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A novel method to develop an animal model ofdepression using a small mobile robotHiroyuki Ishii a b , Qing Shi a , Shogo Fumino c , Shinichiro Konno c , Shinichi Kinoshita c ,Satoshi Okabayashi d , Naritoshi Iida d , Hiroshi Kimura d , Yu Tahara c , Shigenobu Shibata a c

& Atsuo Takanishi a b c ea Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japanb Research Institute for Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japanc Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japand Faculty of Letters, Art and Science, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japane HRI, Waseda University, Tokyo, JapanVersion of record first published: 29 Jan 2013.

To cite this article: Hiroyuki Ishii , Qing Shi , Shogo Fumino , Shinichiro Konno , Shinichi Kinoshita , Satoshi Okabayashi ,Naritoshi Iida , Hiroshi Kimura , Yu Tahara , Shigenobu Shibata & Atsuo Takanishi (2013): A novel method to develop an animalmodel of depression using a small mobile robot, Advanced Robotics, 27:1, 61-69

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01691864.2013.752319

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FULL PAPER

A novel method to develop an animal model of depression using a small mobile robot

Hiroyuki Ishiia,b*, Qing Shia, Shogo Fuminoc, Shinichiro Konnoc, Shinichi Kinoshitac, Satoshi Okabayashid, NaritoshiIidad, Hiroshi Kimurad, Yu Taharac, Shigenobu Shibataa,c and Atsuo Takanishia,b,c,e

aFaculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan; bResearch Institute for Science and Engineering, WasedaUniversity, Tokyo, Japan; cGraduate School of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan; dFaculty of Letters, Art

and Science, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan; eHRI, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan

(Received 10 April 2012; accepted 15 August 2012)

Robotics is contributing to studies on animal behavior. Mobile robots are actually used as devices to give external stimu-lus to animals in several experiments. We consider that this approach can be applied to studies in psychic medicine. Inpsychic medicine, all new drugs are evaluated in experiments using animal models of mental disorder before using it inclinical practice. However, conventional animal models have some problems in the construct validity. The animal modelsshould be developed through the method which is consistently associated with the theory of the mental disorders whilemany of conventional models had been developed by genetic manipulations or surgical operations on nerve system. Weconsidered that a novel animal model could be developed by stress exposure using a small mobile robot. We thenimplemented this method to the experimental system which had been developed in our past study. An experiment wasconducted using the system, and the method was then veried. Therefore, we conclude that the animal model of depres-sion developed by proposed method, exposing continuous attack by the robot in immature period and interactive attackin mature period, can be a novel animal model of depression.

Keywords: mobile robot; bio-inspired design; animal behavior and mental disorder

1. Introduction

Recently, robotics is contributing to studies on animalbehavior in ethology, animal psychology, and behavioralbiology [16]. Several mobile robots with mimic featureand motion of animals are developed. Use of theserobots offers novel methodologies to study response ofan animal to the stimulus form other individuals of samespecies or other species. For instance, small mobilerobots are used to understand decision making of anindividual or a group of animals such as insects [1,2],birds [3], shes [4], and rodents [5,6]. Some applicationsto use mobile robots in animal breeding are alsoproposed [3].

On the other hands, experiments on animal behaviorhave been playing a very important role in psychic medi-cine [711]. All psychotropic drugs have been evaluatedin experiments with animal models of mental disordersuch as mice and rats before used in clinical practice [7].These experiments are called drug screening test. Theanimal models of mental disorder are living animals thatrepresent phenotypes of human patients with mentaldisorders such as depression, schizophrenia, or anxietydisorder. They are currently produced by genetic manipu-lation [12], surgical operation on the nerve system [13],

