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God Save the Queen (or God Save theKingwhen a king reigns) is thenational anthem of the UK. There isgood ground to believe it wascomposed by Henry Carey in 1740.Only the first verse is usually sung inofficial occasions. The tune has beenused by many countries for anthemsand hymns, for instance by the USAforAmerica.

Objectives

The aim of this module is:1 to help you understand the roots of modern Britain, i.e.

how historical events and social developments have

shaped present day Britain and contributed to theformation of a (basic) national (cultural) identity;

2 to provide a guide to comparing different culturesestablishing connections in the fields of political and socialdevelopment, literature and the arts;

3 to develop both your accuracy and fluency in the use ofthe language;

4 to improve your linguistic skills, with special attention to: taking notes on the content of oral and written texts reporting both orally and in writing describing events and their social and cultural contexts discussing ideas, events and values researching a variety of sources (books, films, the

Internet, etc.) expressing personal opinions and viewpoints writing notes and paragraphs

Contents

1 From Prehistoric Britain to the Tudors2 The Tudors (1485-1603)3 The Stuarts (1603-1714)4 The Georgian Period (1714-1830)5 The Victorian Age (1837-1901)6 The Windsors (1917- )

Before starting this module you need to have completedModule A and to know both the geography and the basicaspects of British and Irish culture.

68 M O D U L E B The Shaping of the UK

Projects

You are expected to develop these projects working bothindividually and in groups:

Project one Make a file/poster about ancient Britain.Project two Make a file/poster about Medieval England.Project three Make a file/poster about Tudor England.

Project four Make a file/poster about 17th century Britain.Project five Make a file/poster about 18th century Britain.Project six Make a file/poster about the Victorian Age.Project seven Make a file/poster about 20th century Britain.Project eight Make a literary map of the British Isles

(referring both to Module A and B).

God Save the Queen

God save our gracious Queen,Long live our noble Queen,God Save the Queen!Send her victorious,

Happy and glorious,Long to reign over us,God Save the Queen!

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The Shaping of the UK

69Int ro d uct io n

QuizHow much do you know about the UK already? Try this quiz and then try it again after you have finishedthe module.

What four countries make up the UK?

Where does the name Britain come from?

Which languages, ancient and modern, contributed most to the making of modern-day English?

Which famous book, partly inspired by Boccaccios Decamerone, is held to be the first written in English?

Who is head of the Church of England?

How many wives had Henry VIII?

Who was the Virgin Queen?

Why were Englands first theatres built outside city limits?Can you name four plays by William Shakespeare?

Who were the Roundheads and the Cavaliers?

When was the UK formed?

Which was the most famous sea battle in English history (1805)?

How did the British make huge profits from the slave trade?

What was the Industrial Revolution?

How did the London bobby get his name?

Which country was the jewel in the crown of Queen Victoria?

Who was the most popular English novelist of the 19th century?

Why did the royal family change its name from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor in 1917?

What is the Commonwealth of Nations?

How long has Elizabeth II been queen?

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From Prehistoric Britain

to the Tudors

Which are the oldest buildings in

Italy? Where are they?

What are the most common

constructions left by the Romans?

Which were the oldest churches in

Italy (before 1000 AD)? What were

they like?

CLASS DISCUSSION2

Stonehenge is one of the most famous

archaeological sites in the world. It is a

mysterious prehistoric monument which

was probably built around 3,000 BC for

religious or astronomical purposes. It was

a large circle of thirty enormous standing

stones, with a second U-shaped line of

ten even larger stones inside the circle.

The largest of these stones is nearly 9m

high and weighs over 50 tons. How the

huge stones were transported there

(some from as far as Wales) is also part of

the mystery. In recent years it has become

a gathering point for some New Age

groups, particularly at Midsummers Day,

when you can see the sun rising frombehind a stone whose top seems to touch

the horizon.

1

Who were the ancient inhabitants of

Britain? Where were they from?

Where does the name Britain come

from?

How long did the Romans occupy

the country?

What did they leave there?

What happened when the Romans

left?

Where did the Vikings settle?

How did the British become Christian?

Who was King Arthur?

KEY QUESTIONS

Ancient Britain

(before 43 AD)There is no written record of theprehistoric period in Britain, thoughthe remains of prehistoric monumentscan be found throughout the country.

The Celts came to the British Islesfrom Europe in about 700 BC andsettled mainly in England. They were

tall people with fair hair and blue eyes.They were good fighters and farmersand also fine artists. It is thought thatthey loved music. They were organisedin tribes. The priestly caste known asdruids were the most influentialpeople in the tribe. They wereresponsible for religious practices,medical treatment, education and theadministration of justice. The Celtsworshipped nature and held theirrituals in the open air. They believed inthe immortality of the soul, which,

after death, moved either into a newbody or into the natural elements.Therefore, nature was mysteriousbecause it was filled with the presenceof spirits who were in touch with thesupernatural world.

Their language, Gaelic, is stillspoken in certain forms in some placesin Scotland, Wales and Ireland.

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71F ro m Prehist o r ic Br i t a in t o t he T ud o rs

Roman Britain(43-410)In 55 BC Julius Caesar landed inEngland, but he soon left. The Romanscame back in 43 AD and occupied thewhole of England and Wales. Theystayed for nearly 400 years in whatthey called the province of Britannia.Some of the Celts stayed in Englandand Wales and became Romanised,while others migrated to Ireland andScotland. The people who lived inEngland before and during the Romanoccupation were called Britons.

The Romans introduced theircivilisation and language. They builtwell planned towns, such as London,Bath and York. They also built roads,villas and baths, but most of theirroads and buildings were destroyedwhen they left. A reminder of theRoman occupation of Britain are someEnglish place names: Chester,Manchester, Doncaster were originallyRoman military camps, and theirnames come from the Latin word

castrum.

The Germanic invasions

(410-1066)The Romans left in 409, and Germanictribes started to raid Britain. Two ofthem, the Angles and the Saxonsinvaded the country in around 450 andsettled in the south and east. In thewest they were first stopped by anarmy of Celtic Britons under thecommand of the perhaps imaginary

Saxon kingdom of Wessex. For sometime England was divided between theSaxons (in the south and west, thencalled Wessex) and the Danes (in thenorth and east). The Vikings took onthe Christian religion. They werepowerful by sea and were good traders.The capital of their kingdom wasYorvik (York). The whole of Englandwas under Danish rule from 1013 to1042, and the two peoples graduallymingled into one culture.

1.A wall, called Hadrians Wall, was built rightacross the northern part of England to protect

Britannia from Scottish tribes from Caledonia

(Scotland).

2. Ship burial at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk. The 7th

century AD helmet made of iron and covered with

tinned bronze decorative plates giving a silvered

effect. The features of the face-mask are gilded.

British Museum, London.

King Arthur (p. 77), but later theyoccupied all of England and parts ofSouthern Scotland. Most Britons tookrefuge in the mountains of Wales andScotland.

The Anglo-Saxons establishedseven kingdoms: some of their names(e.g. Kent, Sussex, East Anglia) stillmark English counties or regions. Theyintroduced new farming methods andfounded thousands of villages. Theyloved music and poetry. They used goldand other metals to make finejewellery, weapons and domesticarticles. They had a primitive form ofreligion linked to the mysterious forcesof nature, and a world of magicians,charms, dragons and monsters. TheirGods names live on in some days ofthe week : Tiw = Tuesday, Woden =Wednesday, Donar = Tuesday, Fria =Friday.

During this period, missionariescame to the British Isles and manypeople became Christian. First StPatrickconverted Ireland in 432.Christianity then spread to Scotland.

150 years later, St Augustine arrived inEngland and became the firstArchbishop of Canterbury. Churches,cathedrals and monasteries were builtat this time.

The earliest examples of Britisharchitecture are Saxon; the buildingsare characterized by thick stone walls,round arches and small windows.

In the 9th century the Vikings (orDanes) from Scandinavia conqueredmost of Scotland and England, butwere defeated by King Alfred of the

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Medieval England (1066-1485 )

1

1066 is the most famous date in

English history. Why?

How was feudal society organised in

England?

What languages were spoken?How powerful was the King in the

Middle Ages?

How did the Magna Carta limit his

power?

What do you think the word

parliament comes from?

Why was the parliament set up in

1295 called the Model Parliament?

KEY QUESTIONS

1

2

3

4

The Norman conquestThe Normans (men of the north, from Scandinavia who had settled in France)invaded England in 1066 and defeated the English at Hastings. The Duke ofNormandy, who was their leader, became King William I of England. He is known asWilliam the Conqueror. The Battle of Hastings changed the course of English

history. This was the last time that England was invaded and conquered.

