SOCIETYSOCIETY

ANDAND

THE INDIVIDUALTHE INDIVIDUAL

modern theories question the view that modern theories question the view that literature is something separate from the world literature is something separate from the world or that it simply reflects the worldor that it simply reflects the world

literature is not aesthetically detached: it is literature is not aesthetically detached: it is as much a part of reality as a reflection on itas much a part of reality as a reflection on it

four approaches: four approaches: class, gender, sexual class, gender, sexual identity, subjectivityidentity, subjectivity

IntroductionIntroduction

the issue of class is the issue of class is usually ignoredusually ignored because because of the individuals who represent universal of the individuals who represent universal qualitiesqualities

the main focus of the plot is usually on the the main focus of the plot is usually on the behaviour of individual charactersbehaviour of individual characters

questions of class can be neglected or questions of class can be neglected or subordinated, which reinforces the status quosubordinated, which reinforces the status quo

Marx Marx - cultural artefacts are largely designed - cultural artefacts are largely designed to reinforce the interests of the privileged classto reinforce the interests of the privileged class

ClassClass

Marx - privileged vs the exploited classMarx - privileged vs the exploited classculture is a product of economic and social culture is a product of economic and social

forcesforcesIt is not the consciousness of men that It is not the consciousness of men that

determines their being, but on the contrary, determines their being, but on the contrary, their social being that determines their their social being that determines their consciousness.consciousness.

literature is seen primarily as a literature is seen primarily as a form of form of ideologyideology

MarxMarx

Ideology - a way of legitimating the power of Ideology - a way of legitimating the power of the ruling class in societythe ruling class in society

the most effective ideology is that which the most effective ideology is that which we are unaware ofwe are unaware of

Louis AlthusserLouis Althusser - - ideological state ideological state apparatuses (ISAs), repressive state apparatuses (ISAs), repressive state apparatuses (RSAs)apparatuses (RSAs)

RSAs - institutions - the police, armed forces, RSAs - institutions - the police, armed forces, penal system...penal system...

ISAs - arise from within society - religion, ISAs - arise from within society - religion, education, cultureeducation, culture

ISAs appear to be natural, but are ISAs appear to be natural, but are very much very much bound up with class structure, gender and bound up with class structure, gender and subjectivitysubjectivity

Pip's gentrification in Pip's gentrification in Great ExpectationsGreat Expectations offers the reader an unrealistic myth about offers the reader an unrealistic myth about individual achievementindividual achievement

AlthusserAlthusser - ideology turns people into - ideology turns people into subjects; people are positioned or interpellated subjects; people are positioned or interpellated to see events in a certain wayto see events in a certain way

the myth of individualismthe myth of individualism in capitalism is in capitalism is convenient for the ruling class because it lets convenient for the ruling class because it lets people believe they can influence their livespeople believe they can influence their lives

Antonio GramsciAntonio Gramsci - ruling classes rule by - ruling classes rule by indirect means; people actively work towards indirect means; people actively work towards their own subordinationtheir own subordination

culture reinforces the dominant power culture reinforces the dominant power relations of societyrelations of society

the effectiveness of the effectiveness of common sense as a form common sense as a form of knowledgeof knowledge - requires no justification - requires no justification

what seems to be naturally right in fact what seems to be naturally right in fact represents the societal valuesrepresents the societal values

unlike the 19th century realist novels, many unlike the 19th century realist novels, many modern works do not encourage identification modern works do not encourage identification with characters or immersion in the plotwith characters or immersion in the plot

HegemonyHegemony

it is usually thought that language is a neutral, it is usually thought that language is a neutral, transparent medium for describing the worldtransparent medium for describing the world

the term discourse radically reverses it - the term discourse radically reverses it - meaning and our sense or knowledge of the meaning and our sense or knowledge of the world is located in languageworld is located in language

language is responsible for producing language is responsible for producing meaningmeaning

language is never neutral or ideologically language is never neutral or ideologically innocentinnocent

Michel FoucaultMichel Foucault - the social world can be - the social world can be seen as composed of a range of discourses seen as composed of a range of discourses functioning around the institutions which they functioning around the institutions which they are part ofare part of

DiscourseDiscourse

discourses of gender and race privileged discourses of gender and race privileged certain groupscertain groups

the normative reader is usually referred to as the normative reader is usually referred to as 'he''he'

by studying a text by studying a text through discursive through discursive organizationorganization instead of the traditional instead of the traditional categories of character, plot and morality, categories of character, plot and morality, different meanings become availabledifferent meanings become available

explored the explored the sociology of the textsociology of the text as as opposed to the psychology of individual opposed to the psychology of individual characterscharacters