or stressful environment [14]. In the drug screening tests,a drug is administered into a model animal, and its effectis then evaluated through behavior observation of theanimal. Rodents such as rats and mice are commonlyselected as experimental subjects in these experiments.Recently, several new psychotropic drugs are developedthrough these tests [10,11]. However, some researchershave recently mentioned limitations of the conventionalanimal models of mental disorders because of lack of thevalidity. Three sets of criteria are proposed as the valid-ity for assessing animal models of mental disorder:predictive validity (performance in the test predicts per-formance in the condition being modeled), face validity(phenomenological similarity), and construct validity(theoretical rationale) [15,16]. However, few of the con-ventional models have all the three sets of criteriatogether. Especially, there are few models that have theconstruct validity [15,17,18]. In terms of the constructvalidity, an animal model should be developed throughthe procedure which is consistently associated with thetheory of the mental disorder. The current leadinghypothesis for mental disorders is stress-vulnerabilityhypothesis proposed by Zubin [19,20]. He proposed thatan individual had unique vulnerability (strengths) for

*Corresponding author. Email: hiroyuki@aoni.waseda.jp

Advanced Robotics, 2013Vol. 27, No. 1, 6169, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01691864.2013.752319

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dealing with stress, which was included in its biologicaland psychological elements. Vulnerability of each indi-vidual is inherent in genetic level and also developedthrough experiences during immature period such asabuse or lost of parents. An individual is affected by themental disorder when he/she experiences much stress onthe vulnerability through events in his/her life such asaccidents or lost someone very special. According to thishypothesis, animal models of mental disorder shouldhave stress-vulnerability and be affected by the disorderwhen they receive much stress on the vulnerability.

Use of robot technology can break through theselimitations in the drug screening tests. Thus, the purposeof this study is to build a novel method to develop ananimal model of mental disorder with the constructvalidity using a small mobile robot. A small mobilerobot and an experimental setup were then developed,and some experiments were conducted using the robotand setup [21]. Through these experiments, we foundthat a rat which had been exposed stress by the robot inimmature period exhibited lower activity than the normalrat [22]. We considered it could be an animal model ofdepression. However, this model still has some problemsin terms of the construct validity when it is comparedwith the stress-vulnerability hypothesis. This model doesnot consistent with the hypothesis because the disorder isnot triggered by environment process in mature periodwhile stress-vulnerability was developed in a rat bystress exposure in immature period.

Therefore, we considered that it is possible todevelop an animal model of depression with the con-struct validity by exposing stress not only in immatureperiod but also in mature period as the trigger for thedisorder. We then built a method based on this conceptand implemented it in the experimental system that wehad developed in our past studies. An experiment isperformed to verify this method. In the experiment, twodifferent ways of stress exposure were prepared tond the one to induce much stress in a rat. In this paper,a small mobile robot is shortly described in Chapter 2and control system for it is described in Chapter 3. Theexperiment is described in Chapter 4 and discussion for itis described in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 is the conclusion.

2. Small mobile robot WR-3

2.1. Mechanism

We developed a small mobile robot WR-3 as shown inFigure 1 [21]. It was designed to interact with a rat inthe manner of interactions between rats. Therefore, itssize and locomotion performance are almost equal to amature rat as shown in Table 1.

WR-3 has 14 active degrees of freedom (DOFs) asshown in Figure 2. Twelve of the DOFs are used tomimic body motions of a rat such as rearing (pitch

motion of the waist) or grooming (yaw motion of thewaist and neck, with pitch motion of the fore legs).DOFs in a pitch and yaw in the neck are driven byShape Memory Alloy (SMA) wires. Each DOF in thefore leg and hind leg is driven by a DC servo motor.Each DOF in a pitch and yaw in the waist joint is alsodriven by a DC servo motor. In addition to these 12DOFs, two active wheels for locomotion in x-y plain areimplemented at the hip. Each of these two DOFs is dri-ven by a DC motor, and its velocity is servo-controlled.Therefore, locomotion of WR-3 receives the non-holo-nomic constraint.

Figure 1. WR-3 (front) and a mature rat (back).

Table 1. Specications of WR-3.