The Bayeux tapestry (kept at Bayeux in France) is a unique

historical record of the events that led to the battle of

Hastings and the battle itself (1066). They are embroidered

on a tapestry 70 m long and 50 cm high.

What can you learn from the pictures?

1. The invasion fleet crosses the

English Channel.

2. The Normans and the English

are fighting.

3. King Harold is killed.

4. The English turn and run away.

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The Normans introduced the feudalsystem into England. The King was theowner of all the land, but it wasdistributed among his vassals in return

for goods and services, including militaryservice. These vassals were known asbarons, or great lords, who in their turndid the same with their own vassals,knights, who became local lords, withpeasants working their lands. SoNorman soldiers became the owners ofthe land and of the people living on it.

The lords were French-speakingNormans, and the peasants wereEnglish-speaking Saxons. It was fromthese two languages that Middle Englishdeveloped (p. 14).

The Anglo-Norman kingdom becamethe most powerful in the British Islesand gradually extended to Wales andpart of Ireland over the followingcenturies. Scotland remained politicallyindependent but the southern part(Lowlands) resented the culturalinfluence of England. In the north(Highlands), the Gaelic culture andlanguage prevailed.

5. King Edward I with his Parliament.

What Say the Reeds at Runnymede?

At Runnymede, at Runnymede,Your rights were won at Runnymede!

No freeman shall be fined or bound,Or dispossessed of freehold ground,

Except by lawful judgement foundAnd passed upon him by his peers.Forget not, after all these years,The chart signed at Runnymede.[]

Rudyard Kipling

The birth of parliamentAt this time the power of the king was

absolute. However, in 1215, atRunnymede, the powerful barons madethe king sign a document, called theMagna Carta which, for the first time,set a limit to the kings power andobliged him to follow certain rules ofgovernment.

By the terms of Magna Carta theking promised to speak with his lordsbefore levying taxes. The council of lordsrepresented an early form of parliament,

What is the Italian word for Middle

Ages?

What does it mean?

Which were the two periods coming

before and after it?

How was Medieval Italy politically

organised?

Did any foreign countries rule in Italy?

Who?

Where did the Normans settle in

Italy?

Did they leave any notable

constructions behind them in Italy?

CLASS DISCUSSION2

though the king was still the real ruler.Later in the century it came to includecommon men from urban and ruralareas as well. Rich merchants andlandowners, called the commons, satwith members of the clergy and the

aristocracy in what was later called theModel Parliament (1295). Four of theoriginal copies of the Magna Carta stillexist. Two are kept at the British Libraryand two in the cathedrals of Lincoln andSalisbury.

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The great majority of the populationlived in the country, but some markettowns grew up where peasants andcraftsmen sold their goods. Craftsmenwere skilled workers who made a varietyof goods in their workshops: bread,shoes, pots, furniture, etc. They belongedto different guilds, according to their


Life in the Middle Ages

TASK

Read the text and take notes aboutthese people:

lord of the manor villeins freemen

yeomen craftsmen merchants

clothiers

1

Lords, peasants,craftsmen and merchants

Most people in the Middle Ages lived insmall villages and worked on the land. Ineach village there was a common landwhere the peasants sheep and cattlecould graze. The most important man inthe village was the lord of the manor(manor = land granted by the king to alord).

1. Houses were made of wood or stone. They often

had thatched roofs. The picture shows Great

Chalfield manor, a late Middle Ages manor house,

rebuilt in 1480.2. The Normans were the first to build castles in

Britain for the lords to live in with their families,

soldiers and servants. These fortresses, such as the

Tower of London (p. 80) and Windsor Castle

(below), were built of stone.

The land belonged to the lord andthe peasants had to pay him rent. Mostpeasants (called villeins) had to work onthe lords land for a few days a week.They were not free. They were attachedto the land and could not leave themanor without the lords consent.

Some better-off peasants (calledfreemen) paid rent to the lord and werenot compelled to work on his land. Theycould leave the village if they wished.

In the 15th century, life got better forthe peasants. Some freemen (calledyeomen) became richer making andselling their own goods. They boughtmore land with the money and builtnew, larger houses. Though their liveswere always hard, poor peasants startedto earn money by working for the lordsand the yeomen as well.

In the Middle Ages all educated people

spoke Latin. This made it possible for the

students to move about from one

university to another. The first university

was set up at Oxford. It was followed a few

years later by its rival, Cambridge. Thestudents were mainly the sons of

tradesmen and well-off freemen. They

studied for seven years from 14 to 21.

trade or craft: tailors, goldsmiths,carpenters, bakers, etc. The guild was anassociation that looked after thecollective rights and interests of itsmembers. It established rules and setstandards of quality, regulated prices

and wages and supported its memberswhen they were in need.

Printing was invented in China in the 11th

century and was introduced in Europe in

the 15th century. Englands first printed

books were published in 1477.

Making woollen cloth was Englandsmain industry. Since the 14th centuryEnglish cloth was also exported tovarious European countries. Merchantsbought wool from the lords and abbots,

who owned large flocks of sheep, andsold it to the cloth-makers. They lived intowns but sent the wool to the villagepeasants who wove the cloth in theirhomes, and paid them for their work.Wool merchants and clothiers were veryrich, they had big houses and wore fineclothes.

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TASK

Listen to the recording aboutthe Black Death and find out

- where the plague originally came

from

- why it is called the black death- what animals carried the disease

- how it was transferred to humans

- what medieval people thought of it.

2

TASK

Read the text and find out

- what the finest Medieval buildings

were

- why monasteries were important

- who Thomas Becket was.

3

3. Picture of an elephant, from a Latin bestiary

written in England in the twelfth century, the British

Library, London.

4. The cathedral was the principal church of a see or

diocese. The abbey was part of a monastery

(monks) or convent (nuns). In the picture Whitby

Abbey, Yorkshire.

In 1348 a terrible plague broke out. It was

called the Black Death and killed two

thirds of the population of Britain.

The ChurchIn the Middle Ages a great deal of thenations wealth was in the hands of theChurch. The finest buildings at the timewere cathedrals and abbeys.

The head of the Catholic church wasthe Pope in Rome. The Archbishops ofCanterbury and York were the top men inthe Church in England. Each see (ordiocese) was under the control of abishop. Most bishops were chosen by theking from among his friends and advisers.Many lived at Court with the king.

The struggle between the Crown andthe Church led to the murder in 1170 ofThomas Becket, Archbishop ofCanterbury, who had tried to oppose thekings power over the Church. He wasburied in the cathedral and made a saintby the Pope. His shrine became a placeof pilgrimage for people from all overBritain.

1Do you know of any medieval castles

in Italy?

Did the Black Death affect Italy as well?Do you know of any cathedrals or other

buildings built in Italy between the

11th and the 15th centuries? Where?

What are they like? Find a picture and

some information about one of them

and prepare a card to show to the

class.

CLASS DISCUSSION4

Monks lived in a monastery, with an

abbot as their head. The abbot of a largemonastery was a rich and importantperson. He attended the Great Councillike a baron and had to administer greatestates. Monasteries owned a lot of landworked by peasants. Much of therevenue was used to feed the monks, toprovide alms and medical care for thepoor and shelter for travellers.

In the medieval period, monasterieswere centres of learning. Many monksstudied and taught the boys who wantedto join the Order. Other monks copied

out books by hand and illustratedmanuscripts with miniatures andadornments. Some wrote chronicles,records of events that happened eachyear. These chronicles became valuablehistorical sources for future generations.

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3

5

Learn about Robin Hood atwww.zanichelli.it/materiali/surfing/

WWW

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The Anglo-Norman Culture

TASK

Read the text and underline all thewords referring to architecture.Then discuss them with yourteacher.

1

TASK

Look at the pictures of somefamous English Cathedrals andidentify the architectural elements

mentioned in the text.

2

Medieval cathedralsThe cathedrals built in the Middle Agesare some of the finest buildings inEngland. They were deliberately huge torepresent the great power and influenceof the Church over the community.

Norman churches, built inRomanesque style in the 11th and 12thcenturies, featured walls, heavy pillars,great round columns, round arches,narrow windows, a cruciform plan with anave and two aisles, and often a woodenroof. Where there were stone vaults,these were often supported by stonepillars (buttresses) built against the walls.

1. Edgars coronation, performed by Dunstan,

Archbishop of Canterbury. A detail from the

Edgar Window in Bath Abbey. Stained

glass windows were made of coloured pieces

of glass in a lead framing which illustrated

holy stories. They were popular throughoutthe Medieval times and were used in both

Norman and Gothic Cathedrals.

2. Norwich Cathedral was built in the 12th

century in Norman style, with some later

Gothic additions.

3-4. Wells Cathedral was built in the 13th

and 14th century. The west front (above) was

adorned with 340 figures. The nave (left) was

built in 1185-1240 (Early English style), while

the double arch at the end of it was added in

the 14th century (Decorated style).

