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R!"!R!#C!S
Zikmund, Babin, Carr, and Grifn. (2009).$usiness Research Methods. 8th edition.
Thomson South-estern. !SB" # 9$8-0%2&%20'2'.
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1
Measurement
The process of describing someproperty of a phenomenon of interest,
usually by assigning numbers in a
reliable and valid way.
2
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Concepts
Bina "usantara niersit* '
• A researcher has to know what to
measure before knowing how to
measure something.
• The problem definition processshould suggest the concepts that
must be measured.
Concept
A generalied idea that represents
something of meaning.
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+perational*e.nitions
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Operationalization
The process of identifying scales that
correspond to variance in a concept to
be involved in a research process.
Scales
A device providing a range of valuesthat correspond to different values in a
concept being measured.
Correspondence rules!ndicate the way that a certain value
on a scale corresponds to some true
value of a concept.
"
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#esearchers use variance in concepts to make diagnoses.
Therefore, when we defined variables in an earlier chapter,
we really were suggesting that variables capture different
concept values.
$cales capture variance in concepts and, as such, the
scales provide the researcher%s variables. Thus, for
practical purposes, once a research pro&ect is underway,
there is little difference between a concept and a variable.
/(RI($!S/(RI($!S
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A term used to refer to concepts measured with
multiple variables.
'hen a business researcher wishes to
measure the customer orientation of asalesperson, several variables like these may
be used, each captured on a 1() scale*
1. ! offer the product that is best suited to a customer%s
problem.
2. A good employee has to have the customer%s best
interests in mind.
3. ! try to find out what kind of products will be most
helpful to a customer.2
+onstructs can
be very helpful in
operationaliing
a concept.
)
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Bina "usantara niersit* 0
Nominal scales represent the most elementary level of
measurement. A nominal scale assigns a value to an ob&ect for
identification or classification purposes only. The value can be, but
does not have to be, a number because no uantities are being
represented. !n this sense, a nominal scale is truly a ualitative
scale. -ominal scales are etremely useful, and are sometimes
the only appropriate measure, even though they can be
considered elementary.
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M!(S,R!M!#)M!(S,R!M!#)
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Bina "usantara niersit* 2
Ordinal scales allow things to be arranged in order
based on how much of some concept they possess. !n
other words, an ordinal scale is a ranking scale. !n fact,
we often use the term rank order to describe an ordinal
scale.
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M!(S,R!M!#)M!(S,R!M!#)
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Bina "usantara niersit* %
'hen business professors take some time off and go to the race
track, even they know that a horse finishing in the /show0 position has
finished after the /win0 and /place0 horses see the second drawing in
hibit 13.". The order of finish can be accurately represented by an
ordinal scale using an ordered number rule*
Assign 1 to the /win0 position
Assign 2 to the /place0 position
Assign 3 to the /show0 position1
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M!(S,R!M!#)M!(S,R!M!#)
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Bina "usantara niersit* &
Interval Scales
$cales that have both nominal and ordinal
properties, but that also capture information about
differences in uantities of a concept from one
observation to the net.
Temperature
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M!(S,R!M!#)M!(S,R!M!#)
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Bina "usantara niersit* +
Ratio Scale
#epresent the highest form of measurement in
that they have all the properties of interval scaleswith the additional attribute of representing
absolute uantities4 characteried by a meaningful
absolute ero.
• Zero has meanin in that it reresentsan absen/e o some /on/et.
• 1n absoute 3ero is the de4nin/hara/teristi/ di5erentiatin bet6eenratio and intera s/aes
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M!(S,R!M!#)M!(S,R!M!#)
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Bina "usantara niersit* '
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M!(S,R!M!#)M!(S,R!M!#)
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Bina "usantara niersit* $
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M!(S,R!M!#)M!(S,R!M!#)
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Bina "usantara niersit* 8
• iscrete measures are those that take on only one of a finite
number of values.• A discrete scale is most often used to represent a classification
variable.
• Therefore, discrete scales do not represent intensity of
measures, only membership.
5
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S)()IS)IC( (#(SIS +"S)()IS)IC( (#(SIS +"SC(!SSC(!S
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Thus, when someone is asked to choose from the following
responses
6isagree-eutral
Agree
the result is a discrete value that can be coded 1, 2, or 3,
respectively. This is also an ordinal scale to the etent that itrepresents an ordered arrangement of agreement. -ominal and
ordinal scales are discrete measures.
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S)()IS)IC( (#(SIS +"S)()IS)IC( (#(SIS +"SC(!SSC(!S
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Continuous measures
7easures that reflect the intensity of a concept by
assigning values that can take on any value along some
scale range.
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S)()IS)IC( (#(SIS +"S)()IS)IC( (#(SIS +"SC(!SSC(!S
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Attri!ute
A single characteristic or fundamental feature of
an ob&ect, person, situation, or issue.
Inde" measure
An inde assigns a value based on how much of
the concept being measured is associated with anobservation. !ndees often are formed by putting
several variables together.
