08_AnalyzingSpokenDiscours

7/28/2019 08_AnalyzingSpokenDiscours

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Analyzing Spoken Discourse

Interactional Analysis, Conversation Analysis andDiscourse Analysis


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Interactional Analysis

Introduction Theoretical and Historical Background The Negotiation of Meaning Communication Strategies The Treatment of Error Comment Conducting an Interactional Analysis

Speech Act Theory Interactional Sociolinguistics

The Ethnography of Communication Linguistic Approach

Defining the object Identifying problem sequences Establishing a descriptive framework Quantify the data

Final Comment


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Introduction and Background

Ellis differentiates interactional analysis from interactionanalysis and suggests both are part of discourseanalysis

Discourse analysis is the study of utterances Their semantic and pragmatic meanings in

context Their organization to form a coherent whole

Interaction analysis refers to a coding of classroom

language (we will see below) Interactional analysis describes the discourse of L2

learners in natural and instructional settings at bothMacro and micro levels


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Negotiation of Meaning

This concept is one of the pillars of CLT Refers to exchanges when speakers try to resolve a

communicative impasse

Hatch (1978) learners learn through theprocess of interaction and not by using pre-learned products Interaction facilitates acquisition

Negotiation gives salience to form-function relations Role of production in acquisition

Interaction is larger than only negotiation ofmeaning, and the exact place of negotiationof meaning in acquisition is yet unclear


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Communication Strategies

Are speaker-oriented Many taxonomies of these

e.g. Avoidance, paraphrase, coinage, circumlocution Are part of the planning stage of speech

May be knowledge based or control based May be conceptual or linguistic

Conceptual: Analytic Holistic

Linguistic Transfer Borrowing

Two principles in using C Strategies Principle of Clarity Principle of Economy

C Strategies may both help and hinder L2 acquisition


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Treatment of Error

Pedagogical and Theoretical interests In classes error correction is: imprecise, inconsistent, and

indirect Error correction in non-class settings: 'repair' is the preferred

method In class: other-initiated repair, other-repair Out of class: self-initiated repair, self-repair

Need for negative evidence in L2 learning Provides focus of cognitive resources to learning process

Research on Errors to answer 2 questions: Does e.c. lead to learner uptake? Do some types of ec work better?

Results are mixed...


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Comment

Interactional analysis is a useful way toexamine the following: Do instructional activities result in the behavior

they were designed to elicit? What is the linguistic environment in the class? What are key factors that influence the le? Do teachers give preference / help to certain

students or categories of students?


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Conducting an Interactional

Analysis There are a number of approaches (See

table 8.3) 2 general approaches

Data driven Theory driven

A general approach is outlined: Define the objects of the inquiry

Identify instances of the the object of the inquiryin the data

Establish a framework for describing the data Quantify the data


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When making a framework

If possible, use an existing framework Develop your framework as a system, not a

list Ensure all categories are operationalized Ensure the categories account for all the data Ensure the categories are mutually exclusive Ensure the system is economical


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Conversation Analysis

Introduction Historical and Theoretical Background The organization of talk-in-interaction

Turn-taking Sequence organization

Repair Conversation analysis and learner language Conducting a CA

Starting out Methodological Tenets

Authentic, recorded data which are carefully transcribed Use unmotivated looking Employ the 'turn' as unit of analysis Analyze single, deviant and collections of cases Disregard ethnographic and demographic particulars Eschew coding

Analytic Tools


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What is Conversation Analysis

The study of what people do when they talk: Taking turns Ordering the talk sequentially

Organizing of speech to do something Repairing breakdowns if needed Orienting to the conversation

In SLA we look at how learners do thesetasks

CA in SLA takes a participant's perspective


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Historical and Theoretical B/G

We perform our social selves (Goffman1959) Sacks: ordinary conversation is deeply

ordered

There is tacit reasoning and sociolinguisticcompetency in the production and understandingof talk

CA is studying the interactional organization ofsocial activities (Hutchby and Woofit (1998)

Two types: Pure CA: analysis of mundane talk Applied CA: analysis of institutional talk


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Turn Taking

The construction and organization of turns Constructed out of TCUs Hearers listen for transition relevance place

Rules for turn taking If current speaker the next speaker, s/he takes turn No selection any speaker may self-select (1st spk) No selection current speaker may continue


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Sequence organization

The normative, ordered way speech is organized One turn usually predicts another (adjacency pairs) Certain second pairs are preferred the preference

organization It relates to structure and not psychological factors Sequences can have pre-sequences, which predict

following sequences Sequences are patterns of subsequent actions

Are not arbitrary but realization of logicalprojections, rights and obligations


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Repair

There may be trouble sources inconversation

Who initiates and who repairs:

Initiate: Self and other Repair: Self and other

These can be mixed (e.g. Self-initiate, otherrepair)

Where repair occurs: Same turn, next turn (NTRI)

Repairs not limited to words (e.g. Forgettinga name; hearing problems)

Repairs interrupt talk-in-action until repair ismade.