Look for pictures of andinformation on one of the followingcathedrals:

Bath, Canterbury, Durham, Ely, Exeter,

Lincoln, Salisbury, York.

Find out about its location, history,style, etc. and prepare a card toshow to the class.

PROJECT WORK3

Most of the famous Englishcathedrals built in the 13th-15thcenturies were in Gothic style with its

characteristic pointed arches and ribbedvaults. The massive Norman columnswere replaced by groups of slender shaftsconnected to the central pillar by bands.

In the 14th century, architecturebecame more elaborate and decorated,

with stone carving on the windows andcapitals (Decorated style). Windows,which were tall and narrow in the 13thcentury, became wider, with more lightcoming in through the coloured stainedglass. The exterior of the most importantchurches was covered with archedniches containing statues, and the roofswere enlivened with steep spires andpinnacles.

The last phase of Gothic, thetypically EnglishPerpendicular style(late 15th cent.) was characterised by the

predominance of vertical lines and highsteeples, less markedly pointed arches,fan shaped vaults and wide windowswith elaborate tracery patterns.

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Literature and folklore

In the Middle Ages, the languages ofculture were French and Latin. GeoffreyChaucer (ca. 1343-1400) was the firstimportant poet to write in English. He

wrote a collection of stories called TheCanterbury Tales. They are told by agroup of pilgrims to entertain themselveswhile travelling to the tomb of Beckett inCanterbury Cathedral. The variouscharacters come from differing socialclasses, are portrayed very realistically,and convey a lively picture of medievalsociety. Chaucers works made Englishthe literary language of Britain.

5. This print is a reproduction of the

imagined scene of Chaucers

Pilgrims on the road to Canterbury

some time after having left theTabard Inn, from a drawing of

Mrs. Eileen Thorne.

6. Kings College Chapel,

Cambridge (1446-1515) has the

finest fan vault in Britain

(Perpendicular style).

4

Read Chaucers description of three of his pilgrims atwww.zanichelli.it/materiali/surfing/

WWW

King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table

The legends of King Arthur and his knights became the subject of several poems and stories of

the Middle Ages and an important part of British folklore.Arthur is said to have been a Romanised Celt who lived between the 5th and 6th centuries andwho bravely fought against the Anglo-Saxons. He has since become a great English hero, parthistorical and part myth. Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table represent the perfectexample of medieval chivalry, founded on loyalty, honour, charity and love. They livedaccording to the highest Christian principles and fought for a just cause, never for personaladvantage. They were brave and often successful in their battles against giants, monsters,dragons, and sorcerers.A legend says that they are lying asleep underground, ready to wake up and return to saveEngland if she finds herself in danger.

Names like Merlin, Guinevere, Lancelot, Excalibur andCamelot have become popular all over the world throughnovels and films. What do you know about them? Lookfor more information.

PROJECT WORK5

Discuss with your teacher.

1 What were guilds called in Italy?

2 Where did they mainly flourish? Where do we still find

their names?

3 What were the main economic activities in Italy during

the Middle Ages?

4 Which was the first university in Italy?

5 Which was the language of culture in Italy in the Middle

Ages?

6 Who were the greatest Italian writers of this time?

7 Which language did they use?

8 Which wrote a collection of tales?

9 What device did he use as a framework for his tales?

10 Who were the greatest Italian artists of the Middle Ages?

CLASS DISCUSSION6

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2The Tudors (1485-1603)

At home and abroadHenry VII came to the throne in 1485, and thus began theTudor line of monarchs. It was a time of transition from themedieval to the modern world. The Tudors ruled England,

Wales and part of Ireland. England enjoyed a period of peaceand prosperity under the Tudors, and became a major politicaland economic power.

It was a time oftrade and expansion. Voyages of explorationwere carried out, and trade flourished thanks to the fast Englishships and their skilled sailors. Great trading companies, such asThe East India Company, were established. New products suchas tobacco and potatoes were introduced to England fromAmerica. Sir Francis Drake was the first Englishman to sailaround the world. He was one of the famous Elizabethanseadogs who attacked Spanish ships and colonies, stealing theirtreasures. New colonies were set up, upon which Englandscolonial power was based over the following centuries.

1

How did England become a rich and powerful nation under

the Tudors?

Was it a time of peace or war?Why was this period called the Renaissance?

KEY QUESTIONS

TASK

Look at the historical tree of the dynasties of the kings andqueens of Britain on page 243 and find out who the Tudormonarchs were.

2 London was a busy trading centre in the early 16th century .Merchants came from all over Europe to trade their wares in

shops, homes, taverns and in the street.

A London cloth-dealer, Richard Gresham had the idea of

building a base in the city where trade could be regulated

and controlled. It was his son Thomas who paid for the

building of what was to become the Royal Exchange. The

original Royal Exchange was born in 1565 and destroyed by

the Great Fire of 1666. It was rebuilt twice, extended and

restored in recent years, and it is now home to some of the

worlds most important merchants.

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Tudor times. It was only called whenthe monarch wanted to pass a law orcollect more taxes. Parliament now hadtwo Houses: the House of Lords, madeup of members of the aristocracy andChurch, and the House of Commons,

with representatives from the newmerchant class and smaller

79T he T ud o rs (1485-1603)

As a result of the Reformation, theChurch lost much of its wealth, and itsland passed into the hands of noblesand the gentry. At the same time, astrade grew, merchants became richer.Many bought lands and became

members of the gentry. These peoplehad fine new houses built for them inthe country, and they furnished themlavishly. Artists, mainly from abroad,began painting portraits of wealthypersonages, including lords, merchantsand their wives.

Important inventions such asprinting and gunpowder were about tochange the way society worked.Science and the arts developed sorapidly that the age became known asthe Renaissance.

The upper and middle classes werecultured and their sons studied Latinand Greek. They attended grammarschools and universities, and notablyOxford and Cambridge. Theyappreciated the fine arts, classicalculture and the new ideas of humanismborn out of the Italian Renaissance.There was a deep love for music, anddances took place at court and at fairsand festivals all over the country.Parliament did not meet regularly in

TASKCompare picture 2 with picture 5on page 73.

3

1

1 What is the Italian word for

Renaissance?

2 Why was this name given to an

age?

3 When was the Renaissance in

Italy? (Same time as in

England?)

4 Who were the greatest Italian

artists of that period?5 Do you know of any famous

building of that period?

6 Was Italy one monarchy?

7 Was there a Parliament?

8 Do you know of any Italian

scientists and explorers of that

period?

9 What important discoveries

took place then?

10 Which states in Italy had the

most important fleets?

CLASS DISCUSSION4

1. Sir Thomas Greshams

gift of the Royal

Exchange to the city of

London and the Mercers

company, by Edward

Henry Wehnert (1813-68).

2. The king in Parliament.

A contemporary drawing

of the scene of the

opening of parliament in

1515.

3. Little Moreton Hall, a

16th century manorhouse in the northwest of

England (Cheshire), is one

of the finest Elizabethan

houses in Britain. Most

Tudor houses had a

wooden frame filled with

bricks or clay and often

covered with plaster. The

rooms were comfortable,

well furnished and with

large glass windows.

3

2

landowners. The Commons weregetting stronger and stronger andsometimes Elizabeth I encounteredserious opposition from them but shemanaged to control the Commonsmost of the time and worked closely

with Parliament.

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80 M O D U L E B The Shaping of the UKThe Shaping of the UK

Two Strong and Capable Rulers

Henry VIIIHenry VIII is perhaps one of the best-known Kings of England,chiefly because he had six wives.

He was only eighteen years old when he became king. Forthe first twenty years of his reign, he enjoyed life and wasmore interested in girls and hunting than in political matters.He was the best-dressed king in Europe. He was an excellenthorseman and musician and a man of great culture. He

welcomed artists, poets and musicians to his court. He was atrue, educated Renaissance man.

The king was first married to a Catholic Spanish princess,Catherine of Aragon, but they had no sons. He asked the Popefor permission to leave his wife so that he could marrysomeone else, but the Pope refused. So, by the Act ofSupremacy, in 1534, Henry VIII abolished the authority of thePope in England and declared himself head of a Church ofEngland, independent of Rome. With this he destroyed thepower of the Roman Church in England. Then he closed downthe monasteries and made their lands the property of the King.The new Anglican Church was different from EuropeanProtestantism. It was a reformed Catholic Church that usedthe English language in its services and prayer books and wasfree of foreign interference. The Archbishop of Canterbury isthe spiritual head of the Church of England andCanterbury Cathedral is its central church.

Henry VIII was a clever politician. He madeEngland strong and independent of Europe.But he was also a cruel and despotic king, whosentenced most of his opponents to death.

