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Chapter 5 101 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUDING DISCUSSION 5.1 INTRODUCTION Roadsides are extremely variable land use units, which are influenced by a broad range of natural and anthropogenic processes, have a multiplicity of functions, and are administered by a range of government and community authorities. The vegetation which occurs on roadsides is a product of these features, and shows considerable variation both temporally, and spatially over large and small scales. The broad interests involved with, and multiple uses of, roadsides and the heterogeneity of the vegetation therein, present considerable challenges to road managers, scientists, and other groups in the development of management strategies for native vegetation in these areas. 5.2 THE ROADSIDE SURVEY The survey of roadsides undertaken during this project suggested that strong relationships existed between the vegetation present on the roadside, anthropogenic disturbances, and variation in natural features. Generally speaking, roadsides can be divided into those possessing vegetation believed to be similar to that which existed prior to European settlement, and those in which the vegetation had been altered to various degrees from the original. The former, which, in this survey, included woodland and grassland communities, were found most commonly on undisturbed sites where the roadside reserve was broad, such as on travelling stock routes or reserves, and on soils of low fertility where adjacent agricultural land was largely unimproved. Such sites had a lower occurrence of exotic species, a high vegetation cover, and often a high diversity of native species, which was often increased where trees were present. Sites where the vegetation had been altered included those with varying degrees of exotic plant invasion, and/or tree removal. Soil disturbance appeared to be one of the primary factors which influenced the composition and structure of the vegetation at such sites. These soil disturbances, which varied in type, intensity and regularity, appeared to act in combination with other factors such as soil type, water status, width of the roadside reserve, and the adjacent land use, to affect the vegetation at any one site. The relationship between the occurrence of exotic species and soil disturbance has been previously reported (eg. Amor and Piggin 1977, Hobbs and Atkins 1988, McIntyre 1993), and is further supported by results obtained during this survey. However the soil disturbances recorded on roadsides during this survey were often associated with a broad range of vegetation types. Roadside soil disturbances can be grouped into those which are single, catastrophic events, such as are
Transcript of 05 Chapter 5-Appendices Huxtable - Home | Research UNEpasture grasses. T. australis grasslands...
Chapter 5 101
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUDING DISCUSSION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Roadsides are extremely variable land use units, which are influenced by a broad range of
natural and anthropogenic processes, have a multiplicity of functions, and are administered by
a range of government and community authorities. The vegetation which occurs on roadsides
is a product of these features, and shows considerable variation both temporally, and spatially
over large and small scales. The broad interests involved with, and multiple uses of, roadsides
and the heterogeneity of the vegetation therein, present considerable challenges to road
managers, scientists, and other groups in the development of management strategies for native
vegetation in these areas.
5.2 THE ROADSIDE SURVEY
The survey of roadsides undertaken during this project suggested that strong relationships
existed between the vegetation present on the roadside, anthropogenic disturbances, and
variation in natural features. Generally speaking, roadsides can be divided into those
possessing vegetation believed to be similar to that which existed prior to European settlement,
and those in which the vegetation had been altered to various degrees from the original. The
former, which, in this survey, included woodland and grassland communities, were found
most commonly on undisturbed sites where the roadside reserve was broad, such as on
travelling stock routes or reserves, and on soils of low fertility where adjacent agricultural land
was largely unimproved. Such sites had a lower occurrence of exotic species, a high
vegetation cover, and often a high diversity of native species, which was often increased
where trees were present.
Sites where the vegetation had been altered included those with varying degrees of exoticplant invasion, and/or tree removal. Soil disturbance appeared to be one of the primary factors
which influenced the composition and structure of the vegetation at such sites. These soil
disturbances, which varied in type, intensity and regularity, appeared to act in combination
with other factors such as soil type, water status, width of the roadside reserve, and the
adjacent land use, to affect the vegetation at any one site. The relationship between the
occurrence of exotic species and soil disturbance has been previously reported (eg. Amor and
Piggin 1977, Hobbs and Atkins 1988, McIntyre 1993), and is further supported by results
obtained during this survey. However the soil disturbances recorded on roadsides during this
survey were often associated with a broad range of vegetation types. Roadside soil
disturbances can be grouped into those which are single, catastrophic events, such as are
Chapter 5 102
associated with the road construction, and less severe, more regular disturbances, such as are
associated with regular grading of the table drain. These disturbances produce habitats which,
given a supply of propagules, provide opportunities for the establishment of particular
species. Continued disturbance, or lack of further disturbance, will affect the plant community
which develops.The survey indicated that the grassy vegetation on roadsides was characterised by relatively
few species of perennial grasses occurring at high frequencies, and a broader range of species
at low frequencies. Although intergrades did occur, discrete species assemblages dominated
by certain perennial grasses were identified which often had characteristic features associatedwith soil disturbance, water enrichment, and species composition. Competitive perennialpasture grasses, able to capitalise on conditions of high soil fertility and water enrichment
following a disturbance, will, in the absence of further disturbance, become dominant through
vigorous vegetative growth and litter accumulation. These species may also be able to invade
undisturbed, relatively productive sites from adjacent improved pasture. The resulting plant
community generally had low species diversity, and presents an aesthetically and ecologically
undesirable state.
T. australis grasslands were shown to be intolerant of disturbance and were most
commonly found on undisturbed sites where the roadside was generally broader. Other native
perennial grasses were more ubiquitous in habitat preference, occurring on both disturbed and
undisturbed sites. While native grasses, especially T. australis, sometimes formed dense
swards, species richness in these communities was generally higher than with exotic perennial
pasture grasses. T. australis grasslands therefore, should be kept free of soil disturbance, and
the importance of these and other native perennial grasses as components of species rich
communities needs to be recognised.
Where soil profile alteration resulted in a low fertility subsoil substrate, such as on road
verges and scalped duplex soils, stressful and/or disturbed (Grime 1977) habitats were
produced. Vegetation cover in such habitats, although usually sparse, often included a high
diversity of species from a range of life history types, and often included many native species.
Weed control in such areas is not a problem, but the planting or sowing of native species to
increase the ground cover is desirable.
Exotic annual grass and herb species were most abundant in areas such as table drains
where regular soil disturbance occurred, or in areas where continuous perennial grass ground
cover was absent. These results suggest that bare ground is most often colonised by someannual species, and the bare ground may be produced by either soil disturbance or a sparsity
of perennial grass cover. A number of other native annual and perennial, and exotic annual,
dicotyledons are able to survive in a wide range of habitats, a few of which occurred in dense
swards of exotic perennial pasture grasses. While it may be desirable to maintain the diversity
of these species by the reduction of biomass of exotic perennial pasture grasses, and the
encouragement of native perennial grass communities, the methods which favour the
Chapter 5 103maintenance or increase of native herbaceous dicotyledons and the decrease of exotics are
largely unknown.The exotic species Plantago lanceolata and Hypochaeris radicata were exceptional in their
ubiquity throughout the samples in this survey (Appendix 3), which, although neither speciesis robust, large, or occurred in great abundance, is indicative of their potential as
environmental weeds.