Hungarian Hungarian Georg LukácsGeorg Lukács - a novel must be - a novel must be assessed on its ability to reflect the historical assessed on its ability to reflect the historical and material conditions of societyand material conditions of society

realism was not a question of physical realism was not a question of physical verisimilitudeverisimilitude

rejected subjective and experimental worksrejected subjective and experimental works

Marxist criticismMarxist criticism

Victor ShklovskyVictor Shklovsky - art needs to shock, to - art needs to shock, to defamiliarize and subvert our sense of the defamiliarize and subvert our sense of the normalnormal

Bertolt BrechtBertolt Brecht - defamiliarization - breaking - defamiliarization - breaking with the conventions of theatrical realism; with the conventions of theatrical realism; revealing the mechanismsrevealing the mechanisms

his theatre was constructed around his theatre was constructed around fragmentation and discontinuityfragmentation and discontinuity

Walter BenjaminWalter Benjamin - - mass circulationmass circulation - - potentially a liberating force for people who potentially a liberating force for people who had previously been denied accesshad previously been denied access

the Frankfurt Schoolthe Frankfurt School (Marcuse, Adorno) - (Marcuse, Adorno) - dismissed realism and celebrated dismissed realism and celebrated modernist modernist detachment from realitydetachment from reality

Pierre MachereyPierre Macherey - a text functions at - a text functions at two two levelslevels: the surface ideology and a hidden or : the surface ideology and a hidden or unconscious levelunconscious level

Fredric JamesonFredric Jameson - - centrality of the context centrality of the context of reading of reading rather than a context in which a rather than a context in which a work was written; all literary criticism is work was written; all literary criticism is inherently ideologicalinherently ideological

the place of women in literaturethe place of women in literaturethe male is usually regarded as the normthe male is usually regarded as the normde Beauvoir - de Beauvoir - 'He is the Subject, he is the 'He is the Subject, he is the

Absolute - She is the OtherAbsolute - She is the Other.'.'sex sex indicates indicates biological differencesbiological differencesgendergender signifies the signifies the socially constructed socially constructed

differencesdifferenceswhat is usually presented as natural is what is usually presented as natural is

basically socially constructedbasically socially constructed

GenderGender

1792 - Mary Wollstonecraft's 1792 - Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of A Vindication of the Rights of Womanthe Rights of Woman - improving women's - improving women's educationeducation

Virginia WoolfVirginia WoolfCan a male writer adequately represent Can a male writer adequately represent

female experience?female experience?in literary texts, women usually play less in literary texts, women usually play less

significant roles than mensignificant roles than menthe kind of subjects deemed worthy of the kind of subjects deemed worthy of

treatment - treatment - 'female' issues underrepresented'female' issues underrepresented

Virginia Woolf's Virginia Woolf's A Room of One's OwnA Room of One's Own (1928) - point of departure of a feminist (1928) - point of departure of a feminist criticismcriticism

challenging the dominant gender challenging the dominant gender discoursesdiscourses

if Shakespeare had had a sister with the same if Shakespeare had had a sister with the same genius, she wouldn't have been able to genius, she wouldn't have been able to express it in a male-dominated societyexpress it in a male-dominated society

ideological role of languageideological role of language in constructing in constructing gendergender

Dale SpenderDale Spender - - two language categoriestwo language categories - - male and minus malemale and minus male

knowledge is male centred and discriminates knowledge is male centred and discriminates against women against women

Cora KaplanCora Kaplan - - 'subjectivity of women of other 'subjectivity of women of other classes, races and different sexual classes, races and different sexual orientations can never be authentically orientations can never be authentically represented by the white, heterosexual, represented by the white, heterosexual, middle-class woman writermiddle-class woman writer.'.'

two strands of feminismtwo strands of feminismAnglo-American traditionAnglo-American tradition - Elaine - Elaine

Showalter, Ellen Moers - establishing an Showalter, Ellen Moers - establishing an alternative tradition of women writersalternative tradition of women writers

French traditionFrench tradition - Julia Kristeva, - Julia Kristeva, Hélène Hélène Cixous Cixous - more attention to the text itself, didn't - more attention to the text itself, didn't entirely exclude male writersentirely exclude male writers

Woolf's Woolf's OrlandoOrlando (1928) - the central character (1928) - the central character undergoes a sex changeundergoes a sex change

Oscar Wilde - strong female and weak male Oscar Wilde - strong female and weak male characterscharacters