1. Henry VIII, by Hans Holbein the Young er, National Portrait Ga llery, London.

The German painter Hans Holbein (1497-1543) worked in England and

became the official royal painter in 1536. He is best known for his paintings of

Henry VIII and his Court.

1

In what ways did Henry VIII and Elizabeth I represent

Renaissance values and principles?

Why was the Anglican Church brought into being?

Did Scotland become Anglican too?

What was anglicanism like?How were the relations between England and Spain?

How did the Tudors rule the country?

Who succeeded Queen Elizabeth I to the throne of England?

KEY QUESTIONS

TASK

Listen to the recording aboutHenry VIIIs wives and find out

- how long each of them was queen

- which two were Catholic- which two were beheaded

- which two were divorced by the king

- which one gave him a son

- which one was called the Flanders

mare by the king

- which one was the mother of Queen

Elizabeth I.

The Queens were: Catherine ofAragon Anne Boleyn JaneSeymour Anne of Cleves Catherine Howard Catherine Parr

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T he T ud o rs (1485-1603) 81

In pairs look at the portraits ofHenry VIII and Elizabeth I anddescribe how the two monarchsare represented. Then compareyour descriptions with other pairs.

TASK3

Queen Elizabeth IIn 1558, a very unusual young womanbecame Queen of England. She wasElizabeth I, the daughter of Henry VIIIand his second wife, Ann Boleyn. She

was 25 years old, strong, intelligent and askilful politician. She enjoyed huntingand riding as well as dancing. She wasalso interested in music, poetry andpainting.

There was a conflict at the time inEngland between Catholics andProtestants. Queen Mary I (Elizabethshalf-sister) had tried to restoreCatholicism. She had persecutedProtestants so cruelly that she was calledBloody Mary. Elizabeth re-establishedthe Anglican Church, but she had noextreme religious beliefs. She wanted a

united country and an independentChurch of England. Catholics couldpractise their own religion, but they hadto be loyal to the Queen.

Elizabeths cousin Mary Stuart wasqueen of the Scots. When her secondhusband was killed in an explosion, theScots accused Mary and her thirdhusband of his murder. Mary escaped toEngland. She wanted to be Queen ofEngland and, with her Catholicfollowers, she plotted against Elizabeth.Elizabeth put Mary in prison andordered her execution in 1587.

Philip II, the king of Spain, wanted tomarry Elizabeth and become king ofEngland. Since Elizabeth rejected him,the King planned to take England byforce. He prepared a fleet of 130 ships toinvade England, but the English fleet, ledby Sir Francis Drake, defeated theSpanish Armada in the English Channelin 1588.

During her long reign, known as theElizabethan Age, Elizabeth showedherself to be a strong Queen, whogoverned well and was loved by the

people. She handled the difficult politicaland religious situation of the times withgreat skill and diplomacy. She encouragedletters and the arts, by protecting artistsand writers like William Shakespeare.

Elizabeth died in 1603. She had nevermarried, had no children and so becameknown as the Virgin Queen. James, theson of Mary Queen of Scots, was King ofScotland. Elizabeth named him her heirand he became King James I of England.

2. Armada portrait of Queen Elizabeth I, by George

Gower, National Portrait Gallery, London.

3. Mary Queen of Scots.

4. Kirby Hall is an outstanding example of the

Elizabethan mansion, including two courtyards, aGreat Hall and wonderful gardens.

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The Age of Elizabeth

TASK

Read about the theatre inElizabethan England and takenotes about the following topics:the public

the performancesthe actors

the theatre.

Then compare with moderntheatre.

1

The theatreIn Elizabethan England the theatre wasa popular pastime not only of thenobility and the Court, but also of thecommon people. The audiences weremade up of people from all classes ofsociety, with different tastes andeducation, and a good play had to pleasethem all. Performances were given in thedaytime. They could take placeanywhere, as a simple platform served asa stage, but inn yards were particularlysuitable, because the windows, doorsand balconies could be used to createthe scene. Sometimes the company hadelaborate costumes and stageequipment, but the imagination of thepublic created the scenery. Boys andyoung men played womens roles. The

plays included songs and music, somusicians also took part.

Actors were viewed with suspicionby the strict City authorities whoconsidered them immoral vagrants.Therefore they needed the protection ofsome influential men, or the queenherself, in order to perform.

When the authorities prohibitedtheatrical performances within the Citylimits, the first real theatres, calledplayhouses, were built outside the City.They were circular or octagonal andrather small. They had no roof. If itrained plays were called off. There werecovered galleries for the wealthierspectators, while the poorer members ofthe audience just stood in the yardsurrounding the stage on three sides.

1.A 17th century

water-colour of the

Globe Theatre on

Bankside, based on

Visscher. It was

Londons most famous

playhouse where

Shakespeare and his

actors performed

many plays.

2. The Globe was

destroyed by fire in

1613. It was rebuilt in

1997 and it looks

almost as it was in the

time of Shakespeare.

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T he T ud o rs (1485-1603) 83

William ShakespeareDrama reached its high point in Englandduring Elizabeths reign, with the playsof William Shakespeare. Shakespearewas the greatest English playwright and

one of the greatest poets of all time. Hisplays are still staged all over the world.His deep understanding of the

human soul enabled him to create agallery of unforgettable characters. Hisgreatness lies in his skill in handling plot

Macbeth

The theme of this tragedy is ambition. The action takes place in Scotland.Macbeth, the thane of Cawdor, is a brave hero at the beginning of the play, loyalto his king, but his thirst for power turns him into a cruel murderer. His wife, whowas his main support and drove him on, finally dies. It is then Macbethunderstands that his own end is approaching and that he can do nothing to stopthe course of events. He realises that all he has done is meaningless, that life itselfis meaningless.

[]To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow,

Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,To the last syllable of recorded time;

And all our yesterdays have lighted foolsThe way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle!

Lifes but a walking shadow; a poor player,That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,

And then is heard no more: it is a taleTold by an idiot, full of sound and fury,Signifying nothing. []

(fromMacbeth, Act V, Scene V)

TASK

Choose one of Shakespeares playsand find out what it is about (plot,characters, setting, etc.). Thenreport to the class.

2

TASK

In pairs answer the questions onthe extract to the right.

1 Read the extract. Can you find some

words repeated in these lines?

Can you find some pairs of wordswhich begin with the same letter?

What effect does repetition

produce?

2 In his poetry Shakespeare uses a lot

of imagery: similes, metaphors,

symbols.

Can you find examples here?

3 What does Macbeth think of life?

Does he think that man can change

his destiny?

3

3. William Shakespeare.

4.Johann Heinrich Fssli, Macbeth and Lady

Macbeth, c. 1812, Tate Gall ery, London.

and his ability to stir feelings andemotions through the power of hiswords.

Shakespeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon in 1564. He was just over 20 andalready had a wife and three children,when he left Stratford for London. There,he acted and wrote many successfulplays. About twenty years later he wentback to Stratford where he spent his last

years and died in 1616.Shakespeares most famous works

are his 36 plays, which include comediessuch asA Midsummer Nights Dream,Twelfth Night, The Merchant of Venice,and The Tempest, historical dramas suchasRichard III, Henry IV, andHenry V,and tragedies such asRomeo and Juliet,Hamlet, Othello, King Lear andMacbeth.

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3The Stuarts (1603-1714)

The most famous painter of

this period in England was

Anthony Van Dyck

(1599 - 1641). He was a

Dutch portrait painter who

lived in London and became

the official painter for the

Court of Charles I. He greatly

influenced later British

artists.

1

What was the relationship between the

Monarch and Parliament during this

period?

Were the links between religion and

politics important?

How did the Civil War start? How did it

end?

Two revolutions took place during this

period. How did they differ? What did

they produce?

Two political parties were formed after

the Restoration. Who did they

represent?

How was a settlement reached overpolitical and religious problems?

Which were the two terrible events of

the century?

How was the United Kingdom of Great

Britain formed?

KEY QUESTIONS

TASK

Look at the historical tree of thedynasties of the kings and queens ofBritain on page 243 and find out whothe Stuart monarchs were.

2

In 1603 King James of Scotland also

became King James I of England,but the two countries were not yetfully united. He was the first Stuartking of England. He believed that theking ruled by divine right and thathis will was the only law. So when hebecame King of England he dismissedParliament and tried to rule withoutit. His son Charles I shared hisfathers belief in absolute monarchy,but he needed money and Parliamentwould not support him.

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85T he St ua rt s (1603-1714)

1. The execution of

Charles I, by Robert

Walker, National

Portrait Gallery,

London.

2. The Capel Family,

by Cornelius Jonson,

circa 1640, National

Portrait Gallery,

London.