Size (mm) 70 240 90Weight (g) 1000Max speed (m/s) 1.0Operation time (min) 30

Figure 2. DOF arrangement of WR-3. Total 14 DOFs: roll andpitch in the neck, two pitch in each leg, pitch and yaw in thewaist and two wheels.

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2.2. Control circuit and power supply

A control circuit board which is originally designed forWR-3 is implemented in the robot. This circuit boardconsists of a microcontroller (STM32F103, STMicroelectronics Ltd.), a Bluetooth wireless communicationmodule, H-bridge motor drivers, and drivers for theSMA wires. Only low-level control is handled by thecircuit board while high-level control such as the patterngeneration is handled by the PC. The circuit boardreceives instructions from the PC via the wireless com-munication module, and controls angle of each joint andvelocities of driving wheels according to the instructions.

A Li-ion battery is implemented in WR-3. WR-3keeps its operation for more than 30min with fullycharged battery.

3. Control system of WR-3

3.1. Locomotion control by visual feedback

We developed behavior control software of WR-3 whichenabled the robot to locomote autonomously and tointeract with a rat in the open eld as shown in Figure 3.This software consists of the position calculator (imageprocessing), visual feedback controller, and behaviorgenerator as shown in Figure 4. Pictures of WR-3 and a

rat in the open eld are taken by a charge coupleddevice (CCD) camera which is placed above the openeld. These pictures are sent to the software, and theposition calculator then calculates positions of WR-3 anda rat by image processing. The position of WR-3 Pwr iscalculated using color marker (yellow and blue) put onthe body, and that of the rat Pr is calculated using itsbody color (white). Movement distance of the rat anddistance from WR-3 can be calculated from the positiondata.

The target position of WR-3 Pwr tg is generated by thebehavior generator based on the algorithm implementedin it as described in the next section. The visualfeedback controller then calculates direction and distancebetween the target position and current position ofWR-3. According to the distance and direction, thevisual feedback controller generates instructions oflocomotion for WR-3.

3.2. Behavior algorithms

Three different behavior generation algorithms, chasing,continuous attack, and interactive attack are preparedas shown in Figure 5. In the experiment, the experi-menter can select one from these three algorithmsaccording to the experimental design.

When WR-3 is controlled according to the algorithmof chasing, WR-3 keeps distance from the rat less thanDwr-r th c. Dwr-r th c is 350mm in the experimentdescribed in Chapter 4, while length of WR-3 is240mm. Therefore, WR-3 rarely hits the rat on thebody. If the rat does not move, WR-3 turns right andleft to keep the distance from the rat. When WR-3 iscontrolled according to the algorithm of continuousattack, WR-3 keeps attacking to the rat. To provideattack to the rat, WR-3 keeps distance from the rat lessthan Dwr-r th. Dwr-r th is 150mm in the experiment.Therefore, WR-3 keeps hitting the rat on the body.When WR-3 is controlled according to the algorithm ofinteractive attack, WR-3 starts an attack sequence tothe rat immediately after the rat moves more thanDr mov th. Dr mov th is 50mm in the experiment. WR-3keeps the attack sequence for 5 s and stops movementafter these 5 s. During the attack sequence, WR-3 is

Figure 3. Picture of a rat and WR-3 in the open eld. Pwr, theposition of WR-3 and Prat, the position of the rat are calculatedusing image processing technique. dr-wr, distance between therat and WR-3 is also calculated.

Figure 4. Control system of WR-3. Prat is the position of the rat and Pwr is the position of WR-3. Pwr tg is the target positionof WR-3.

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controlled according to the same algorithm of continu-ous attack.

4. Experiment

4.1. Subject

F344 rats are selected as experimental subjects. Twenty-four immature rats (threeweeks old) are prepared. Therats are divided into two groups as shown in Table 2.