Eragrostis curvula and Hyparrhenia hirta, are highly invasive species and, although only
occurring in a few samples during this survey, formed dense swards which were almost
monocultures. While Hyparrhenia hirta may have forage value if maintained in the vegetative
phase by grazing (Lodge et al. 1994), both species do present a considerable threat to pasturesif undergrazed, and to native roadside plant communities generally.
The survey indicated that the spatial arrangement of zonation of vegetation on roadsides was
highly variable, and was partly influenced by massive soil disturbances associated with road
construction features. These disturbances produced habitats which imposed limits on the
occurrence of certain species, and were unlikely to change over time. The width of the
roadside reserve, which affected the input of propagules from the adjacent land and the road,
soil type, water status, and regular disturbances such as grading, spraying and slashing, also
affected roadside zonation. Other natural variation, including altitude, topography, and climate
may also influence the form of the zonation.
5.3 STATES AND TRANSITIONS IN ROADSIDE VEGETATION
The development of management strategies for roadside vegetation needs to take into
account safety requirements, and recognise road construction features as distinct from the rest
of the roadside reserve. These features are highly modified from the original landscape,
present unique habitats to which some species of plants, including natives, are well adapted,and require special management strategies with respect to native vegetation. Various'desirable' and 'undesirable' states and possible transitions between them were identified in
each of the road construction features as well as in the road reserve. While methods of altering
particular Jenny (1961) factors to achieve transitions from 'desirable' to 'undesirable' states
are as yet untested, the goals at least are clear.
The staff responsible for roadside management are unlikely to be able to recognise the
different states and apply the appropriate management without assistance. Therefore a draftroadside management manual, relevant to the Armidale district has been produced (Appendix3). This manual included a dichotomous key to assist in the recognition of the different
roadside enviroments together with suggested management strategies.
Chapter 5 104
5.4 ROADSIDE GRASS TRIALS
The revegetation of roadsides with native grasses following roadworks was investigated
during this project. An emergence and survival trial of three species of native grasses, Chloris
truncata, Danthonia richardsonii cv. 'Taranna', and Microlaena stipoides, monitored overeleven months revealed that these species have great potential for such work. The trial
indicated that given adequate temperatures and rainfall, plant survival was greatest when seedswere sown in spring. Although emergence from sowings in December and January wassometimes good, survival of these plants was lower than for spring. The trial also revealed
different success rates of emergence and survival in different roadside environments, and
indicated that variation in soil structure, soil water retention, and microtopography were at
least partly responsible for these differences. The highest survival rate occurred in
environments where the soil had previously been ripped or was in close proximity to
undisturbed native grassland, and the poorest were in environments with subsoil or compacted
soil. Obviously preparation of the seed bed is of great importance in such cases, to increase
soil moisture retention, and depending on the seed size and species, to assist in root
penetration and coleoptile emergence.
The ability of two of the species, D. richardsonii and M. stipoides, to emerge following upto four months in the soil without rain has important implications for roadside revegetation, as
does the ability of C. truncata to form good ground cover.
5.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES
The identification and protection of existing native roadside vegetation is of primaryimportance. Such areas may include so called 'remnant' vegetation or areas dominated by
native species, albeit altered from the original. In some cases, weed control, pruning of
vegetation for safety reasons, and/or some forms of mild disturbance such as low intensity
burning or slashing to maintain species diversity, may be required in these areas, but
otherwise they should be left undisturbed (Appendix 3).
The replacement of competitive exotic perennial grasses on roadsides with nativecommunities will be the biggest challenge faced by road authorities and scientists. While thesegrasses may include species declared as 'noxious', such as Eragrostis curvula, potentiallynoxious species such as Hyparrhenia hirta, and valuable exotic pasture species such as
Phalaris aquatica and Festuca elatior, they can all be defined as 'weeds' on roadsides. Notonly are the communities dominated by such species difficult to replace with natives, but
because of their invasive ability, present a threat to adjacent native communities. In addition,
because they grow so tall they must be regularly slashed close to the road verge during their
growing season. This procedure is expensive and the machinery probably leads to more
widespread dispersal of weedy species.
Chapter 5 105The control of the spread of E. curvula, H. hirta, and other weeds along roadsides may
require the cooperation of all road authorities, interest groups, and adjacent landowners and
landcare groups in the area of concern. Control measures of these species may include
combinations of burning or mowing and herbicide application, such as trialled with H. hirta
by Lodge et al. (1994), and slashing before seeds are set.
The control of exotic perennial grasses on roadsides by burning, slashing with removal of
clippings, scalping, or blanketing with subsoil, could also be investigated. While such
methods are largely untested and may be expensive, they may be the only options for such
situations if revegetation with natives is desired. Alternatively, such areas could be used for
the stockpiling of gravel or soil required for roadworks, in preference to using roadside
reserves dominated by native plants.
The study of soil seedbanks and their persistence in roadside reserves could providevaluable information that would assist in the management of roadside weeds, and the
encouragement of natural regeneration of native vegetation.
Native grasses and herbaceous dicotyledons have great potential for roadside revegetation
and amenity plantings generally, and further studies are necessary to develop techniques for
the establishment of these species. While information regarding the germination,
establishment, and ecological requirements of some species of native grasses, and to a lesser
extent native herbaceous dicotyledons is available, far more is needed relating to specificroadside conditions. The supply of seed in sufficient quantities is another problem which
needs attention, although seed from two cultivars of native grass species, Danthonia
richardsonii cv. 'Taranna' and Danthonia linkii cv. 'Bunderra' is now commercially available.
The manipulation of homogeneous mixtures of native and exotic herbaceous communities,
aimed at increasing the component of native species, may be achievable through relativelysimple management practices, such as strategic slashing or burning, but needs to be tested.
The development of strategies for road construction features may be more complicated,
especially in the case of verges and table drains. Because of their close proximity to the road,
and their specific functions of drainage for the tarmac, these habitats present special problems,
and in the case of verges may be better kept free of vegetation. The stabilisation of cuttings
and embankments using native species, and the reduction of weeds in such habitats, is also atopic requiring further work.
5.6 CONCLUSION
This study has revealed valuable information regarding the nature of, and some of the
factors influencing, roadside vegetation. While some of the species or species assemblages
found on roadsides during this study are limited to the Northern Tablelands, or even the
Armidale region, comparable species or species assemblages with similar ecological functions
are likely to occur elsewhere. The general principles regarding preservation of native plant
Chapter 5 106
communities, weed control, and species manipulation suggested and tested in this project, aswell as the development of classification systems, therefore, could well be applicable to other
regions.It is to be hoped that the present interest in native vegetation on roadsides will continue, and
that this project has contributed to the knowledge required to develop appropriate management
strategies.