Whigs and Tories

In the late 1670s Englands twomajor political parties were formedin the House of Commons, theTories and the Whigs. They wereformed respectively by Cavaliers andRoundheads. The Tories were theparty of the landed aristocracy, andthe Whigs were the party of richbusinessmen, merchants andlandowners. The Tories were thelarger party, loyal to the Church and

King, with the support of manysquires and parsons from the manyvillages throughout England. Theysupported the Catholic king JamesII. The Whigs thought thatParliament should have more powerthan the king. They believed inreligious freedom and politicalreforms. Neither party was trulydemocratic, and the aristocracy waswell represented in both.

The CommonwealthThe conflict between Crown andParliament led to the Civil War (1642-1649) between the royalist Cavaliers,who supported the King, and the

puritan Roundheads, who supportedParliament. The Monarchy wasdefeated by general Oliver Cromwell in1649. The House of Lords was abolishedbecause, for the most part, it had sidedwith the king. King Charles I was put ontrial, sentenced to death and beheaded.Britain became a Commonwealth, orrepublic with Cromwell as LordProtector, from 1653 to 1658.

TASK

Look at the picture and describethe Capel family.

3

The RestorationIn 1660, soon after Cromwells death, anew Parliament was called, whosemembers decided to bring back theStuart king Charles II and to re-establish the Anglican Church as the

official Church of England. Cavaliersgot most seats in the new parliamentand took revenge on their enemies.The new Court became the mostmagnificent and immoral in Englishhistory.

The Glorious RevolutionCharles was succeeded by his sonJames II, who soon became unpopularbecause he chose only Catholics as hisministers and as commanders of the

army. In 1688 Parliament offered thecrown to James daughter Mary and herProtestant husband William of Orange.For the first time it was Parliamentthat chose the Monarch, and thisshowed that now the Monarch couldrule only with the consent ofParliament. This important politicalchange was called the GloriousRevolution. Two years later William IIIdefeated the Catholic forces of James IIin Ireland and discrimination against

Catholic Irish was intensified.The religious and political problemswere settled with the Bill of Rights andthe Toleration Act. The former limitedthe Kings power and turned Britaininto a constitutional monarchy inwhich real power lies with parliament,not the monarch. Since then the king orqueen could not rule withoutParliament. The latter allowed morereligious freedom, but also establishedthat no future king or queen could be aCatholic, no Catholic could sit in

Parliament, and only members of theAnglican Church could hold publicoffice.

The United Kingdom

of Great BritainQueen Anne was the last of theHouse of Stuart. She had 11 children,but all died young. During her reign,by the Act of Union (1707), England,Wales (which had been under thecontrol of the English Monarch sincethe 13th century) and Scotlandjoinedto form the United Kingdom of GreatBritain, ruled by the Parliament inLondon.

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Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)was the greatest scientist ofhis age. His most importantstudies concerned gravity andthe movement of the eartharound the sun.

Sir FrancisBacon (1561-1626), who wasappointed LordChancellor by

King James I,wrote the firstbook in Englishabout theinductive orexperimentalmethod for theinvestigation ofnature: The

Advancement of Learning(1605).

A New Culture

Science and superstitionA most important change in England inthe seventeenth century was the birth ofmodern science based on observationand experiment. Science had hitherto

been greatly intermixed with magic andsuperstition.Many instruments that we now take

for granted were invented, such as thetelescope, the microscope and thethermometer. Medicine made a big leapforward.

The Royal Society, the oldest andmost important British scientificorganisation, was founded in 1662.

1. Banqueting Hall (London), by Inigo Jones withPieter Paul Rubens painted ceiling.

2. Hampton Court Palace. The South Front built by

Sir Christopher Wren toward the end of the

seventeenth century.

Witchcraft

During the seventeenth century most people believed in witches. Witches were

women who had magic powers. They could cast spells and give people the evileye. They were said to have received these powers from the devil, to whom theyhad sold their souls. According to tradition, they were often old women who livedalone, with a black cat that was thought to be an evil spirit.In 1542 Parliament made witchcraft a crime and for about 150 years after thathundreds of women were brought to court, tortured and hanged on the charge ofbeing witches. The last hanging for witchcraft in England took place in 1685, butmany people went on believing in witchcraft.

TASK

Look for more information aboutone of the following people andreport to the class:

Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton,

Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren.

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English architectureEnglish architecture was greatlyinfluenced by the classical architectureof the late Italian Renaissance,particularly by the 16th century Italianmaster Andrea Palladio.

Inigo Jones (1573-1652) introduced

Palladianism to Britain. His masterpieceis the Banqueting House (1619-22) in

Whitehall, London. In London, he alsodesigned and built Covent Garden andLincolns Inns Fields.

The most noteworthy architect ofthe second half of the century was SirChristopher Wren (1632-1723). He wasthe most famous architect of his time.He contributed to the reconstruction ofLondon after the Great Fire. He designedand executed many projects, particularlyin the City of London, where he built 52churches. St. Pauls Cathedral isconsidered to be his masterpiece. Healso designed secular buildings. Herebuilt and enlarged Hampton CourtPalace which had been built in Tudortimes for Henry VIII.

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T he St ua rt s (1603-1714) 87

Puritanism in England

The 17th century was marked byreligious conflicts. The three mainfactions were the Anglicans, of theChurch of England, the Catholics, of theRoman Church, and the Puritans whorebelled against the authority of theofficial Church.

Puritans rejected the rituals andtraditional hierarchy, bishops inparticular, of both the Catholic andAnglican churches. Their preaching wasbased directly on the Bible.

Puritans had a very strict moral code.They regarded luxury and frivolity aswicked, and were against all forms ofentertainment. During theCommonwealth, Londons theatres wereclosed, as were shops and pubs. Dancingand singing were banned. People were

not allowed to travel on a Sunday,except to and from church.

Most Puritans belonged to the middleclass. Their lifestyle was severe, in strikingcontrast with the upper classes andcourtiers who wore ornate clothes, jewels,and wigs and whose way of life was oneof amusement and moral licence.

Puritans had a high sense of duty andlove of work. They thought that only aholy life of hard work and discipline couldsave man from his Original Sin. Successin life was a sign of Gods grace while

3. Mayflower Barn (1624) at Old Jordans Quaker

Guest House, near Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire.

4. Puritan family, the Bridgeman Art Library,

London. Puritans like the Chorleys, affluent Preston

haberdashers, were conspicuous for their sober

dress, preferring black and white garments without

embellishments.

The Authorised Version of the Bible (1611) and the Book of

Common Prayer (1662), both in English, were the most widely

read books of the time. The 1611 version of the Bible has been in use

in English churches and homes up to the present day.

In 1665 the Great Plague broke out and killed one third of the

population. Puritans saw it as Gods punishment for a dissolute way

of life. In 1666 the Great Fire of London destroyed most of the citys

wooden buildings and put a final stop to the plague.

TASK

Describe the people in picture 4.Compare this family with theCapel family on page 85.

2

TASK

Read the text and take notes aboutthe English Puritans.

3

poverty was regarded almost as a sin.Puritans were discriminated and

persecuted during the reigns of James Iand Charles I, and many had to leaveBritain for America where the newcolonies of Massachussetts, NewEngland, Virginia and Maryland werefounded (p. 176).

What was the political situation like in Italy in the 17th

century?

Which Italian writer described the plague of that time in

his famous novel?

Where was the story set?

Who were the greatest Italian artists of the time?

What is this period called in Italy?

Do you know of any famous building of that period?

Who was the Italian who best represented a new view of

science?

CLASS DISCUSSION4

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4The Georgian Period (1714-1830)

Look at the historical tree of thedynasties of the kings andqueens of Britain on page 243and find out who reigned overBritain between 1714 and 1830.

TASK2

Cabinet Government

When Queen Anne died in 1714, hercousin George from Hanover becameKing George I, and the House ofHanover became the British RoyalFamily. The King was German and didnot speak English, and this hadimportant effects on the Britishsystem of government.

During the Georgian period therewas no great conflict between the

Monarch and Parliament. Either

1

Why is this called the Georgian Period?

How did the British system of government change in this period?

Who was the first Prime Minister in England? Which party did he belong to?

During whose reign did the war of American Independence take place?

How did people live? Were class distinctions very evident?

Who was the emergent social class formed by?

What was the most important event of this century?

What conditions made it possible?

KEY QUESTIONS

because British monarchs were notinterested in politics or because ofillness (George III suffered fromprolonged fits of madness) , the kingsleft all decisions to the Cabinetpresided over by the Prime Minister.This favoured the development of themodern system of Cabinetgovernment.

In the past, it was the King whomade the decisions with the consentof Parliament. Now government was

in the hands of the Kings ministers

who were responsible to Parliament.The two groups that had been

formed in Parliament, the Whigs andTories, alternated in the government ofthe country, and party politics becamethe basis of government. Under GeorgeI and George II the Whigs, who hadsupported the Kings accession to thethrone, were in power.