4.2. Procedure

(i) Stress exposure in immature period.Each rat in both groups A and B receives continu-ous attack (see Chapter 3) by WR-3 as the stressexposure. Attacks by WR-3 are exposed for 10mina day for ve days from the day when the ratbecomes three weeks old. After these ve days,each rat is bred in a small cage individually.

Figure 5. Behavior algorithms prepared for the experiment.

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(ii) Behavior assessment before stress exposure inmature periodTwo different behavior tests, the open-eld testand robot chasing test, are performed when therat becomes eight weeks old. In the open-eldtest, a rat is released into the open eld, and itstotal movement distance in 10min is measured asits activity. In the robot chasing test, each rat isalso released into the open eld with WR-3which is controlled according to the algorithm forchasing (see Chapter 3). Total movement dis-tance of the rat in 10min is measured as itsactivity too.

(iii) Stress exposure in mature periodEach rat in group A receives continuous attack byWR-3. Each rat in group B receives interactiveattack (see Chapter 3) by WR-3. Attacks by WR-3are exposed for 10min a day for ve days from theday when the rat becomes nine weeks old.

(iv) Behavior assessment after stress exposure in matureperiodTwo behavior tests which have been performed ineight weeks old are performed again when the ratbecomes 10weeks old.

4.3. Result

Activities in the behavior tests in both before and afterthe stress exposure in mature period are shown inFigure 6. Activities during stress exposure in matureperiod are shown in Figure 7. Statistical analyses (t-test)are conducted to nd signicant differences of activitiesin robot chasing test between before and after secondstress exposure. Another statistical analysis (t-test) isconducted to nd a signicant difference of activities inrobot-chasing test after second stress exposure betweengroup A and B. We consider that there is a signicantdifference if p value is less than 0.05 between two datasets.

5. Discussion

Construct validity of the depression model rats can beconrmed by comparing the experimental procedure,which is described in Chapter 4, with the stress-vulnerabil-ity hypothesis. The basic conguration of this hypothesisis that an individual is affected by the mental disorderwhen he/she experiences much stress on the vulnerabilitythrough events in his/her life. In the experiment, thevulnerability was developed in rats through attacks by

Table 2. Experimental condition of rats in group A and B.

Group A Group B

Number of rats 12 12Stress exposure in immatureperiod (3weeks old)

Continuous attack by WR-3

Behavior assessment beforestress exposure in matureperiod (8weeks old)

Open-eld test, robot chasingtest

Stress exposure in matureperiod (9weeks old)

Continuousattack byWR-3

Interactiveattack byWR-3

Behavior assessment afterstress exposure in matureperiod (10weeks old)

Open-eld test, robot chasingtest

Figure 6. Experimental result in behavior tests.

Figure 7. Activities during stress exposure in mature period.

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WR-3 during immature period. As conrmed in the pastexperiment [22], attacks by a mobile robot induce severestress in immature rats. These stresses are caused bypsychological fear and physical pain. The stress on thevulnerability was induced in rats through attacks by WR-3during mature period. In human cases, levels of stressinduced by life events are different depending on the typeof the event [23]. Therefore, three different behavioralgorithms of WR-3 were prepared to induce differentlevel of stress in the experiment. One is chasing by WR-3,and the others are interactive attack and continuous attackby WR-3.

Chasing by WR-3 induces no pain but fear in rats.We then considered that the level of stress inducedthrough chasing by WR-3 is less than those by other twoalgorithms, and that robot chasing test can be a methodto assess depression level like forced swimming test [24]or fear-conditioning test [25]. The forced swimming testis conducted in a pool, and depression level of a rat isassessed by immobility time after it is released into thepool. The fear conditioning test is conducted in a box,and a rat is exposed strong aversive stimulus such aselectric shock in the box. The rat is then released intothe box next day, and depression level is assessed byimmobility time. The basic idea in these two tests is thata rat becomes immobile when it falls into depressionunder the stressful environment. Therefore, activity ofthe rat with experience of robot attack in the robotchasing test represents depression level.