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Appendix 1 121APPENDIX 1. Percent occurrence, origin, life history, growth habit, andfamily of plant species in 242 samples taken during a survey of 20 roadsidesites within 50 km of Armidale, NSW, along the New England Highway andthe Grafton Road. (E = exotic, N = native, A = annual, B = biennial, P =perennial, F = forb, G = grass, S = shrub, T = tree.)
Species Name % Origin Life Growth FAMILYOccurr . history Habit
encePlantago lanceolata 60.5 E A or B F PLANTAGINACEAEHypochaeris radicata 60.1 E P F ASTERACEAEDanthonia sp. 50.6 N P G POACEAEPaspalum dilatatum 36.6 E P G POACEAETrifolium repens 33.7 E P F FABACEAETrifolium arvense 32.1 E A F FABACEAEPoa sieberiana 29.6 N P G ' POACEAEImperata cylindrica 28.8 N P G POACEAEPhalaris aquatica 28.8 E P G POACEAECarex sp. 27.2 N P F CYPERACEAEFestuca elatior 27.2 E P G POACEAEVulpia sp. 27.2 E A G POACEAEGnaphalium sphaericum 25.5 E A F ASTERACEAETrifolium campestre 24.7 E A F FABACEAELolium sp. 23.9 E A & P G POACEAEGeranium solanderi 22.2 N P F GERANIACEAEConyza sp. 21.8 E A F ASTERACEAEAvena fatua 21.4 E A G POACEAEBulbine bulbosa 18.5 N P F ASPHODELACEAECynodon dactylon 17.3 N (?) P G POACEAEHolcus lanatus 16.9 E P G POACEAEWahlenbergia sp. 15.6 P N F CAMPANULACEAECrepis capillaris 14.8 E A or P F ASTERACEAEA cetosella vulgaris 14.4 E P F POLYGONACEAEAsperula conferta 14.4 N P F RUBIACEAEBothriochloa macra 14.4 N n P G POACEAEAgrostis avenacea 14.0 N A or P G POACEAEEleusine tristachya 14.0 E A or P G POACEAEOxalis sp. 13.6 N P F OXALIDACEAEDianthus armeria 13.2 E A F CARYOPHYLLACEAEGlycine sp. 13.2 N P F FABACEAEVerbena bonariensis 13.2 E P F VERBENACEAELeucanthemum vulgare 12.8 E P F ASTERACEAEAmmobium alatum 11.1 N P F ASTERACEAEThemeda australis 11.1 N P G POACEAECirsium vulgare 10.7 E B F ASTERACEAEAcaena ovina 10.3 N P F ROSACEAEJuncus sp. 10.3 N&E A&P F JUNCACEAEPanicum effusum 9.9 N P G POACEAEEpilobium billardierianum 9.5 N P F ONAGRACEAE
Appendix 1 122
Vicia sativa 9.5 E A F FABACEAEHaloragis heterophylla 9.1 N P F HALORAGACEAELepidium sp. 9.1 N & E A,B & P B RAS SICACEAEMicrolaena stipoides 9.1 N P G POACEAESetaria sp. 9.1 E A & P G POACEAEEragrostis curvula 8.6 E P G POACEAESonchus oleraceus 8.6 E A F ASTERACEAEVittadinia dissecta 8.6 N A or P F ASTERACEAETolpis umbellata 8.2 E A or P F ASTERACEAEAristida ramosa 7.8 N P G POACEAEMalva parviflora 7.8 E A F MALVACEAESpergularia rubra 7.4 E A or B F CARYOPHYLLACEAEParonychia brasiliana 7.0 E P F CARYOPHYLLACEAEDactylis glomerata 6.6 E P G POACEAEOenothera sp. 6.6 N&E A&P F&S ONAGRACEAEAnthoxanthum odoratum 6.2 E A or P G POACEAEBromus cartharticus 5.8 E A or P G POACEAEEragrostis sp. 5.8 N&E A&P G POACEAETaraxacum officinale 5.8 E B or P F ASTERACEAEVerbascum thapsus 5.8 E B F SCROPHULARIACEAEElymus scaber 5.3 N P G POACEAEHydrocotyle laxzflora 5.3 N P F APIACEAEDichondra repens 4.9 N P F CONVOLVULACEAELomandra sp. 4.9 N P F LOMANDRACEAERumex sp. 4.9 E A & P F POLYGONACEAEBriza minor 4.5 E A G POACEAESanguisorba minor 4.5 E P F ROSACEAEAnagallis arvensis 4.1 E A or P F PRIMULACEAEBromus diandrus 4.1 E A G POACEAEChloris truncata 4.1 N P G POACEAEPolygonum patulum 4.1 E P F POLYGONACEAESorghum leiocladum 4.1 N P G POACEAESporobolous creber 4.1 N P G POACEAEBriza maxima 3.7 E A G POACEAERubus parvifolius 3.7 N B or P S ROSACEAEDianella sp. 3.3 N P F PHORMIACEAERubus fruticosus 3.3 E B or P S ROSACEAECheilanthes austrotenuifolia 2.9 N P F SINOPTERIDACEAE
Poa pratensis 2.9 E P G POACEAEPseudo gnaphaliumluteoalbum
2.9 N A F ASTERACEAE
Gnaphalium coarctatum 2.5 E A or B F ASTERACEAEChrysocephalumapiculatum
2.5 N P F ASTERACEAE
Persicaria maculosa 2.5 E A or P F POLYGONACEAEAnthemis cotula 2.1 E A F ASTERACEAECyperus eragrostis 2.1 E P F CYPERACEAECyperus sp. 2.1 N&E A&P F CYPERACEAEDichelachne micrantha 2.1 N P G POACEAEPultenaea microphylla 2.1 N P S FABACEAEMarrubium vulgare 1.6 E P S LAMIACEAE
Avvendix 1
123Plantago gaudichaudii 1.6 N P F PLANTAGINACEAEPteridium esculentum 1.6 N P F DENNSTAEDTIACEAETrifolium pratense 1.6 E P F FABACEAEVerbascum virgatum 1.6 E B F SCROPHULARIACEAEChenopodium album 1.2 E A F CHENOPODIACEAEDaviesia latifolia 1.2 N P S FABACEAEDesmodium varians 1.2 N P F FABACEAEDigitaria sanguinalis 1.2 E A G POACEAEHibbertia sp. 1.2 N P S DILLENIACEAEMelichrus urceolatus 1.2 E P S EPACRIDACEAEPimelea sp. 1.2 N P S THYMELIACEAEPrunella vulgaris 1.2 E P F LAMIACEAEPsoralea tenax 1.2 N P F FABACEAERumex brownii 1.2 N P F POLYGONACEAECiclospermum leptophyllum 0.8 E A F APIACEAEArrhenatherum elatius 0.8 E P G POACEAEBursaria spinosa 0.8 N P S PM'OSPORACEAECentaurium erythraea 0.8 E A F GENTIANACEAEConvolvulus erubescens. 0.8 N P F CONVOLVULACEAEEragrostis cilianensis 0.8 E A G POACEAEHirschfeldia incana 0.8 E A or B F BRASSICACEAEHyparrhenia hirtu 0.8 E P G POACEAELespedeza juncea 0.8 N P F/S FABACEAELissanthe strigosa 0.8 N P S EPACRIDACEAERumex crispus 0.8 E P F POLYGONACEAEAira cupaniana 0.4 E A G POACEAEAngophora floribunda 0.4 N P T MYRTACEAEBrachyloma daphnoides 0.4 N P S EPACRIDACEAEBromus sp. 0.4 E A G POACEAEHordeum leporinum 0.4 E A G POACEAECymbopogon refractus 0.4 N P G POACEAEDillwynia sp. 0.4 N P S FABACEAEEucalyptus blakelyi 0.4 N P T MYRTACEAEJacksonia scoparia 0.4 N P S FABACEAELactuca saligna 0.4 E A or B F ASTERACEAEMedicago sativa 0.4 E P F FABACEAESolanum nigrum 0.4 E P S SOLANACEAEZornia dyctiocarpa 0.4 N P F FABACEAE
Appendix 2 124APPENDIX 2. Collection of data for regression of emergence of seedlingsin a native grass trial conducted 5 km north of Armidale, NSW, on ClunyRoad, and at the Traffic Education Centre, Armidale.