Sir Robert Walpole was Britainsfirst Prime Minister (from 1721 to1742) and the first to live at 10,

Downing Street.

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89

William Hogarth, Gin Lane,

The British Museum, London.

Many people living in the slums

of industrial towns took to

drinking gin.

T he G eo rgia n Per io d (1714-1830)

At home and abroadThe 18th century was a time of relativeprosperity and freedom for the country.Agriculture, commerce and industryexpanded enormously and this led to a

rapid increase of national wealth.Through a series of wars with themajor European nations, Britainreplaced France as the greatestEuropean power. Although she lost herearly American colonies, sheestablished her power in the Americas,with the acquisition of Canada andLouisiana, in Africa, India and thePacific, where Captain Cooksexpeditions to Australia and NewZealand led to the first settlement ofNew South Wales in Australia. Britainbecame the worlds leading trading

nation. Her merchant fleet wasgrowing, and British ports were packedwith ships full of tea, sugar, spices,tobacco, and cotton from all over theworld.

Political stability, the developmentof trade and the opening of newmarkets, along with the existence of aclass of small capitalists prepared toinvest in the new industries, produced amajor economic change in the country.At the same time, scientific andindustrial progress changed methods ofmaking goods and provided work forlarge masses of people. The IndustrialRevolution, which took place duringthe last decades of the century,transformed British society and markeda turning point in human history.

Social classesIn the mid-18th century,

Britain was still a countryof villages and farms andthe landownersrepresented the upperclass. However, with thedevelopment of a newbourgeoisie, the middleclasses were acquiringmore and more power,while the lower classesremained desperately poor.

TASK

Describe and compare the twopictures, on the previous pageand above. What do they tell youabout social classes in the 18thcentury?

4

Britain and France confronted each other during the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815). France had a powerful army, but Britain had the worlds strongest navy.Napoleon was determined to invade Britain but his fleet was defeated byAdmiral Horatio Nelson at Trafalgar in 1805. This is the most famous seabattle in English history. Nelson died during the battle, but saved his country

from invasion and became one of the greatest English national heroes. In 1815a British and Prussian army led by the Duke of Wellington finally defeatedNapoleon at Waterloo.

In 1801, Ireland was united withGreat Britain to form the UnitedKingdom of Great Britain and

Ireland.

The slave trade

Huge profits were made also from the slave trade. British merchants vesselssailed from London, Liverpool, Glasgow and Bristol laden with Britishmanufactures and guns and traded them for black slaves in Africa. They thensailed to the West Indies and America, where they sold the slaves and pickedup rum, tobacco, sugar and cotton. The slave trade was abolished in the BritishEmpire in 1807.

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Learn more about social classesin the 18th century atwww.zanichelli.it/materiali/surfing/

WWW

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The 18th century was anage in which artists

looked at every area of daily

life. The new, ambitiousmiddle class consideredpersonal embellishment asign of social and politicalimportance.

Men and women of theupper classes were elegant inembroidered silk and velvet.Men had powdered wigs.

T his was also the age of coffehousesand clubs. Coffee, tea, and chocolatehad all been introduced in the 1600and the first coffeehouse opened inLondon in 1652. By the beginning of1700 there were about 2000coffeehouses in London. They turnedby degrees into gentlemens clubs withexclusive membership. Merchantsand politicians, businessmen and

professionals, writers and artists, allhad their meeting places, where theywould do business and discuss newideas over a cup of hot tea or coffee.Huge financial institutions such asthe Stock Exchange and Lloyds ofLondon grew from these coffeehousemeetings.

Read about artistic and literarydevelopments in the 18th centuryand make notes on Englishpainting, architecture, literature,

furniture and textiles.

TASK1

Throughout Europe and in Englandtoo the 18th century was called the

Age of Reason or the Age ofEnlightenment. The development ofscience led people to believe in theunlimited powers of the human mind.Men of letters were guided by reasonrather than by fancy or emotions. For

Lifestyle and the Arts

TASK

Have you heard of or read these

novels? Choose one and completethe reading card on page 244.

2

These were the most famous novels

of the 18th century.

1. Dr Johnsons portrait by his friend Joshua Reynolds. National

Portrait Gallery, London.

2. In their heyday, coffeehouses were at the heart of social,

political and commercial life in E ngland.

3. Thomas Gainsborough, Mrs Moody and her two sons, Dulwich

Picture Gallery, London.

the first time, prose prevailed overpoetry.

The political stability and freedom ofthis time favoured letters, music, and art.The development of the press and theestablishment of libraries which made

books available to the general publiccontributed to the rise of journalism andthe modern novel.

One of the leading figures ofLondons cultural life was Dr Johnson(1709-1784). He had a reputation as awriter and a witty speaker, and many ofhis remarks are still quoted today. Healso wrote a great Dictionary of theEnglish Language (1755).1

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91T he G eo rgia n Per io d (1714-1830)

William Kilburn (1745-1818) was themaster of the English school of design incalicoprinting (calico was a cotton clothoriginally from India). His floralwatercolour patterns for textiles are kept

in the Victoria & Albert Museum inLondon.John Nash (1752-1835) was the mostprominent architect of his time. Heworked for the Prince Regent (laterGeorge IV) and planned the layout ofRegents Park, Regents Street, TrafalgarSquare, and St James Park in London.

The Georgian period is characterisedby fine architecture. The well-to-do

built fine, new houses with columns andgrand doorways in the neoclassical styleinspired by the architecture of ancientGreece and Rome. Many of the finest

streets and squares of Bath and Londonwere built between 1760 and 1820.

Great stately homes were built in thecountry, often with remarkable gardens.Formal gardens were replaced bylandscaped gardens which looked morenatural and blended more naturally withthe surrounding countryside (p. 21).

The history of British painting begins,in effect, in the 18th century.William Hogarth (1697-1764)

devoted himself mostly to depicting the

vices and follies of his time. He is famousfor his sets of paintings illustrating amoral story, such as The Rakes ProgressandMarriage la Mode.

Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) was themost successful artist of his time. He wasa distinguished portrait painter and thefirst President of the Royal Academy,founded in 1768 with the aim ofencouraging painting, sculpture andarchitecture in Britain. He was inspiredby classical works and 17th centuryRome.

Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788)

was famous for his portraits, mainly ofmembers of the aristocracy, and hislandscapes of the English countryside.

4.A pattern

designed by William

Kilburn.

5.John Nashs most

original building

was the Royal

Pavilion at

Brighton, which was

the most popular

seaside resort for

people of quality.

6. Kenwood

House, Hampstead,

is one of the most

famous houses

designed by the

Scottish architect

Robert Adam and

his three brothers.

1

Choose one of the three paintersmentioned above and find morereproductions of his paintings.Write a note about them and showthem to the class. With yourclassmates, organise an exhibitionof 18th century British painting.

PROJECT WORK3

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The Industrial Revolution

TASK

Read about the IndustrialRevolution and make notes aboutthe changes that it brought about.

1

B etween 1770 and 1830 Britainchanged from an agricultural to anindustrial country. The changes were sogreat that this period is known as theIndustrial Revolution.

The invention of new machinerychanged the way goods were made. Theuse of the steam engine and coal as anew power source facilitated the growthof new industries. Many new coal mineswere opened and many roads and canalswere built to transport coal and otherheavy goods all over the country.

Methods of producing iron improved,and new iron bridges and ships werebuilt. Steam locomotion was inventedand over the following decades irontrains ran on iron tracks the length andbreadth of the country. Britain becamethe workshop of the world, with hermills and factories producing far moregoods much more economically thanany other nation. More than half of the

worlds cargo was carried in British ships.

Industrial development of the countrywas a source of prosperity and progress,but it created many social conflicts andproblems. In 1801, when the first census

was carried out, 10 million people wereaccounted for. Britain was still mainlyrural. The Industrial Revolution was totransform the whole country and evenchange its landscape.

The use of machines meant thatmany skilled men lost their jobs. Thenewly built factories produced plenty ofgoods in larger quantities and at lowerprices, and the demand for traditionalcrafts declined. Farms changed too, andthere were fewer jobs for farm workers.Their wives often used to spin andweave by hand in their homes and selltheir cloth, but soon spinning andweaving were done on machines in mills.Large mills developed particularly inLancashire and Yorkshire where cotton

1. Old pottery furnace in Ironbridge.

2. The Iron Bridge across the river Severn, from a

colour print,1779. It was the first iron bridge in the

world.

and wool were mostly available. Largefactories grew up on the coalfields ofScotland, Northern England, and theMidlands. People from the countryside,who had lost their jobs, were forced toleave home either to emigrate to Canada,

Australia and New Zealand or move tothe new industrial towns.