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CA Methodology pp 205-7

CA should be based on:Empirically motivated, emic (insider)accounts of

interactional competence in different speech

situationsCollections of relevant data that are excerpts ofcomplete transactions of communicative events

Should be capable of exploiting the analyticalpotential of fine-grained transcripts

Should be capable of identifying both successfuland unsuccessful learning behaviorsShould be capable of showing how meaning is

constructed as a socially distributedphenomenon, critiquing cognitive notions


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Methodological Tenets pp 208-12

Authentic, recorded data which are carefullytranscribed Researcher him/herself should transcribe

Use unmotivated looking Discursive, interpretive, data-driven approach

Employ the 'turn' as unit of analysis Analyze single, deviant and collections of

cases Disregard ethnographic and demographic

particulars Eschew coding and quantification


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Analytic Tools pp 212-221

Select a sequence Characterize the actions in the sequence Consider the speakers' packaging of actions, including

their selections of reference lexical items, provides for

certain understandings of the actions performed Consider how the turn-taking organization provides for

certain understandings of the actions and matterstalked about

Consider how the ways the actions were accomplished

implicate certain identities, roles and relationships forthe interactants in equal and unequal speech systems

Put it all together Note the transcription conventions pp 226-7


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Classroom discourse analysis

This means a lot of different things to different people

For this class we are dealing with speech not writing

We are dealing with naturally occurring speech not

prepared monologue

We are dealing with speech acts

We are examining the functional and the linguistic aspects

of speech


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Approaches to analyzing interaction

c.f. Nunan (1992)

Some overlap with DA in study of

speech acts.

Turn-taking, ambiguity resolution, etc.

LinguisticAre attempting to link linguistic

routines with social aspects of

interaction.

Sociological:Focus of the analysis

Yessee Sinclair-Coulthard modelDiscursive, interpretive analysisDiscursive, interpretive analysisPre-determined analytic

categories

Writing

SpeakingOnly speakingOnly SpeakingMode of language

Natural and elicitedNatural and elicitedOnly naturalMeans of collecting data

Discourse AnalysisInteraction AnalysisConversation Analysis


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Classroom Discourse

The classroom is a unique social interaction. It exists

for the purpose of transmitting knowledge from

experts to those who need the information for some

purpose.

Classrooms are of particular interest to SLA

researchers because they are the location where

learning, hopefully, is taking place.


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Scrivener (1996)

A Authentic Communication the learner can use any linguisticknowledge at his / her disposal to do whatever he/she needs to do.

R Restricted Language the learner is expected to use a certain set oflanguage to do the classroom activity. If he or she uses other language, theactivity is viewed as a failure and the learner may be reprimanded or

corrected in some way. He or she is not permitted to use any language, onlythe target form. (Listen and repeat pattern drills are a simple example ofrestricted classroom use.)

C- Clarification Language this is the language to talk about language.An example might be the explanation of a grammatical point by the teacherto the students.


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Conversation Analysis C.A.

Looks at detailed local aspects of conversation

Some topics: Turn-taking, showing listening, selection of thenext speaker, (non) interrupting

Adjacency pairs: two utterances that usually go together - Non-

use of the pair leads to considerable work to repair theconversation

Also concerned with: opening and closing conversations andtopic management

In C.A. all elements pauses, body language, ers, unfinished

utterances, overlaps, laughter, and re-finishing earlierutterances are all considered important


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C.A. gives insights for teaching

The special turn-taking conditions of the classroomwill need supplementing in order to get learners readyfor outside the class conversation

Some adjacency pairs will be easy to learn, butdispreferred sequences will require skill and practiceWho chooses the topics for the conversations in class?


