05/27/13
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Transcript of 05/27/13
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05/27/13
This presentation is prepared by the coordination of a worthy group
Zahida Yaseen Mamoona Irshad Sahrish Khan
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Health- care productsAntibiotics
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Antibiotics are prepared by industrial
microorganisms. Antibiotics are not produced in the greatest
quantity nor they are economically valuable. The other health care products are• Alkaloids• Steroids• Toxins• Vaccines , Vitamins and Enzymes
Introduction
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Through genetic engineering we can produced variety of products likeMammalians proteins and peptides that have therapeutic properties
Medically important and established markets includes
•Insulin, Interferon ,Human growth hormones and monoclonal antibodies •All of these are extensively used to test various health and disease states.
Genetic Engineering Techniques
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Antibiotics are secondary metabolites produced by•Filamentous fungi and bacteria•Particularly actinomycetesApproximately 4000 antibiotics isolated from various organisms but 50 used as antimicrobial chemotherapyMedically important antibiotics are •Betalactams,penicilllines,cephloporins,aminoglycosides,(streptomycin), tetracycline
Antibiotics
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Antibiotics(low market value)
Some antibiotics are fail to fulfill certain important criteria particularly•Lack of selectivity•Exhibiting toxicity to humans and animals•High production costsSome antibiotics are acts as antitumor agents e,g;Actinomycin and mytomycin(streptomyces peucetius and S.caeptiosus)
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Some antibiotics are used to control microbial diseases in plantsSeveral antibiotics area also added to animal feed as growth promotersWith respect to resistance the antibiotics used for humans or may be withdrawn from used in animal feed. For exampleThe EU Commission voted to ban the application of•Bacitracin,spiromycin,tylomycin and virginomycin as growth promoters after january 1999
Tools(biochemistry and molecular
biology)
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β-Lactam antibiotics are a broad class of antibiotics
This includes penicillin derivatives (penams), cephalosporins (cephems), monobactams, and carbapenems Most β-lactam antibiotics work by inhibiting cell wall biosynthesis in the bacterial organismmore than half of all commercially available antibiotics in use were β-lactam compounds
Beta-lactams
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Bacteria often develop resistance to β-lactam
antibiotics by synthesizing a β-lactamase, an enzyme that attacks the β-lactam ring.
To overcome this resistance, β-lactam antibiotics are often given with β-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanic acid.
β-lactam antibiotics were mainly active only against Gram-positive bacteria
yet the recent development of broad-spectrum β-lactam antibiotics active against various Gram-negative organisms has increased their usefulness
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05/27/13
Mmaoona Irshad Discovery of Penicllin Production Structure of Penicillin Commercial production Recovery methods
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05/27/13
Penicillin The first antibiotic discovered by Flemming Historically significiant
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05/27/13
Flemming
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Discovery of Penicillin Late 1930’s Florey Chain and Heatly
characterized the inhibitory compound responsible to produce Penicillin
Developed a protocol to produce it in pure form Major advancements in both medicine and
fermentation technology Penicillin exhibits the properties of a typical
secondary metabolite P.notatum generated litlle more than 1 mg/L from
the surface cultures initially used for penicillin production
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Corn steep liquor by product of maize
Corn steep liquor 20-25 fold increase in yieldContains various nitrogen sources, Growth factors and side chain precursors and remains as a major ingredient of penicillin production media.
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Pencilllin chrysogenumIsolated from mouldy cantaloupmelon, results greater penicillin yields.Further increases in yield when production went over to submerged fermentation
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Since 1940,s penicillin yield and fermentation has been vastly improved by extensive mutation and selection of producer strains.
Traditional approach involved random mutation and selection of higher producing strains.