Hundreds of thousands of peoplemoved from rural areas into the newtowns and cities which grew up aroundthe factories and mills. The Northbecame the industrial heartland of thecountry and, in the south, Londonremained the most important businessand trade centre.

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The Romantic Age

The Lake PoetsWilliam Wordsworth and SamuelT. Coleridge were the first twogreat Romantic poets. They werealso called the Lake Poets because

Wordsworth spent most of his lifein the Lake District and for a fewyears Coleridge was his neighbour.They frequently discussed poetryand together wrote The LyricalBallads (1798), a collection ofpoems considered the startingpoint for the Romantic Movementin Britain. In the following passageColeridge explains how theyplanned this collection.

During the first year that Mr Wordsworth and I were neighbours, our conversationsturned quickly on the two cardinal points of poetry, the power of exciting thesympathy of the reader by a faithful adherence to the truth of nature, and the power ofgiving the interest of novelty by the modifying colours of imagination. []. The thoughtsuggested itself [] that a series of poems might be composed of two sorts. In the one,

the incidents and agents were to be, in part at least, supernatural; []. For the secondclass, subjects were to be chosen from ordinary life [].In this idea originated the plan of theLyrical Ballads in which it was agreed that myendeavours should be directed to persons and characters supernatural []. MrWordsworth, on the other hand, was to propose to himself as his object, to give thecharm of novelty to things of every day, and to excite a feeling analogous to thesupernatural, by awakening the minds attention [] and directing it to the lovelinessand the wonders of the world before us; an inexhaustible treasure, but for which, inconsequence of the film of familiarity and selfish solicitude, we have eyes, yet see not,ears that hear not, and hearts that neither feel nor understand.

FromBiographia Literaria by S.T. Coleridge (1817)

TASK

Read the passage above andanswer the questions.

a What are the two cardinal

points of poetry mentioned

by Coleridge?

b What kind of poems were

to be written for the Lyrical

Ballads?c Who was going to write

what?

d How could things of

everyday life acquire a new

charm for the readers?

1

TASK

Read the two poems on thenext page and answer thequestions.

a Which elements of nature

are mentioned? How are

they described?

b Does the scene convey a

natural or supernatural

atmosphere?

c What are the main feelings

expressed in each stanza?

d Point out some stylistic

devices employed by the

poet (simile, repetition,

contrast, etc.): what is their

function?

2

1. G. Dor, The Rime of the

Ancient Mariner.

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T he G eo rgia n Per io d (1714-1830)

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

[]Down dropt the breeze, the sails dropt down,Twas sad as sad could be;

And we did speak only to breakThe silence of the sea!

All in a hot and copper sky,The bloody Sun, at noon,

Right up above the mast did stand,No bigger than the Moon.

Day after day, day after day,We stuck, nor breath nor motion;

As idle as a painted shipUpon a painted ocean.

Water, water, everywhere,And all the boards did shrink;Water, water, everywhere,

Nor any drop to drink.The very deep did rot: O Christ!That ever this should be!Yea, slimy things did crawl with legsUpon the slimy sea.

About, about, in reel and routThe death-fires danced at night;The water, like a witchs oils,

Burnt green, and blue, and white.[]

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This poem describes a memorable walk thepoet took in the Lake District. It is oftenreferred to as The Daffodils.

The Daffodils

I wandered lonely as a cloudThat floats on high oer vales and hills,When all at once I saw a crowd,

A host of golden daffodils;Beside the lake, beneath the trees,Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shineAnd twinkle on the milky way,They stretched in never-ending line

Along the margin of a bay:Ten thousand saw I at a glance,Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.

The waves beside them danced; but theyOut-did the sparkling waves in glee:

A poet could not but be gay,In such a jocund company;I gazed and gazed but little thoughtWhat wealth the show to me hadbrought:

For oft, when on my couch I lieIn vacant or in pensive mood,They flash upon that inward eyeWhich is the bliss of solitude;

And then my heart with pleasure fills,And dances with the daffodils.

wandered = walked without purposefloats = moves in the airhost = large numberfluttering = wavingtwinkle = shine intermittentlytossing = moving head upwardsprightly = livelyout-did = did betterglee =joyjocund = happygazed = looked steadilycouch = sofa or bedvacant = empty

inward = interiorbliss =joy

dropt (dropped) down = stopTwas = it wascopper = reddish metalmast = long vertical pole of aship supporting the sails, etc.stuck = were stillbreath = windidle = motionlessboards = wood of the shipshrink = become smallerdeep = searot = go badslimy = viscous, greasycrawl = move with body on thegroundin reel and rout = disorderlydeath-fires = fires fromdecomposing bodieswitch = woman with evil magic

powers

This extract is from The Rime of the AncientMariner, a long poem in seven parts that tellsthe extraordinary adventure of a sailor whokilled an albatross and was horribly punished

for his crime against nature. In the stanzasbelow the guilty Mariner and his crew matesfeel lonely and helpless as their ship lies still ina horrible environment.

TASK

Can you guess which of the two poemswas written by S.T. Coleridge and whichone was written by W. Wordsworth?

Compare the two poems both as tocontent and style.

Provide examples from these linesreflecting the principles expounded inthe passage on page 94.

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2. Daffodils in the Lake District.

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The Romantic Age

The Great Romantic poets and paintersGeorge Gordon Byron (1788-1824) and Percy Bysshe Shelley(1792-1822) were two major poets of the English Romanticmovement. Their works and their lives combined make themtypically Romantic figures.

3. Percy Bysshe Shelley.

4. George Gordon Byron.

5. John Keats.

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Read about the life and works of G.G. Byron, P.B. Shelleyand J. Keats at www.zanichelli.it/materiali/surfing/Then point out similarities and differences concerningtheir

- family and social background- studies- personality and beliefs- love relationships- health- literary success.

WWW

John Keats (1795-1821) was probably the best of the EnglishRomantic poets. His short life was entirely devoted to thesearch for beauty. He wrote that A thing of beauty is a joy forever.

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You can read some of their poems atwww.poetry.archive.com

WWW

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97T he G eo rgia n Per io d (1714-1830)

Can you think of any Italian poets who advocated social

and political changes in their homeland?

Can you think of any characters in Italian literature who

resemble Romantic heroes in any way?

Who were the most important Italian artists in the

eighteenth century?

Can you think of any famous buildings of this period?

CLASS DISCUSSION7

TASK

Look at the pictures and answer the questions.

What kind of colour do the painters use?

What is the role of light in the two pictures?

How does each painter describe the scene?

Which two main aspect of Romanticism do the painters refer

to? (see Coleridges Biographia Literaria on page 94).

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7. John Constable, detail from Stratford Mill, National Gallery, London.

The increasing popularity of nature and rural life as themesmade landscape painting the most characteristic achievementof English Romantic Art.The two greatest landscape painters were J.M. William Turner(1775-1851) and John Constable (1776-1837).

6. J.M.W. Turner, Windsor Castle, Berkshire. The British Museum, London.

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British were proud of all this, anddeveloped a sense of supreme confidencein their culture and civilisation.

5The Victorian Age (1837-1901)

Scientific and

technological progressVictoria was barely eighteen when shebecame queen in 1837. Three years latershe married her German cousin, Prince

Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. During herreign, which lasted 64 years, the Queenentrusted all the responsibility for publicaffairs to the great statesmen of the time,who made the country powerful at homeand abroad. It was a time of greatindustrial development and scientificand technological progress.

The application of steam power torailways and ships made travel reliableand fast, and the invention of thetelegraph and the telephone transformedcommunication. Domestic chores were

revolutionised by the invention ofhousehold appliances such as washingmachines, and later by the applicationof electricity. Moreover, a long period ofpeace and the enormous expansion ofthe Empire contributed to make Britain

the most powerful nation on earth.On 1 May 1851 Queen Victoria andPrince Albert opened the GreatExhibition in Hyde Park, where a hugebuilding made of glass and iron, theCrystal Palace, had been erected todisplay the exhibits of modern industryand science: machinery, clothing,decorative arts, jewellery and productsof all kinds from all over the world. The6 million visitors were most impressedby the technical and scientificachievements of the country. The

Look at the historical tree of thedynasties of the kings and queens ofBritain on page 243 and find outwhich family Queen Victoriabelonged to and how she becameQueen of Great Britain and Ireland.

TASK2

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Why did Britain become the mostpowerful country in the world?

How did architecture develop in the

Victorian Age?

KEY QUESTIONS

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The Years of Self Confidence

The Victorian compromiseQueen Victoria became the symbol ofBritains success in the world, but theVictorian Age was a period of majorsocial and moral contradictions. Anenormous prosperity coexisted withunbelievable poverty. Factory owners andnew businessmen were mostly interestedin profits and all too often they did notcare about their workers. Despiteprogress and reform the living conditionsof the poor remained miserable.