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Teaching and Learning as

Discourse Walsh (2001) Self -evaluation of Teacher Talk

Divides classroom discourse into 4 modes

Managerial mode

Materials mode

Skills and systems mode

Classroom context mode


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Walsh 2001 contd

Modes are observed through turn taking and topicmanagement (CA) and through looking at exchangestructure in stretches of classroom discourse

Observing the modes lets teachers understand theirteacher talk and develop their own style ofappropriate teacher talk

Teachers need to adjust TTT to the aims of the lesson


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Managerial Mode

Extended teacher turn and no learner turns

Focus is on the business side of the lesson

There is repetition Teacher hands over the exchange to the student at

the end of the monologue

Teacher uses markers to help learners follow the talk


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Materials Mode

Pedagogic goals and T-S discourse flow from

the materials being used

Classic I-R-F is the easiest way to handle thismode

Turn-taking and topic depend entirely on the

material


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Skills and Systems mode

Teaching goals are related to language

practice or language skill

I-R-F is common Teacher manages topic and turn

Focus on accuracy

Teacher is aiming to get learner to manipulatethe L2 system


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Classroom Context mode

Opportunity for genuine discourse is frequent

Teacher has a less prominent role

Teacher listens and supports the interaction


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Sinclair - Coulthard

Initially they were concerned with speech acts in the

classroom.

The lack of fit between form and function led to Sinclair

and Coulthards attempt to make a purely linguistic analysis of language:

Categories of language behavior that can apply in allsituations

Categories that do not rely on context to provide theexplanation.


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A Rank scale model of spoken

discourse

A rank scale every item in the scale is composed of the items below it,and makes up the items above it in the scale.

Halliday (1961) first proposed the following: phonemes comprisemorphemes, which comprise syllables, which comprise words, which

comprise groups, which comprise clauses, which comprise paragraphs. It is conceivable that some levels can be realized by the same form (e.g. a

one-clause paragraph.) However, all written texts can be identified anddescribed at these various levels. (The level higher than the paragraphhowever still remains uncertain.)


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Exchange Structure

In writing, we have an essay comprised of paragraphs, that arecomprised of sentences (clauses), that are comprised of groups (thenoun group), that are comprised of words.

To write a paragraph, these need to be structured in an orderly way

Likewise, we do not speak randomly, there is an organization and apattern to it.

In some cases, the organization and pattern is more formal andritualistic than in others (compare a church service to a universitylecture to a discussion with your parents)


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Spoken language structure

There is a transaction of some type (e.g. a lesson or an identifiable partof a lesson);

Which is made up of a series of exchanges: (these are categorized intothose that teachers initiate and those that pupils initiate and can beinforming, directing, eliciting and checking)

Which are made up of a series of moves one of which is the head or main part (e.g. eliciting a linguistic response);

These are made up of a series of acts (e.g. Is Johnny late again?)

The last example could be an elicit if the speaker is genuinely asking for information; it could also be considered a comment depending on

intonationtherefore discourse analysis focuses on the linguisticfunction of the utterance, not the form


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The initial rank scale

Each of possible acts that can go into any of the positions in the move is listed in the readings (too many

to fit here!) There must be a head for each move, the other elements are optional.

Act (Rank V)

Each type of move is comprised of a different combination of acts.

Framing Move: head, qualifier

Focusing Move: signal, pre-head, head, post-head,

Initiating Move: signal, pre-head, head, post-head, select

Response Move: pre-head, head, post-head

Follow-up Move: pre-head, head, post-head

Move (Rank IV)

There are 2 types of exchangeBoundary Exchanges: Have a frame and / or a focus move

Teaching Exchanges: Have an initiation and possibly a response and / or a follow-up move.

Exchange (Rank III)

A transaction consists of an opening and a closing Boundary exchange with and unlimited number of

Teaching Exchanges in the middle.

Transaction (Rank II)

This consists of a number of transactions.Lesson (Rank I)

DescriptionLevel or Rank


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Transaction Structure

Transactions have clear beginnings and ends these arecalled boundary exchanges

Boundary exchanges have framing and focusing moves: theframing move is a discourse marker

The number of exchanges between the boundaries is variable,but there must be at least one

It can be any of a limited number of exchange types: inteaching discourse there are 11 identified exchanges, and ineveryday conversation there are 10


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Transaction Structure

OrganizingBoundary ExchangeTerminal

(Optional)

Conversation Exchange

(6 types)

Organizing (4 types)

Teaching Exchange (11

types)

Medial

Organizing ExchangeBoundary exchangePreliminary

(Optional)

Exchanges

(Conversation)

Exchanges

(Classroom)

Element


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Teaching Exchanges

The basic exchanges in a classroom (informing, directing, eliciting andchecking) consist of:

An initiation: the speaker does something that requires a response

A response: the hearer responds

Potentially a re-initiate Potentially a Follow-up: In class this is usually feedback to the learner,

out of class it is usually non-evaluative

The precise surface form of these depends on the speaker and hearers relationship, the goals of the communication, and the development of theconversation.