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• 8or eample, salesperson satisfaction may be
measured by combining uestions such as /9ow
satisfied are you with your &ob: 9ow satisfied are
you with your territory: 9ow satisfied are you withthe opportunity your &ob offers:0
• 8or most practical applications, composite measures
and indees are computed in the same way.
Composite measures
Assign a value to an observation
based on a mathematical derivation of
multiple variables.
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Summated scale
A scale created by simply summing
adding together the response to eachitem making up the composite
measure.
Reverse codin#
7eans that the value assigned for a
response is treated oppositely from the
other items.
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1. #eliability
2. ;alidity
3. $ensitivity
Relia4ilit y 1n indi/at or o0 a measur e7s int er na2 /ons
ist en/* .5alidity The a//ura/* o a measure or theetent to 6hi/h a s/ore truthu*reresents a /on/et.
Sensit i5 it y 1 measur ement inst r ument 7sabi2it * t o a//ur at e2* measur e ) ar iabi2it *
in st imu2i or r esonses.
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M!(S,R!M!#)M!(S,R!M!#)
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7uestions7uestions
Bina "usantara niersit* 2'
1. 6efine measurement. 9ow is your performance in your research
class being measured:
2. 'hat is the difference between a concept and a construct?3. $uppose a researcher takes over a pro&ect only after a proposal
has been written by another researcher. 'here will the
researcher find the things that need to be measured:
". 6escribe, compare, and contrast the four different levels of scale
measurement.
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Bina "usantara niersit* 2$
Attitude
An enduring disposition to consistently
respond in a given manner to various
aspects of the world, composed ofaffective, cognitive, and behavioral
components.
$ypothetical constructs
;ariables that are not directlyobservable but are measurable
through indirect indicators, such as
verbal epression or overt behavior.
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Bina "usantara niersit* 28
Ranking1 measurement task that reuiresresondents to rank order a sma
number o stores, brands, orob:e/ts on the basis o oerareeren/e or some /hara/teristi/o the stimuus
rating
1 measurement task that reuiresresondents to estimate themanitude o a /hara/teristi/ oruait* that a brand, store, orob:e/t ossesses.
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())I),*!S())I),*!S
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Bina "usantara niersit* 29
Sortin#
A measurement task that presents a
respondent with several ob&ects or
product concepts and reuires therespondent to arrange the ob&ects into
piles or classify the product concepts.
Choice
A measurement task that identifiespreferences by reuiring respondents
to choose between two or more
alternatives.
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Bina "usantara niersit* %0
• $imple Attitude $cales* !n its most basic form,
attitude scaling reuires that an individual agree or
disagree with a statement or respond to a single
uestion.• 8or eample, respondents in a political poll may be
asked whether they agree or disagree with the
statement /The president should run for re
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Cate#ory scale
A rating scale that consists of several
response categories, often providing
respondents with alternatives to
indicate positions on a continuum
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%i&ert scale
A measure of attitudes designed to allow respondents to
rate how strongly they agree or disagree with carefully
constructed statements, ranging from very positive tovery negative attitudes toward some ob&ect
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Bina "usantara niersit* %%
Reverse recodin#
A method of making sure all the itemsforming a composite scale are scored
in the same direction. -egative items
can be recoded into the euivalent
responses for a non
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Bina "usantara niersit* %&
Composite scale
A way of representing a latent construct by
summing or averaging respondents% reactions to
multiple items each assumed to indicate the latent
construct.
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Bina "usantara niersit* %+
Semantic di''erential
A measure of attitudes that consists of a series of
seven point rating scales that use bipolar ad&ectives
to anchor the beginning and end of each scale.
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Bina "usantara niersit* %'
Numerical scale
An attitude rating scale similar to a semantic
differential ecept that it uses numbers, insteadof verbal descriptions, as response options to
identify response positions.=
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Bina "usantara niersit* %$
Stapel scale
A measure of attitudes
that consists of a single
ad&ective in the center ofan even number of
numerical values.
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Bina "usantara niersit* %8
Constant(sum scale
A measure of attitudes in which
respondents are asked to divide a
constant sum to indicate the relativeimportance of attributes4 respondents
often sort cards, but the task may also
be a rating task.
)raphic ratin# scale
A measure of attitude that allowsrespondents to rate an ob&ect by
choosing any point along a graphic
continuum.
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Bina "usantara niersit* %9
Thurstone scale
An attitude scale in which &udges
assign scale values to attitudinalstatements and sub&ects are asked
to respond to these statements.
5
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Bina "usantara niersit* &0
*ehavioral di''erential
A rating scale instrument similar to a
semantic differential, developed to
measure the behavioral intentions ofsub&ects toward future actions.
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I#)!#)I+#I#)!#)I+#
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• +aired comparison , A measurement techniue that
involves presenting the respondent with two ob&ects and
asking the respondent to pick the preferred ob&ect4 more
than two ob&ects may be presented, but comparisons are
made in pairs.
• Sortin#* $orting tasks ask respondents to indicate their
attitudes or beliefs by arranging items on the basis of
perceived similarity or some other attribute.