There was a marked division ofsociety into three classes: the aristocracy,the middle classes (upper and lower) andthe working class (the poor). This systemlasted throughout the 19th century andthe first half of the 20th century.

The Victorian age marked thetriumph of the industrial middle classes,with their confidence in progress and

optimistic view of life, theirphilanthropism and sentimentalism, andtheir morality which relied heavily onexterior forms and conventions.

The owners of industries more thanthe landowners now held the real powerin the country. Most people depended

What transformation took place in

British society during Queen Victorias

reign?

What were the new values

established by Victorian middleclasses?

What reforms improved the political

and public life of the country?

1. Sentimentalised images of innocence were

commonplace and may be considered a

counterpoint to the realities of child labour and high

infant mortality rate.

2. Home Sweet home by Walter Sadler shows a

prosperous household in about 1850.

3. 19th century groceries, Museum of Advertising,

Gloucester.

1 KEY QUESTIONS

on them for their living. They believed inhard work and self-improvement. Theywere men of ambition with greatdetermination and strength and littletime for worldly pleasures. Now, mostpeople lived in towns and cities. Thegrowth of trade, industry and publicadministration raised the number ofpeople who worked in shops and offices.Such workers are known today as whitecollar workers to distinguish them fromfactory and other manual workers.

A new set of values was established,which emphasised hard work, family life,religious observance, honesty in publiclife, self-control and respectability. The

large middle-class family was consideredthe embodiment of success. QueenVictoria was an example to the people.She represented the moral values of herage. She was a religious woman, anaffectionate wife and a loving mother ofnine children.

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101T he Vict o r ia n A ge (1837-1901)

The age of reformImportant social and political reformstook place during this period, with majorimprovements in labour legislation,housing, sanitation, education and social

security.A widespread movement in defenceof womens rights and emancipation wasformed. Three Reform Acts (1832, 1867,1884) extended the right to vote tosections of the working classes, makingparliament more fully representative ofthe nation. Slavery was abolishedthroughout the British Empire (1833).Factory Laws were passed whichregulated factory working conditionsand limited the use of children infactories.

In 1870 education became

compulsory and free for all children untilthe age of 13. Communications becamemore and more rapid and efficient. In1833 Britains first railway reachedLondon, and 30 years later the LondonUnderground Railway was opened.News swiftly spread because of thepostal service and newspapers. Thedevelopment of railways and urbantransport offered all classes freedom oftravel and new opportunities forrecreation: seaside holidays, sport,shopping, and theatre-going.

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) was one of the most popular Englishnovelists. In his novels he drew a realistic picture of life in VictorianEngland and passionately expressed his sense of social right andwrong.His first publication was Sketches by Boz(1836), a collection of shortessays describing the people and manners of London of his times. Thefollowing year,Picwick Papers, published in monthly instalments aswere many of his later works, brought him worldwide celebrity.Oliver Twist was the first of his serious novels in which herealistically described the social problems of his time. He showed his

contemporaries the harsh conditions in which poor people livedbeneath the surface of a prosperous society: workhouses, desertedchildren, prostitutes and criminals, the scandal of private schools,the horrors of the exploitation of children, and the bitter reality ofimprisonment for debt.David Copperfield, the most popular of all his works, is mostlyautobiographical. It presents many characters and events taken fromhis own life. An angry call for social reform is more evident in hislater novels, such asBleak House,Hard Times andLittle Dorrit.Dickens was Englands family novelist, although he had a veryunhappy relationship with his wife. Their break-up was an occasionfor public scandal in 1858.

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4. The British Beehive, etching by George Cruiksha nk, 1840, Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

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The British Empire

When Queen Victoria came to thethrone, Britain already had colonies

in every continent. By the end of herreign, the British Empire covered aquarter of the world.

The British Empire was born in the16th century when Britain started tocompete with other European countriesfor control of the seas and of the riches

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Can you think of some reasons why

colonies were founded?

How did the empire contribute to

making Britain a powerful country?

Which was Britains most important

colony?

Why was the Suez Canal so important

for British trade?

How did the British rule change the

colonies?

What effects has the empire had on

British society and lifestyle?

KEY QUESTIONS

1. The Cutty Sark, which can still be

seen at Greenwich, is the last

surviving clipper. This British fast

sailing ship was built in 1869. It

carried tea from China and then

wool from Australia. 1

of unexplored continents. Many coloniesbegan as trading centres in newlydiscovered countries, and tradingcompanies such as the East IndiaCompany were set up in the 17thcentury. Throughout the 17th and 18thcenturies, more and more colonies werefounded by people who had left theirnative lands for political or religiousreasons, or quite simply in search of ajob and a new life. Other colonies wereoriginally penal colonies, like Australia.

During the 18th century Britaincolonised much of North America,Africa and Asia, and colonial expansioncontinued steadily through the 19thcentury.

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1 Which other European countries hadcolonies?

Is there any country today that has an

empire?

Do you think empire building right or

wrong?

CLASS DISCUSSION3

In 1858, India, parts of which had beengoverned by the East India Companysince the 17th century, passed under thedirect control of the British Government,which appointed a viceroy to govern thecountry.

Many British civil servants, engineers,administrators and businessmen went tolive in India with their families. The placeof India in the British Empire was soimportant that it was called the jewel inthe (queens) crown. In 1877 QueenVictoria became Empress of India.

Find out more information andwrite a report on one of thefollowing subjects:

Gandhi

One of the British colonies (when the

British settled down, how long, and

how, they ruled etc.)

Kiplings novel Kim.

PROJECT WORK2

Rudyard Kipling was born in India andspent part of his life there, mainlyworking as a journalist. He was proudof being British and exalted the Britishempire. He wrote poems, stories about

Indian life and novels such as Kim andThe Jungle Books. He was the firstEnglishman to receive the Nobel prizefor literature in 1907.

The empire was a source of pride andwealth for Britain. Colonies providedcheap agricultural produce and rawmaterials for its manufacturingindustries and were a huge market for itsmanufactured goods. Textiles, machines

and ships were exported to the coloniesand sold at a large profit.

British rule influenced local systemsof government. Most countries of theformer empire have a civil service, armyand legal system organised along similarlines to those in Britain. Many roads and

2. Old print showing Bombay, Victoria Station.

3. Gandhi (1869-1948) was the leader of the non-

violent movement for Indian independence.

4.A Hindu nobleman and an office r of the Bengal

Cavalry, Delhi School, 1850-1870. The British Library

Board, London.

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railways were also started under Britishrule, and schools were established.

However, most British people didnot respect, and did not even try tounderstand, different cultures and localreligions. Native people everywhere were

usually considered inferior to whitepeople and had few rights. MoreoverBritains great economic power and itsplace in the world made many Britishpeople think that it was their duty tospread their culture and civilisation

around the world. People like Kiplingthought that it was the white mansburden to educate the nativeinhabitants, to christianise them and toimpose European culture upon them.

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Literature and the Arts

The Victorian Age was really a gloriousmoment in the history of English

literature, and the novel was the greatestliterary achievement of the age.

As the industrial age grew uglier andits impact on daily life more brutalising,

some sensitive souls in the mid-nineteenth century rebelled against thisstate of affairs. Writers and artists suchas John Ruskin expressed indignation atthe ugliness of the industrial world andthe alienating effects of industrialisation.

Some novelists were in favour ofsocial reform and more support for theworking classes. In their novels theydescribed the living conditions of thepoor and the exploitation of children,and dealt with the social changes thatwere taking place.

Many novels were written by women.They often explored values associatedwith women and their important rolewithin the family and community.

Sherlock Holmes is a famous character created by Arthur Conan Doyle in the late 19th

century. He is a private detective endowed with exceptional logical skills. Thanks to his careful

observation of clues and his excellent powers of deduction he succeeds in solving severaldifficult mysteries. He lives in London at 221 Baker Street where he shares a flat with his friend

and biographer Dr Watson. Holmes is a

typical Victorian middle-class man and

his stories provide interesting insights

into the lifestyle of his time. Sherlock

Holmes cases have been adapted for the

theatre, the cinema and television and

have made him a popular character

throughout the world. His pipe and hat

are unmistakable.

TASK

Look at the books above andanswer the questions.

Do you know or have you read any of

them?

Three of the writers are women: can

you guess which?

Eight of the books are novels andtwo are plays. Which two?

Most of these works have been

turned into films. Which? Have you

seen any of them?

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TASK

Read one of the above books andfill in the card on page 244. Thenuse the card to talk to the classabout the book.

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The Arts and Crafts

MovementWilliam Morris (1834-1896) was a painterand writer, but he is also famous as adesigner of furniture and decor for houses.

He believed that art is ess

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