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Exchange Structure

Each exchange in the transaction has its own particular structure and a

limited number of moves that can comprise it.

E.g. the conversational exchange (An I and an R are mandatory)

Acknowledging(F)Follow-up

Informing / acknowledging / behavingRResponse

Eliciting / informing /(R/I)Response / Initiation

Eliciting / informing / directingIInitiation

MovesStructuresElement


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Move Structure

Each move in the exchange has its own particular structure and a limited

number of acts can comprise it.

E.g. the eliciting move (A head is mandatory) (it can be an R/I or an R in a

conversation exchange)

Comment / qualify(post-h)Post-head

Inquire / neutral proposal/ marked proposal /

return / loop/ prompt

hHead

Starter(Pre-h)Pre-head

Marker(S)Signal

ActsStructuresElement


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Act Structure

Each act has a particular function

They may be from a closed class or an open class of items

E.g. Below is the inquire act that comprises the head of the eliciting move which isthe R or R/I of the conversational exchange which is the medial structure of thetransaction.

Realized by questions which seek

information (not yes / no)

Wh questions and ellipted forms of theseRealizes the head of eliciting move

Function is to elicit information

inq.inquire

MovesStructuresElement


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For example:

Consider the following sentence

So, thats it for the listening. Now I want you to get a piece of paper

So and now are marker acts. They signal that the boundary of thetransaction that a part of the lesson is ending and another part is about to

begin.- They are marker acts and the starter of focusing moves which are the pre-head (in this case) of boundary exchanges

thats it is a conclusion act and is the head of a framing move, which isthe head of the boundary exchange

I want is an opening act and is also the head of a framing move, whichis the head of the boundary exchange

you to get a piece of paper is a directive act and is the starter move ofa teaching exchange (a teacher directs exchange)

F i d H d i h S


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Francis and Hunston: adapting the S

C model

Francis and Hunston (1992) adapted the Sinclair-Coulthard model to everyday conversation.

Their major changes came at the top of the RankScale instead of Lesson they call it Interaction, and at the bottom of the Rank Scale, where thereare numerous newly defined acts

Th C ti R k l


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The Conversation Rank scale

Francis and Hunston (1992)

Each of possible acts that can go into any of the positions in the move is listed in the readings (too many

to fit here!) There must be a head for each move, the other elements are optional.

They are more varied than those of the original Sinclair-Coulthard model

Act (Rank V)

Each type of move is comprised of a different combination of acts.

Framing Move: head, qualifier

Focusing Move: signal, pre-head, head, post-head,

Initiating Move: signal, pre-head, head, post-head, select

Response Move: pre-head, head, post-head

Follow-up Move: pre-head, head, post-head

Move (Rank IV)

There are 2 types of exchangeP and T are made of organizational exchanges: there are 4 of these

M is comprised of conversational exchanges: there are 6 of these

Exchange (Rank III)

A transaction consists of an 3 parts: a preliminary, medial and terminal part

P and T are optional. There can be any number of M.

Transaction (Rank II)

This consists of an unordered (or not yet determined order) of transactions.Interaction (Rank I)

DescriptionLevel or Rank


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Discourse outside the classroom

Surprisingly, it has been shown that the classroom discourse modelactually applies to non-classroom discourse, with the exception of theevaluative feedback usually it is only a comment with no intonation

In other words; we can classify all speech into a relatively small numberof acts that comprise a smaller number of moves that comprises an

even smaller number of possible exchanges that can be combined intoan even smaller number of transactions

We can use the structure of conversation to teach conversation byteaching acts and moves not sentences and grammar


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Another example

EvaluatehThat is a very broad answer.

AcceptPre-hThe way we talk.Follow-up Move

ReplyhIts the way you talk.Answering Move

ElicitationhDo you know what we mean by accent?Opening Move

Classes of actStructure of moveExampleClasses of Move


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Pronunciation

The exchange structure would be altered if theteacher made different choices in the intonation of thepre-head. For example:

//The WAY we TALK// The high key gives a contrastive meaning to the

students answer, and therefore, simultaneously evaluates and rejects it.

This would change the labeling of this statement frompre-head (accept) to head (evaluate)

08_AnalyzingSpokenDiscours

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