Variable Used For Regression Against Emergence
The following table shows the dependent variable and independent variables used in the
regression analyses. The dependent variable was increase in % emergence and the independent
variables were associated with the experimental design and environmental variables. Threeseparate analyses were carried out for the 3 species. Further notes in this appendix explainhow the dependent and independent variables were measured.
Table A.1. List of the Dependent Variable and Independent Variables Used in
the Regression Analysis.
Label Variable Units/Class
y (dependent) Increase in percent emergence 0 - 100
xl Plot 1 - 7
x2 Replicate 1 - 4
x3 Sowing time 1 - 9
x4 Rainfall event Number 1 - 8
x5 Amount of rain in event millimetres
x6 Emergence event number 1 - 4
x7 Time from sowing to emergence event Days
x8 Time from last rainfall event to emergence
eventDays
x9 Subplot slope 1 1 - 6
x10 Subplot slope 2 1 - 6
xll Soil surface 1 - 17
x12 Infiltration rate for plot millimetres per hour
x13 Minimum temperature Degrees celsius
x14 Maximum temperature Degrees celsius
y. Increase in Percentage Emergence
This was calculated by expressing the number of emerged seedlings as a percentage of the
theoretical maximum that could possibly emerge. For example, if 12 out of a possible
maximum of 75 seeds (16%) emerged initially, the next emergence of 12 out of a possible
maximum of 63 seeds would represent 19%.
Appendix 2 125x 1. x2. & x3. Plots, replicates and sowing times Plots, replicates and sowing times are explained in the chapter on the grass establishment trial.
x4 & x5. Rainfall Events. Rainfall events were deemed as rainfall which occurred over one or a few days which was
followed by a noticeable increase in emergence of seedlings. During the experimental period 7
'significant' rainfall events were identified and are tabulated in the grass establishment trial
chapter.
x6. Emergence NumberFor any emergence event, a number 1, 2, 3, or 4 was designated according to whether it
was the first, second, third or fourth emergence in response to rainfall events from the 75
seeds sown in that particular subplot.
x7 & x8. Time From Sowing to Emergence and Time of Last Rain to Emergence
Time from sowing to emergence was calculated simply by counting the days. Time of the
last rainfall event to the next emergence event was calculated by counting the days from thefirst day of the relevant rainfall event to the last day of the relevant emergence event.
x9 & x10. Subplot slope 1 and 2.
Microtopography was measured on 8th September 1993. In the middle of each subplot, that
is, the subplot for each monthly sowing time within each replicate of each plot, a spirit leveland a ruler were used to measure the relief parallel to the rows and at right angles to the rows.
These were designated as slope 1 and slope 2 respectively and the results were classed as
shown in the table below.
Table A.3. Classification of Microrelief within Subplots of the Grass
Establishment Trial.
Slope Relief for slope 1(0.75m) or slope 2 (1.0m) Class,
Flat 1
one-way slope: 0 - 5cm relief 2
one-way slope:6 - 10cm relief 3
one-way slope:11 -15cm relief 4
Sides up, middle down 5
Sides down, middle up 6
x11. Soil Surface
On 8th September 1993 each subplot was subjected to a visual and 'finger test' assessment
of the soil surface condition and each plot placed in a category. Details of these categories arelisted in the following table.
Appendix 2 126
Table A.4. Soil Surface Categories and Features of Subplots in the Grass
Establishment Trial.
Category Features
1 Hardsetting
2 Hardsetting, large surface mulch
3 Hardsetting, crusting, large surface mulch
4 Hardsetting, small and large surface mulch
5 Hardsetting, large surface mulch, soft surface
6 Hardsetting, crusting, small and large surface mulch
7 Hardsetting, crusting, large mulch and soft surface
8 Hardsetting, small and large surface mulch, soft surface
9 Hardsetting, crusting, crusting subsoil, large surface mulch, soft surface
10 Hardsetting crusting, small and large surface mulch, soft surface
11 Crusting, small and large surface mulch
12 Crusting, large mulch and soft surface
13 Crusting, small and large mulch, soft surface
14 Crusting subsoil, small surface mulch, soft surface
15 Crusting subsoil, large mulch, soft surface
16 Crusting subsoil, small and large surface mulch, soft surface
17 Large mulch and soft surface
Explanatory Notes,
Hardsetting - like concrete, finger cannot depress at all.
Large surface mulch - aggregates of over 2mm diameter loose on soil surface.
Crusting - thin crust of less than lmm width on soil surface.Small surface mulch, - aggregates of 2mm diameter or less loose on soil surface.
Soft Surface - finger pressure easily depresses.Crusting subsoil - subsoil forming a crust of lmm or greater on soil surface.