Winterson - Winterson - Oranges Are Not The Only FruitOranges Are Not The Only Fruit - - lesbian relationshipslesbian relationships

films such as films such as The Crying GameThe Crying Game utilize utilize transgender themestransgender themes

Judith ButlerJudith Butler questions the binary relationquestions the binary relation of men and women; it can reinforce power of men and women; it can reinforce power structuresstructures

SEXUAL IDENTITYSEXUAL IDENTITY

most literary texts articulate highly individual most literary texts articulate highly individual experienceexperience

most texts contain most texts contain individualized charactersindividualized characters with whom we tend to with whom we tend to identifyidentify as readers as readers

works which question the individual are very works which question the individual are very much exceptions much exceptions

usually not considered great because they fail usually not considered great because they fail to present reality in terms of individualized to present reality in terms of individualized experienceexperience

SUBJECTIVITYSUBJECTIVITY

poststructuralism poststructuralism - the individual no longer - the individual no longer considered a coherent, unified, self-contained considered a coherent, unified, self-contained entity, but became fragmented and conflictedentity, but became fragmented and conflicted

various forces position the individual in various forces position the individual in different and contradictory waysdifferent and contradictory ways

the individual is subject to the forces of the individual is subject to the forces of control operating in a given societycontrol operating in a given society

character studycharacter study often dominated criticism often dominated criticism providing the most obvious point of accessproviding the most obvious point of access

fictional characters were assessed in terms of fictional characters were assessed in terms of their lifelike qualitiestheir lifelike qualities

the readerthe reader is normally addressed so that the is normally addressed so that the text coheres around himtext coheres around him

devices such as devices such as point of view and narrationpoint of view and narration lend themselves to specific interpretationslend themselves to specific interpretations

some texts subvert the reader's position some texts subvert the reader's position (Tristram Shandy)(Tristram Shandy)

the essence of the essence of 'Realist' strategy'Realist' strategy - to - to impose impose a general ideologya general ideology through the psychological through the psychological plausibility of a particular caseplausibility of a particular case

we are invited as readers to we are invited as readers to share the share the insights of central charactersinsights of central characters or the narrator or the narrator

we should be aware that we should be aware that character-centred character-centred approach is a textual deviceapproach is a textual device and part of the and part of the conventions of literary discourseconventions of literary discourse

Freud's modelFreud's model lays claim to discovering an lays claim to discovering an area of activity hidden from us in everyday lives area of activity hidden from us in everyday lives - a kind of determining reality- a kind of determining reality

superego, ego, id, pleasure principle, erossuperego, ego, id, pleasure principle, erosmodernist writing encouraged ways of reading modernist writing encouraged ways of reading

which looked for which looked for meanings beyond the meanings beyond the apparentapparent

condensationcondensation - ways in which an image or - ways in which an image or word can acquire a number of meaningsword can acquire a number of meanings

Heart of DarknessHeart of Darkness

Psychoanalytic approachesPsychoanalytic approaches

displacementdisplacement - a concept is transformed into - a concept is transformed into an apparently unrelated image allowing the an apparently unrelated image allowing the repressed element to be representedrepressed element to be represented

Kafka's Kafka's MetamorphosisMetamorphosismeanings arise through interaction and meanings arise through interaction and

collaboration of collaboration of the text and the readerthe text and the readerLacanLacan refined Freud's approach refined Freud's approachthrough language the individual gains his through language the individual gains his

subject positionssubject positionsmale identity is constructed in positive terms male identity is constructed in positive terms

as the normas the norm

MetamorphosisMetamorphosis can be interpreted as an can be interpreted as an expression of the death wish emanating from expression of the death wish emanating from the unconsciousthe unconscious

meaning seems to be postponed or deferredmeaning seems to be postponed or deferred

MetamorphosisMetamorphosis can be interpreted as an can be interpreted as an expression of the death wish emanating from expression of the death wish emanating from the unconsciousthe unconscious

meaning seems to be postponed or deferredmeaning seems to be postponed or deferred

• Ebert: Ebert: Rosebud is the emblem of the security, Rosebud is the emblem of the security, hope and innocence of childhood, which a man hope and innocence of childhood, which a man can spend his life seeking to regain. It is the can spend his life seeking to regain. It is the green light at the end of Gatsby's pier; the green light at the end of Gatsby's pier; the leopard atop Kilimanjaro, seeking nobody leopard atop Kilimanjaro, seeking nobody knows what; the bone tossed into the air in knows what; the bone tossed into the air in ``2001.'' It is that yearning after transience that ``2001.'' It is that yearning after transience that adults learn to suppressadults learn to suppress..

Citizen KaneCitizen Kane