Both interactive attack and continuous attack byWR-3 induce pain and fear in rats. The levels of stressmight be different from each other. Signicance andeffect of each way of attack by WR-3 can be discussedthrough an analysis on experimental result. Before com-paring the effects of the attacks by WR-3, spontaneousactivity should be compared between groups. Open-eldtest is a well-known method to assess spontaneous activ-ity of a rat [26]. No large difference is found in activitiesbetween before and after the stress exposure in matureperiod both in groups A and B. Therefore, spontaneousactivities of rats are not different between before andafter the stress exposure, and those are not differentbetween groups A and B either. On the other hands, wefound several signicant differences in activities in theresult of robot chasing test. Based on this consideration,depression level are not different between groups A andB before the stress exposure in mature period, while asignicant difference is conrmed between them afterthe stress exposure. A signicant difference is alsoconrmed between before and after the stress exposurein group A. Therefore, the interactive attack can be animpact on the stress vulnerability while continuous attackcannot be that.

It is very interesting that a rat in group B receivesmuch stress than a rat in group A, while a rat in group

A receives much attack by WR-3 than a rat in group B.The rat in group A receives attack just after it startsmoving, while the rat in group B receives attack continu-ously. It can be explained by the idea that behaviorinhibition induces large stress in the rat. The reason whythe rats in group A exhibited high activities which wererepresentation of low depression level could be explainedby the theory of exposure therapy [27]. The basicconcept of the exposure therapy is that exposing stressorcontinuously under safe condition develops tolerance forit in the individual. As shown in Figure 7, activities ofrats in group A increased day by day during the stressexposure in mature period. This result agrees with theprocess of the exposure therapy. Therefore, attackitself cannot be a stressor for mature rats, while it canbe a strong stressor to develop vulnerability forimmature rats.

Therefore, we conclude that a depression modelanimal can be developed by exposing continuous attackby the robot in immature period and interactive attack inmature period. The process to develop this model agreeswith the theory of the stress-vulnerability hypothesis.Behavioral phenotype also agrees with depression. Thus,we consider that the rat treated by this method can be ananimal model of mental disorder with the constructvalidity and face validity. There might be someobjections to this consideration. For instance, validity ofthe robot chasing test as a stress evaluation test was notexperimentally conrmed. Additional evidences toanswer these objections can be obtained by evaluatingdepression level of the animal models through conven-tional behavior tests such as forced swimming test andfear conditioning test.

6. Conclusion

We proposed a method to develop a novel animal modelof depression and veried it through an experiment. Inthe experiment, the face validity and construct validityare conrmed. Thus, we conclude that the animal modelof depression developed by proposed method, exposingcontinuous attack by the robot in immature period andinteractive attack in mature period, can be a noveldepression model which has some advantages over theconventional models. Its predictive validity should beveried in next experiment. After that, it can be used inthe drug screening. In addition, this study suggests largepotential use of a mobile robot in experiments on animalbehavior for understanding mechanism of mental disor-der. The experimental result suggests that the interactiveattack and the continuous attack have different effects onrats. Using this methodology, it is possible to make atheory of how external stimulus induces stress in individ-uals. It can be a new research paradigm in psychic medi-cine.

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AcknowlegmentsThe experiment with animals has been approved by ethicalcommittee for animal experiments in Waseda University. Thiswork was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number21760207 and High-Tech Research Center Project for PrivateUniversities: matching fund subsidy from MEXT (Ministry ofEducation, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology). Thisworks was also supported by GCOE; Global Robot Academia,ASMeW, and SolidWorks, Japan.

Notes on contributorsHiroyuki Ishii received his PhD degree inBiomedical Engineering at WasedaUniversity, Japan, in 2007. He is currentlyan assistant professor at Waseda ResearchInstitute for Science and Engineering,Waseda University. His research interestsare focused on applications of robottechnology in studies on animal behavior.He is currently interested in the

development of mental disorder model animals using a smallmobile robot.