R(#I#6R(#I#6
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7uestions7uestions
Bina "usantara niersit* &2
1. 'hat is an attitude: !s there a consensus concerning its
definition:
2. 6istinguish between rating and ranking. 'hich is a better
attitude measurement techniue: 'hy:
3. Assume the researcher wanted to create a summated scale
indicating a respondent%s attitude toward the trucking
industry.
". 'hat would the result be for the respondent whose response
is as indicated below:
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To achieve these ends, a researcher who is systematically planning a
uestionnaire%s design will be reuired to make several decisions>
typically, but not necessarily, in the following order*
1. 'hat should be asked:
2. 9ow should uestions be phrased:
3. !n what seuence should the uestions be
arranged:
". 'hat uestionnaire layout will best serve the
research ob&ectives:). 9ow should the uestionnaire be pretested:
6oes the uestionnaire need to be revised:
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Bina "usantara niersit* &+
Avoid +ompleity* ?se $imple,
+onversational @anguage 'ords used in
uestionnaires should be
readily understandable to allrespondents.
The researcher usually has
the difficult task of adopting
the conversational languageof people at the lower
education levels without
talking down to better<
educated respondents.
=
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7,!S)I+#S7,!S)I+#S
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Bina "usantara niersit* &'
%eadin# -uestion
A uestion that suggests or impliescertain answers.
%oaded -uestion
A uestion that suggests a socially
desirable answer or is emotionallycharged.
Avoid @eading and
@oaded uestions
1
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7,!S)I+#S7,!S)I+#S
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Counter!iasin# statement
An introductory statement or preamble
to a potentially embarrassing uestion
that reduces a respondent%s reluctanceto answer by suggesting that certain
behavior is not unusual.
split(!allot techni-ue
?sing two alternative phrasings of the
same uestion for respective halves of
a sample to elicit a more accurate total
response than would a single
phrasing.
Avoid @eading and
@oaded uestions
5
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7,!S)I+#S7,!S)I+#S
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Bina "usantara niersit* &8
Avoid Am!i#uity, *e as Speci'ic as +ossi!le
• !tems on uestionnaires often are ambiguous becausethey are too general. +onsider such indefinite words as
often, occasionally, regularly, frequently, many, good, and
poor. ach of these words has many different meanings.• 8or one consumer, frequent reading of Fortune magaine
may be reading all 2) issues in a year, while another might
think 12, or even 5 issues a year is freuent.
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7,!S)I+#S7,!S)I+#S
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Avoid ou!le(*arreled Items
ou!le(!arreled -uestion
A uestion that may induce bias because it
covers two issues at once.
3
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7,!S)I+#S7,!S)I+#S
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C
Avoid Ma&in# Assumptions
Dy answering /yes,0 the respondent implies that
the program is, in fact, outstanding and that thingsare fine &ust as they are. 'hen a respondent
answers /no,0 he or she implies that B should
discontinue the dividends.
The researchers should not place the respondent
in that sort of bind by including an implicit
assumption in the uestion.
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7,!S)I+#S7,!S)I+#S
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Bina "usantara niersit* +2
Avoid *urdensome .uestions That May Ta" the
Respondent/s Memory
1 sime a/t o human ie is that eoe oret.;esear/hers 6ritin uestions about ast behaior oreents shoud re/oni3e that /ertain uestions ma*make serious demands on the resondent7s memor*.ritin uestions about rior eents reuires a
/ons/ientious attemt to minimi3e the robemsasso/iated 6ith orettin.
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Bina "usantara niersit* +%
!f the researcher suspects that
the respondent may have
forgotten the answer to a
uestion, he or she may rewrite
the uestion in an aided-recall
format>that is, in a format that
provides a clue to help &og therespondent%s memory.
Avoid *urdensome
.uestions That May Ta"
the Respondent/sMemory
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Bina "usantara niersit* +&
Ma&e Certain .uestions )enerate
Variance
'e want our variables to varyE !t is importantthat the response categories provided cover the
breadth of possibilities totally ehaustive, but
also critical that they yield variance across
respondents. !n many ways, if all of the
respondents check the same bo, we have notgenerated usable information.
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7,!S)I+#S7,!S)I+#S
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Bina "usantara niersit* ++
Order !ias
Dias caused by the influence of earlier
uestions in a uestionnaire or by an
answer%s position in a set of answers.
0unnel techni-ue
Asking general uestions before
specific uestions in order to obtainunbiased responses.
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Bina "usantara niersit* +'
0ilter -uestion
A uestion that screens out
respondents who are not ualified to
answer a second uestion
+ivot -uestion
A filter uestion used to determine
which version of a second uestion willbe asked.
W'() IS )'! $!S) 7,!S)I+#W'() IS )'! $!S) 7,!S)I+#
S!7,!#C!S!7,!#C!
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Bina "usantara niersit* +$
Bood layout and physical attractiveness are crucial
in mail, !nternet, and other self
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7uestions7uestions
Bina "usantara niersit* +8
valuate and comment on the following uestions,
taken from several uestionnaires. 6o they follow the
rules discussed in this chapter:
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7uestions7uestions
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