Resulting mutants were grown on liquid medium and culture filtrates were assayed fro penicillin
This was a slow and painstaking as large number of strains had to be tested
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Such methods were the key to the dramatically increased yields since the discovery of penicillin
Penicillin fermentations now produce yields in excess of 50g/L,
A 50,000 fold increase from the levels first produce by Fleming’s original isolation
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Structure of PenicillinBasic structure if penicillin is 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA)Composed of thiazolidine ring fused with beta lactam ring whose 6 amino position carries a variety of acyl subtituentsThis beta lactam thiazolidine, structure synthesized from
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Alpha aminoadipate L-cystine L-valine
Side-chain precursors fermentation medium different biosynthetic penicillins
Natural penicillins can be modified chemically to produce compounds with improved characteristics
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General structure of Penicillin
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Most penicillins are now semisynthetic obtained by chemical modification of natural penicillinModification is achieved by removing their natural acyl group, leaving 6-APA, to which other acyl groups can be added to confer new properties
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Semisynthetic penicillins such as Methicillin, carbenicillin and ampicillin various imrovements includinga)Resistance to stomach acids to allow oral administrationb)A degree of resistance to penicillinasec)Extended range of activity to Gram negative bacteria
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Chemical production of Penicillin
Fed batch process carried out aseptically in stirred tank fermenters of 40,000- 200,000 L capacity
Oxygen level is very important, must be maintained in 25-60mmol/L/h
Oxygen transfer rate viscosity, which increases as fermentation progresses
Maintained at 25-27 c and pH 6.5-7.7 Specific conditions depends on P.chrysogenum
strain used
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Carbon sources used Various carbon sources used for penicillin
production, including glucose, lactose, sucrose, ethanol and vegetable oil
i. 65% is metabolized for cellular maintenanceii. 25% growthiii. 10% penicillin production Mixture of glucose and lactose used in past for
penicillin production Glucose good growth, poor penicillin
yield
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Lactose poor growth, good yield Mode of feeding of carbon source is viatlly
important Corn steep liquor still used Acidic nature creates an environment for calcium
carbonate and phosphate buffer to neutralize the medium
Ammonia, mineral salts and specific side cahin precursors, e.g. phenyl acetic acid may also be added
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Inoculum development initiated by adding lyophilized spores to a small fermenter
Fungal mycellium may then be grown further to one or two stages
Initially vegetative growth phase devoted to the development of biomass, which doubles every 6h
This high growth phase maintained for the first 2 days
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Mycellium must develop as loose pellets rather than compact forms to ensure optimum yield
Carbon source is fed at low rate an dpenicillin production increases
Continues for 6-8 days Penicillin excreted into the medium is
recovered at the end of fermentation
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Whole broth extraction can be performed but can be lead to downstream processing problems
Penicillin recovery follows removal mycellium using rotatory vacuum filters
Recovered mycellium is then washed to remove residual penicillin, prior to its use as animal feed or fertilizer
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Recovery of antibioticTwo methods mostly used
1.Solvent extraction of the cell free medium2. ion pair extraction
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Solvents extarction It gives yields of 90% It involves reducing the Ph of the filtered
medium to 2-2.5 by adding sulphuric or phosphoric acid
Followed by a rapid two stage continuous counter current at 03 c using acetone or ketones
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Ion pair extraction It may be used at 5-7 ph, in which range penicillin
is stable Pigments or impurities are removed by treating
with activated charcoal Penicillin is then retrieved from the solvent by
adding sodium or potassium acetate Reduces solubility of penicillin and precipitates as
sodium potassium salt Penicillin crystals are separated by rotary vacuum
filtartion
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Penicillin crystals are mixed with a volatile solvent as anhydrous ethanol, butanol or iso propanol to remove further impurities
Crystals are collected by filtration and air dried
At this stage penicillin is 99.5% pure This product may be further processed
to form a pharmaceutical grade product
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Production of semisynthetic PenicillinsPenicillin (sometimes abbreviated
PCN or pen) is a group of antibiotics derived from Penicillium fungi.
the naturally occurring penicillins (those formed during the process of mold fermentation) and the semisynthetic penicillins (those in which the structure of a chemical substance—6-aminopenicillanic acid—found in all penicillins is altered in various ways)
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To generate compounds with improved properties e.g acid stability,resistance to enzymic degradation ,broader spectrum of activity etc.
Remove the side chain of the base Penicillin to form 6-APA by penicillin Acylase from E.Coli
6-APA then acylated with an appropriate side chain to produce a semisynthetic penicillin.