Because of the great variation in soil surface conditions at the subplot scale, 17 categories were
required to include the various combinations of the features listed above.
x12. Infiltrati n Rat- erf rmed s K Greenwood D .• artment of A r nom and Soil
Science, University of New England,Armidale. and CSIRO, Armidale)
The water infiltration rate was measured in selected adjacent duplicate subplots in each of
the seven plots on the 16th and 27th October 1993. A disc permeameter (Perroux and White
1988) was used to measure unsaturated hydraulic conductivity at 40, 30, 20 and 10mm
tensions using the method of Ankeny et al. (1991). Saturated hydraulic conductivity (ie.
tension of 0 mm) was extrapolated from these results assuming a log-linear relationship
Appendix 2 127between hydraulic conductivity and tension (Gardner 1958). The following table shows theresults of these measurements and also measurements from "Lana" (a local property on granite
soil) and the CSIRO station "Chiswick" (on trap soil) near Armidale.
Table A.5. Unsaturated and saturated hydraulic conductivity (mm/h) of the
seven plots used in the grass establishment trial; means of two adjacent
samples.
Tension (mm)
Plot/
Sample
Adjacent subplots where
measurements taken in each
plot.
40 30 20 10 0
Bank Rep 1, Dec. & Feb. 1.1 1.7 3.9 29.3 55.0
Old Road Rep. 3, May & Oct. 2.2 3.5 6.6 11.8 20.3
Flat Unripped Rep. 4, Nov. & Dec. 2.7 3.8 6.1 11.7 17.5
Flat Ripped Rep. 3, Sep. & Jan 5.1 7.0 11.5 19.2 28.6
Table Drain Rep. 4, Nov. & Apr. 6.3 7.7 13.4 38.0 55.0
Skid Pan Rep. 2, Nov. & Apr. 8.1 11.7 19.3 29.1 45.0
Top Bank Rep. 1, Jan & Feb. 5.0 7.0 13.8 44.0 73.0
"Chiswick" - high
grazing
6.1 9.3 20.5 69.0
"Chiswick" - ungrazed
2.2 5.2 32.0 233.0
"Lana" 14.3 22.4 48.0 122.0
x13 & x14. Minimum and Maximum Ambient Temperatures
Minimum and maximum temperatures were defined as those measured in the Stevenson
screen for the period from the beginning of the relevant rainfall event to the end of theemergence event.
Appendix 3 128
APPENDIX 3
A MANAGEMENT GUIDE FOR ROADSIDE VEGETATION ALONG THE NEW ENGLAND
HIGHWAY
by Charles Huxtable
Botany Department, University of New EnglandArmidale, NSW. 2351
June 1993
Appendix 3 129INTRODUCTION
This guide has been designed to enable road managers to identify different classes ofroadside site based primarily on road construction features and the vegetation present in theroad reserve. For each site class, strategies have been designed to manipulate the existing
vegetation in order to achieve, or maintain, appropriate native vegetation assemblages.
Supplementary information concerning the physical features of each class is listed, as well
as commonly encountered plant species. Conservation value and aesthetic quality of each class
are given ratings of high, medium or low, and the need for revegetation and the need for soil
conservation work are given ratings of urgent, necessary or not required. For each site class,
an example in the Armidale district is given. Details are also provided of the recommended
strategy for each class of roadside site.
DEFINITION OF A ROADSIDE SITE
A roadside site is defined as an area of not less than 40 metres long parallel to the tarmac, on
one side of the road (Figure 1). The roadside site has been divided into two sections according
to proximity to the road. The first section contains road construction features includingthe road verge (shoulder), table drain, and sometimes a cutting or an embankment (Figures 2
and 3). The second section, the road reserve, includes the area from the side of the tabledrain furthest from the road, the top of a cutting, or the bottom of an embankment, to the
boundary fence of the roadside reserve. (Figures 2 and 3). The following key is designed to
assist in the classification of the road reserve into a number of classes. Road reserve
characteristics and management strategies for each road reserve class are suggested in separate
sections of this guide. The road construction features (road shoulder, table drain, cutting and
embankment) are not included in this key. These have specific characteristics, and require
special management strategies which are outlined in the sections on characteristics and
management strategies for road construction features.
SITE 1
ioVariable width4
. •
SITE 240m
Variable width n.14
•
Fence
Fence
---..■ Verge ISr
Table drain -4Pr
*I HSITE 2
ROAD ROAD CONSTRUCTION FEATURESRESERVE /
1 1 Tarmac4.—■ 41110=111===■■1111100.
SITE 1
ROADRESERVE
4
Appendix 3 130
FIGURE 1: LAYOUT OF 2 ROADSIDE SUES
FIGURE 2 : GENERAL PROFILE OF 2 ROADSIDE SI'Z'ES
FENC
FENCE
RORD ROAD CONSTRUCTIONRESERVE ROAD CONSTRUCTION FEATURESFEATURES Tarmac
41.111"1111/ 1/11"111111'11111"111111m.'.."1111
ROADRESERVE
Cuttina
Tarmac
Embankment Table drain /1r Verge
(Shoulder) nc
SITE 1 4 SITE 2 •
enC
e
Appendix 3 131
FIGURE 3: PROFILE OF 2 SITES INCLUDING A CUTTING AND AN EMBANKMENT
USE OF A SIMPLE KEY (based on Wheeler, D.J.B., et al.. (1990). Grasses of New South Wales , 2nd Edition)
A key is an artificial device whereby a choice is provided between (usually 2) contradictory
propositions about a particular roadside site, resulting in the acceptance of one and the
rejection of the other(s). The key actually divides a large group of 'possible' roadside sites into
groups, one of which is chosen as being more likely to include the particular roadside site than
the other group(s). The groups become progressively smaller until, after making a number ofchoices, a class is chosen for that site. In this key, the final choice identifies a class which canbe confirmed by comparing the characteristics of the site in question with the list of site
characteristics provided.
Appendix 3 132It is possible to construct keys to identify almost anything, for instance a geometric shape.
Because such shapes are so familiar, an example of a key to shapes may be helpful to anyone
using a key for the first time. Suppose the shape below is to be identified:
In the key below a choice is made between 1 and 1*. Because alternative 1* describes the
shape best it is chosen and the next choice is made between 4 and 4*. As 4 fits it is chosen and
a name, SHADED SQUARE, obtained. All the alternatives between 1* and 4 are ignored.
1. A shape with 3 sides 2
1*. A shape with 4 sides 4
2. A shaded shape SHADED TRIANGLE
2*. A non-shaded shape 3
3. Contains dots SPO1 1ED TRIANGLE
3*. No dots present
PLAIN TRIANGLE
4. A shaded shape SHADED SQUARE
4*. A non-shaded shape 5
5. With dots SPO i IED SQUARE
5*. Without dots PLAIN SQUARE
Although this is a very simple key it illustrates how, by choosing one of the two alternatives
available at each step, it is possible to satisfactorily name the figure. The key above is termed a'dichotomous' key because there are only two choices available at each step, though eachchoice may include more than one feature.
