practices that come into play in these circumstances?Finally, Assertion 5 suggested the existence of a transformational leadership behaviour not considered by either Bass (1985) or Podsakoff et al. (1990): Transformational leaders make informed and consultative decisions. Evidence for the existence of this assertion was strong and indeed, it was articulated in the transformational leadership framework presented for the educational context by Leithwood (2005). It could be hypothesized that the practice would exist in other contexts, such as the corporate world, because there is a similarity in the roles between a CEO and the Head of an independent school. Further research to ascertain if the practices identified in this study exist in the behaviour of transformational leaders in other situations, such as the corporate world, should be conducted with the view of revising, or developing a new transformational leadership tool.

Concluding comment

The topic of trust is both intriguing and elusive. The concept is hard to define but it is the lubricant that enables a leader to bring about transformational change. Bryk and Schneider (2002) discovered this when they concluded that schools who reported strong trust levels were three times more likely to be categorized as improving in reading and mathematics than those with very weak reports. Barber et al. (2010) showed that good leadership has a positive impact on student achievement. If schools are to adapt to an ever-changing world, then they need effective transformational leadership. Without it our students will not be afforded the educational opportunities to prepare them for tomorrow’s living. Understanding how trust can be generated will give rise to brave new possibilities for our schools.

Notesa The Australian government provides funding to all independent schools using a ‘needs-based’ funding system titled Socio-Economic Status (SES). A school’s SES score is derived by selecting a sample of parents’ addresses and mapping these against census collector districts from the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Household income and education data are then used to derive an SES score which places the school on a sliding scale of funding entitlement. The scale typically ranges from a score of 70 to a score of 130; 70 being the most ‘disadvantaged’ school, or school with a parent community who has the least capacity to pay fees; 130 being the most ‘advantaged’ school, or parent community with the highest capacity to pay fees. An SES score of a school can be used as an indication of the culture of the school and the aspiration of the parents who send their children there.

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