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Production of Cephalosporin Yields of Cephalosporins from fermentation
are much lower than those for penicillins 6-APA is used as a starting material Penicillin is converted by ring expansion to
6-APA & then to 7-ADCA A suitable side-Chain can also be attached
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Emergence of Antibiotic resistanceAntibiotic resistance was recognized
soon after the natural penicillins were introduced
The use of antibiotics creats selection pressure favouring the growth of antibiotic resistant mutants, by the misuse and overuse of drugs
The emergence of pathogenic bacterial strains, show multiple resistance to a broad range of antibiotics
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Many of the antibiotic-resistance genes of staphylococci carried on plasmids that can be exchanged with species of Bacillus and Streptococcus, providing the means for additional genes and gene combinations.
Some resistance genes are carried on transposons,that are segments of DNA that can exist either in the chromosomes or within plasmids
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Uses of Antibiotics in Medicine
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Cell wall synthesis inhibitors usually stop bacteria from forming their cell walls. They kill bacteria and not human cells because human cells do not form cell walls,e.g beta lactums, semisynthetic penicillins
Cell membrane inhibitors kill bacterial cells by disorganizing the outer membranes of bacteria,e.g polymyxin.
Protein synthesis inhibitors interfere with the process of translation in protein synthesis,e.g tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, macrolides,
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Chemotheraputic agents affecting the synthesis of nucleic acids block the division and growth of cells by inhibiting synthesis of DNA and RNA. Most of these agents affect both animal and bacteria cells, so they cannot be used as an antibiotic.
Competitive inhibitors are mostly synthetic. These drugs work by disrupting the metabolic rate of bacteria. Some examples include sulfonamides, isoniazid, paraaminosalicylic acid, and ethambutol
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Production of semisynthetic PenicillinsPenicillin (sometimes abbreviated
PCN or pen) is a group of antibiotics derived from Penicillium fungi.
the naturally occurring penicillins (those formed during the process of mold fermentation) and the semisynthetic penicillins (those in which the structure of a chemical substance—6-aminopenicillanic acid—found in all penicillins is altered in various ways)
![Page 45: 05/27/13](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062816/568150b2550346895dbecf19/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
To generate compounds with improved properties e.g acid stability,resistance to enzymic degradation ,broader spectrum of activity etc.
Remove the side chain of the base Penicillin to form 6-APA by penicillin Acylase from E.Coli
6-APA then acylated with an appropriate side chain to produce a semisynthetic penicillin.
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Production of Cephalosporin Yields of Cephalosporins from fermentation
are much lower than those for penicillins 6-APA is used as a starting material Penicillin is converted by ring expansion to
6-APA & then to 7-ADCA A suitable side-Chain can also be attached
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Emergence of Antibiotic resistanceAntibiotic resistance was recognized
soon after the natural penicillins were introduced
The use of antibiotics creats selection pressure favouring the growth of antibiotic resistant mutants, by the misuse and overuse of drugs
The emergence of pathogenic bacterial strains, show multiple resistance to a broad range of antibiotics
![Page 48: 05/27/13](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062816/568150b2550346895dbecf19/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Many of the antibiotic-resistance genes of staphylococci carried on plasmids that can be exchanged with species of Bacillus and Streptococcus, providing the means for additional genes and gene combinations.
Some resistance genes are carried on transposons,that are segments of DNA that can exist either in the chromosomes or within plasmids
![Page 49: 05/27/13](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062816/568150b2550346895dbecf19/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Uses of Antibiotics in Medicine
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Cell wall synthesis inhibitors usually stop bacteria from forming their cell walls. They kill bacteria and not human cells because human cells do not form cell walls,e.g beta lactums, semisynthetic penicillins
Cell membrane inhibitors kill bacterial cells by disorganizing the outer membranes of bacteria,e.g polymyxin.
Protein synthesis inhibitors interfere with the process of translation in protein synthesis,e.g tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, macrolides,
![Page 51: 05/27/13](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062816/568150b2550346895dbecf19/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Chemotheraputic agents affecting the synthesis of nucleic acids block the division and growth of cells by inhibiting synthesis of DNA and RNA. Most of these agents affect both animal and bacteria cells, so they cannot be used as an antibiotic.
Competitive inhibitors are mostly synthetic. These drugs work by disrupting the metabolic rate of bacteria. Some examples include sulfonamides, isoniazid, paraaminosalicylic acid, and ethambutol
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