KEY TO ROAD RESERVES
1 Sites with all native vegetation cover:- CLASS A 1* Sites with at least 10% exotic vegetation cover 2
2 Sites which have been scalped:- CLASS B2* Sites with a good cover of vegetation - 3
Appendix 3 1333 Sites dominated by tall exotic perennial grasses:- CLASS C,3* Sites otherwise - 4
4 Sites with fairly well-defined patches of exotic and native understorey:
4* Sites with a fairly homogenous mixture of exotic and native understorey:-CLASS D
CLASS E
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
The site characteristics mentioned in this section are based primarily on observations and on
data collected during surveys carried out within 50km of Armidale. Some information
regarding species present in particular classes has been obtained from the results of other
surveys in the Armidale region.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD RESERVE CLASSES
CLASS A - NATIVE SPECIES DOMINANT. - reserves which are dominated entirely by native species - grasslands, shrubs, trees - alone,
or in any combination
- good ground cover, high or low nutrient soils, often high species diversity, especially on
low-fertility soil, sometimes rare species present, often higher occurrence of these reserves
adjacent to country less suitable for agriculture, often included in TSRs.
- highest species diversity is often in native reserves with a good tree cover.
- in addition to those species mentioned below, many others including rare species, may be
present.Commonly Encountered Species:,
Native Grasses: Aristida spp.(Wiregrass, Threeawn), Bothriochloa macra (Redgrass),Cymbopogon refractus (Barbed Wire Grass), Danthonia spp.(Wallaby Grass),Dichelachne micrantha (Shorthair Plumegrass), Elymus scaber (Common Wheatgrass),Microlaena stipoides (Weeping Grass), Poa sieberiana (Snowgrass), Sorghum leiocladum
(Native Sorghum), Sporobolus creber (Slender Rat's Tail Grass), Stipa spp.(Speargrasses), Themeda australis (Kangaroo Grass),
Native Herbs: Asperula conferta (Common Woodruff), Bulbine bulbosa (Bulbine Lily),
Desmodium spp. (Tick Trefoils), Diuris pedunculata (Donkey Orchid), Glycine spp.,
Lespedeza juncea, Thysanotus tuberosus (Common Fringe Lily), other orchids and lilies.
Native Shrubs: Cassinia spp, Daviesia latifolia (Bitter Pea), Dodonaea
spp.(Hopbushes), Bursaria spinosa (Blackthorn).
Native Trees: Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle), A. filicifolia (Fern-Leaved Wattle), A.
implexa (Hickory Wattle), A. melanoxylon (Blackwood), A. rubida (Red-leaved Wattle) ,other Acacia spp., Eucalyptus blakelyi (Blakely's Red Gum), E. bridgesiana (Apple
Appendix 3 13 4Box), E. caliginosa (New England Stringybark), E. melliodora (Yellow Box), E. nova-
anglica (New England Peppermint), E. pauciflora (Snow Gum), E. stellulata (Black Sally),E. viminalis (Manna Gum), other Eucalyptus spp. etc.
Conservation value: -high
Aesthetic quality: -high
Revegetation:, -not required
Soil Conservation works: -not required
Example: TSR 45 km south of Armidale on New England Highway
CLASS B.
- bare reserves which have been scalped during roadworks, low nutrients (no topsoil), nolitter, often low groundcover, high soil temperature, high light intensity, dry (ie. well-drainedor low water penetration into soil), generally harsh conditions.
Commonly Encountered Species:
Native Grasses: Bothriochloa macra (Redgrass), Chloris truncata (Windmill Grass),
Danthonia richardsonii and other Danthonia spp.(Wallaby Grasses).
Exotic Herbs: *Conyza spp., *Hypochaeris radicata, *Plantago lanceolate (Plantain)
Native Herbs: Chrysocephalum apiculatum, Convolvulus erubescens (Bindweed),
Helipterum spp., Vittadinia dissecta (Fuzzweed).
Subshrubs: Hardenbergia violacea, Pultanaea microphylla.
Shrubs: Cassinia spp., Dodonaea spp., Jacksonia scoparia (Dogwood).
Trees: Eucalypts and/or Acacias may be present in various numbers.
Conservation value: -low
Aesthetic quality: -low
Revegetation: -urgentSoil Conservation works: -urgent
Example: top of roadside cutting 15km N of Armidale on NE Hwy
CLASS C. - reserves dominated by tall exotic perennial grasses, and tall annual dicots with a very fewshort or scrambling herbs, and often few, if any, trees present.
- low species diversity, few (if any) native species, high litter accumulation, often water or
nutrient- enriched by man-made drains, runoff from road, or fertiliser from adjacent improved
pasture.
- adjacent land is often improved farmland.
- often occur on disturbed soils of high fertility
Commonly Encountered Species:
Exotic Grasses: *Dactylis glomerata (Cocksfoot), *Eragrostis curvula # (AfricanLovegrass), *Festuca elatior (Tall Fescue) , *Hyparrhenia hirta # (Coolatai Grass)# ,
*Paspalum dilatatum (Paspalum), *Phalaris aquatica (Phalaris),
(# = species which represent a threat to adjacent farmland by invading from the road
reserve)
Appendix 3 135Exotic Herbs: Rumex crispus (Curled Dock), *Verbena bonariensis (Purple
Top), *Verbascum thapsus (Great Mullein), *Vicia sativa (Common Vetch).
Native Herbs: Asperula conferta (Common Woodruff)
Native Trees: Eucalypts and/or Acacias may be absent or present in small numbers.
Conservation vane: -low
Aesthetic quality: -low
Revegetation: -necessary
Soil Conservation works: -not required
Example,: -Tilbuster TSR about 3km N of Newholme turnoff on Hwy, large areas of
roadside between Armidale and Uralla.
CLASS D,
- often patchily disturbed reserves with a wide variety of habitat types, such as drainage lines,
burned areas, scalped areas, etc.
- reserves where there is a patchy mosaic of native and exotic pastures
- trees may or may not be present
Commonly Encountered Dominant Species:
Exotic Patches: tall exotic perennial grasses and tall annual dicots in the exotic areas.
Exotic Grasses: *Dactylis glomerata (Cocksfoot), *Eragrostis curvula # (African
Lovegrass), *Festuca elatior (Tall Fescue) , *Hyparrhenia hirta # (Coolatai Grass)# ,
*Paspalum dilatatum (Paspalum), *Phalaris aquatica (Phalaris),
(# = species which represent a threat to adjacent farmland by invading from the road
reserve)
Exotic Herbs: Rumex crispus (Curled Dock), *Verbena bonariensis (Purple
Top),*Verbascum thapsus (Great Mullein), *Vicia sativa (Common Vetch).
Native Patches: - a wide range of native grasses and herbs.