Qing Shi received his PhD degree inBiomedical Engineering at WasedaUniversity, Japan, in 2012. He is currently aresearch associate at GCOE Global RobotAcademia of Waseda University. Hisresearch interests are focused on thedevelopment of rat-inspired autonomousrobots for behavior analysis of rats,especially involving system integration,

behavior recognition, and motion planning.

Shogo Fumino received his BS degree inMechanical Engineering from WasedaUniversity in Tokyo, Japan in 2008. Since2009, he became a masters student atWaseda University in Tokyo, Japan,focusing on the development ofexperimental systems for rats to exposestress using robot. His research interests areembedded system, mechanical design,

robotrat interaction, and mechanism of mental disorder.

Shinichiro Konno received his BS degreein Mechanical Engineering from WasedaUniversity, Tokyo, Japan in 2010. Since2010, he became a masters student atWaseda University in Tokyo, Japan,focusing on the development of the rat-inspired robot for interaction experimentwith rats. His research interests aremechanical design, animal experiment, and

robotrat interaction.

Shinichi Kinoshita received his BS degreein Mechanical Engineering from WasedaUniversity, Tokyo, Japan in 2011. Since2011, he became a masters student atWaseda University in Tokyo, Japan,focusing on the development of the rat-inspired robot for interaction experimentwith rats. His research interests aremechanical design, robot control, image

processing, animal experiment, and robotrat interaction.

Satoshi Okabayashi received his BA andMA degrees in Psychology from WasedaUniversity in Tokyo, Japan in 2005 and2007, respectively. Since 2007, he became aPhD student at Waseda University focusingon the learning behavior in rodents forpsychological studies. Since 2010, hebecame a research associate at WasedaUniversity Faculty of Letters, Arts and

Sciences. His research interests are concerned with animalpsychology, ethology, and behavior analysis.

Naritoshi Iida received his BA and MAdegrees in Psychology from WasedaUniversity in Tokyo, Japan in 1994 and1997, respectively. He serves as a universitylecturer at Waseda University in Tokyo,Japan since 2004. His research interests areconcerned with animal psychology,behavior analysis, and psychology oflearning. Especially, he is currently focusing

on the response suppression by punishment contingencies.

Hiroshi Kimura received his MA degree inPsychology from Waseda University,Tokyo, Japan in 1967. He specialized in thepsychology of learning and behavioranalysis. He focused on the research on theprocess of behavior modication by usingrats as the experimental subjects. He wasappointed as a professor emeritus in 2012after having served as a lecturer, associate

professor, and professor of psychology at Waseda University.

Yu Tahara received his BS and MSdegrees in school of science andengineering, Waseda university, Japan. In2010, he became a PhD student at WasedaUniversity, focusing on circadian rhythms inmice by physiological and pharmacologicalmethods.

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Shigenobu Shibata received his BS, MS,and PhD degrees all in PharmaceuticalSciences from Kyushu University, Japan, in1976, 1978, and 1981, respectively. He iscurrently a professor at the School ofAdvanced Science and Engineering, WasedaUniversity. He has specialized inphysiology, especially circadian rhythms inanimals.

Atsuo Takanishi received his BS, MS, andPhD degrees all in Mechanical Engineeringfrom Waseda University, Japan, in 1980,1982, and 1988, respectively. He iscurrently a professor at the Department ofModern Mechanical Engineering, WasedaUniversity, and the director of HRI (TheHumanoid Robotics Institute), WasedaUniversity. He is a member of Robotics

Society of Japan (a board member in 1992 and 1993), JapaneseSociety of Biomechanisms, Japanese Society of MechanicalEngineers, Japanese Society of Instrument and ControlEngineers and Society of Mastication Systems (a major boardmember from 1996 to current), IEEE, and other medicine- anddentistry-related societies in Japan.

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