Native Grasses: Imperata cylindrica (Blady Grass), Poa spp. (Snow Grass), Sorghum
leiocladum (Native Sorghum), Themeda australis (Kangaroo Grass), and many others.
Native Herbs: a wide range.
Native Trees: Eucalypts and/or Acacias may be present in various numbers.
Conservation value: -medium
Aesthetic quality:, -medium
Revegetation: -necessary, but difficult
Soil Conservation works:, - not required
Example: TSR between road and railway line lkm north of Uralla.
CLASS E
- reserves where there is an homogeneous mix of native and exotic understorey
- often not highly fertile reserves, with less vigorous species present, but a greater diversity of
species than on Class C reserves (see above).
- trees may or may not be present
Commonly Encountered Species:
Appendix 3 136Exotic Grasses: *Bromus hordeaceus , *Bromus molliformis (Annual Brome species),
often other exotic species present.
Native Grasses: Bothriochloa macra (Redgrass), Dichelachne micrantha (Shorthair
Plumegrass), Elymus scaber (Common Wheatgrass), often other native species present.
Exotc Herbs: a wide range of exotic herbs
Native Herbs: a wide range of native herbs.
Trees: Eucalypts and/or Acacias may be present in various numbers.
Conservation value: -medium
Aesthetic quality: -low
Revegetation:, - necessary, but difficult
Soil Conservation works: -not required
Example: PLC tree planting reserve in TSR just south of Station Road on NE Hwy.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
ROAD SHOULDER
- an extremely harsh environment for plants, experiencing high temperatures, rocky infertile
subsoil used in road base, subject to water runoff from tarmac, including oil, petrol, lead, and
bitumen products, subject to periodic disturbances such as slashing, spraying and being run
over by vehicles.
Commonly Encountered Species:.
Exotic Grasses: *Avena barbata (Bearded Oats), *Avena fatua (Wild Oats), *Chloris
virgata (Feathertop Rhodes Grass), *Cynodon dactylon (Couch), *Eleusine tristachya
(Crabgrass),*Eragrostis curvula (African Lovegrass),*Vu/pia bromoides (Squirrel Tail
Fescue), *Vulpia muralis ,*Vulpia myuros (Rat's Tail Fescue).
Native Grasses: Chloris truncata (Windmill Grass), Danthonia richardsonii (Wallaby
Grass), POSSIBLE NATIVE -Eragrostis 'red' (species name is yet to be confirmed),
Exotic Herbs: *Conyza spp. (Fleabane), *Hypochaeris radicata (Flatweed), *Oenothera
spp. (Evening Primrose), *Paronychia brasiliana (Chilean Whitlow Wort), *Spergularia
rubra (Sand Spurry),
Native Herbs: Ammobium alatum (Paper Daisy), Geranium solanderi. (Native
Geranium), Wahlenbergia communis (Tufted Bluebell), Wahlenbergia luteola. (Native
Bluebell).
Native Subshrubs: Hardenbergia violacea (False Sarsaparilla)
(Note: * indicates an exotic species)
Conservation value: low
Aesthetic quality:, low
Revegetation: urgent
Soil Conservation works: urgent
Example: numerous road shoulders along the New England Highway
Appendix 3 137TABLE DRAIN
- these are of variable depth and width, and often penetrate the subsoil, which may vary withthe overall soil type. They are subject to periodic waterlogging - the extent and ocurrence ofthese events depending on rainfall, soil type, catchment and other features. Soil in drains isoften enriched through siltation and nutrient runoff from the road (Phosphorus leachate from
bitumen?). Table drains may be subject to periodic disturbances such as grading and spraying.
Commonly Encountered Species:. Large numbers of annual and perennial grass andherb species can be encountered:
Exotic Grasses: *Aira cupaniana (Silvery Hairgrass), *Briza maxima (QuakingGrass), *Briza minor (Shivery Grass), *Bromus diandrus (Great Brome), *Holcus lanatus
(Yorkshire Fog), *Panicum gilvum (Sweet Panic), *Paspalum dilatatum
(Paspalum), *Setaria gracilis (Slender Pigeon Grass), *Setaria viridis (Green Pigeon
Grass)
Native Grasses: Agrostis avenacea (Blowngrass), Panicum effusum (Hairy Panic),
Exotic Herbs: *Crepis capillaris (Smooth Hawksbeard), *Cyperus spp. (Exotic Sedges
and Rushes), *Juncus spp. (Exotic Sedges and Rushes), *Sonchus oleraceus (Common
Sowthistle), *Taraxacum officinalis (Dandelion), *Tolpis umbellata
Native Herbs: Cyperus spp. (Native Sedges and Rushes), Epilobium billardierianum
(Willow Herb), Haloragis heterophylla , Juncus spp. (Native Sedges and Rushes).
Conservation value: low
Aesthetic quality: low
Revegetation: urgent
Soil Conservation works: urgent
Example: numerous table drains along the New England Highway
CUTTING- very dry, often very sparsely vegetated or bare, often rocky with subsoil exposed, often very
close to the edge of the tarmac, higher than tarmac level.
Commonly Encountered Species:Native Grasses: Danthonia richardsonii, other Danthonia spp.
Native Subshrubs: Hardenbergia violacea
Native Shrubs: Pultanaea microphylla (Egg and Bacon Pea), Daviesia genistifolia
(Broom Bitter Pea).
Conservation value: -medium
Aesthetic quality: -low
Revegetation:, -urgent
Soil Conservation works: -necessary to urgent
Example: numerous cuttings along the highway
Appendix 3 138EMBANKMENT
- often very dry, but subject to water runoff from bitumen, often very sparsely vegetated orbare, often rocky, and with imported subsoil, often very close to the edge of the tarmac, lower
than tarmac level.Commonly encountered species:
Exotic Grasses: *Avena fatua, *Avena barbata, numerous annual grasses in spring and
summer.
Exotic Herbs: *Conyza spp.,*Oenothera spp., *Rubus fruticosus (Blackberry),*Verbena bonariensis (Purpletop),
Native Herbs: Geranium solanderi,
Native Subshrubs: Hardenbergia violacea
Conservation value: -low
Aesthetic quality:, -low
Revegetation: - urgent
Soil Conservation works: -urgent
Example: numerous embankments along the highway
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
The following nine management strategies have been devised for the roadside vegetation
within 50km of Armidale on the Northern Tablelands of NSW. The distances from the tarmac
that different strata of vegetation can be planted is based on the Delineation Policy of the RTA,
Tamworth. The strategies recommended for both the roadside reserve and road design features
are bounded by this delineation policy. Some of these strategies have a sound experimental
basis from extensive planting trials by the Armidale Tree Group and Greening Australia while
others, particularly those related to grass and herbaceous species, have not been adequately
tested and at this stage, must be regarded as speculative.
STRATEGIES FOR CLASSES OF ROAD RESERVE
CLASS A
- In some cases trees and shrubs which are growing too close to the road will need to be
cleared, but otherwise these reserves should be left alone and protected. Some minimal formsof disturbance, e.g., infrequent light grazing for short periods, or low-intensity and low
frequency burning may help to maintain plant species diversity.
CLASS B
- revegetate with good colonising species. Because nutrient and water status are low,
disturbance with machinery such as deep ripping should not cause weed problems, and careful
reserve preparation should not damage the natives which are already there.
Appendix 3 139Recommended speciesfor up to 6 metres from the edge of the tarmac (vegetation to 20cm tall):
grasses: Chloris truncata
herbs: Convolvulus erubescens, Vittadinia triloba, Chrysocephalum apiculatum,
Helipterum spp.
subshrubs: Pultanaea microphylla,
# for between 6 and 9 metres from the edge of the tarmac (vegetation to 2m tall):
more of the above, as well as
grasses: Danthonia richardsonii,
Bothriochloa macra, Aristida ramosa
shrubs and trees (to 2m tall): Dodonaea spp., Cassinia spp., Jacksonia scoparia,
Bursaria spinosa, Acacia spp.
for areas more than 9 metres from the road: (Vegetation to 30m tall)
more of the above, as well as
trees: Acacia melanoxylon, A. filicifolia, A. dealbata, A. rubida, A. implexa.
# Note: On inside curves where overtaking is prohibited, trees can be planted no closer than
30 metres from the tarmac. Shrubs may be planted between 6 and 30 metres from the road in
these situations. This rule applies to all classes of reserve and road construction features.
CLASS C
- coarse reserve preparation such as slashing, spraying, scalping, burning or deep ripping, at
the appropriate time. Preferable to try to reduce nutrient and moisture capital. Revegetate with
fast-growing competitive species. This reserve class represents the most difficult to modify
from tall growing exotic species to low growing natives. Special techniques such as profile
inversion may be necessary.Recommended species
for up to 6 metres from the edge of the tarmac (vegetation to 20cm tall):
grasses : Chloris truncata
herbs: Rubus parvifolius, Asperula conferta, Acaena ovina, Acaena novea-zelandiae,
Geranium solanderi.
for between 6 and 9 metres from the edge of the tarmac: (vegetation to 2m tall)
more of the above, as well as grasses: Microlaena stipoides (Weeping Grass), Poa sieberiana/labillardieri, Sorghum
leiocladum, Themeda australis
herbs: Dianella spp., Lomandra spp.
shrubs and trees: Acacia spp., Cassinia spp., Bursaria spinosa
for areas more than 9 metres from the road: (vegetation to 30m tall)
more of the above, as well as
trees (2m - 30m tall): Eucalyptus viminalis, E. blakelyi, E. pauciflora, E. stellulata, E.
nova-anglica, E. melliodora, E. bridgesiana, E. caliginosa, Angophora floribunda, Acacia
melanoxylon, A. filicifolia, A. dealbata, A. rubida, A. implexa.
Appendix 3 140
CLASS D- Exotic patches - treat as for Class C reserves.
- Native patches - identify and leave alone or plant trees and/or shrubs of up to 2m tall with
minimal disturbance.
Recommended species
for up to 6 metres from the edge of the tarmac : LEAVE ALONE
for between 6 and 9 metres from the edge of the tarmac: (to 2m tall)
shrubs and trees : Acacia spp., Cassinia spp., Bursaria spinosa
for areas more than 9 metres from the road:
more of the above, as well as
trees (2m - 30m tall): Eucalyptus viminalis, E. blakelyi, E. pauciflora, E. stellulata, E.
nova-anglica, E. melliodora, E. bridgesiana, E. caliginosa, Angophora floribunda, Acacia
melanoxylon, A. filicifolia, A. dealbata, A. rubida, A. implexa.
CLASS E
- minimal disturbance planting of shrubs and/or trees to 2m tall by hand, management
techniques to reduce exotic component and increase natives, such as slashing the taller Bromus
leaving the shorter Bothriochloa. Shading by trees may also help to reduce the exotic grasses.
Burning reserves in early to mid winter will probably stimulate the growth of the undesirable
winter annuals and should be avoided.
Recommended species
for up to 6 metres from the edge of the tarmac : LEAVE ALONE
for between 6 and 9 metres from the edge of the tarmac: (vegetation to 2m tall)
shrubs and trees : Acacia spp., Cassinia spp., Bursaria spinosa
for areas more than 9 metres from the road: (vegetation to 30m tall)
more of the above, as well as
trees (2m - 30m tall): Eucalyptus viminalis, E. blakelyi, E. pauciflora, E. stellulata, E.
nova-anglica, E. melliodora, E. bridgesiana, E. caliginosa, Angophora floribunda, Acacia
melanoxylon, A. filicifolia, A. dealbata, A. rubida, A. implexa.
STRATEGIES FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
SHOULDER
- If weeds are dense, remove by spraying and/or slashing at the correct time of year for the
species involved, (eg. spring - early summer for most annuals), then sow with low growing
species with a maximum height of 30cm. If weeds are not dense, sow seed without spraying.
Promising results have been obtained from very small scale sowing trials with the grass
species listed below.
Recommended species:
grasses: Chloris truncata (Windmill Grass), Danthonia richardsonii (Wallaby Grass),
Eragrostis 'red' (? Native Lovegrass)
Appendix 3 1 41herbs: Wahlenbergia communis, Wahlenbergia luteola (Native Bluebells)Geranium solanderi (Native Geranium), Chrysocephalum apiculatum (Yellow Buttons).subshrubs: Hardenbergia violacea
TABLE DRAIN,
- remove weeds by spraying or grading, revegetate with low growing and ground covering
native species with a maximum height of 30cm. The species listed below are commonly found
in table drains but as yet none has been tested in sowing trials.
Recommended Species:
grasses: Hemarthria uncinata (Matgrass) if drain is usually wet or damp.
herbs: Epilobium billardierianum (Willow Herb), native species of the Juncaceae andCyperaceae families.
CUTTING,
- stabilise by hydromulching and/or bitumen spraying, plant with ground covering and
colonising species to lm tall.
Recommended species:
grasses : Danthonia richardsonii
subshrubs : Hardenbergia violacea, Pultanaea microphylla
shrubs : Cassinia spp. and Dodonaea spp.
EMBANKMENT
- stabilise by hydromulching and/or bitumen spraying, plant with ground covering colonising
species to a height of 2m.
Recommended species:
grasses : Danthonia richardsonii
subshrubs : Hardenbergia violacea, Pultanaea microphylla
shrubs : Cassinia spp. and Dodonaea spp.
