0068 - Afro-Caribbean Glossary

7/28/2019 0068 - Afro-Caribbean Glossary

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Resources: Afro-Caribbean Rhythm Glossary

Oct 16, 2003

AFRO-CARIBBEAN RHYTHM GLOSSARY

This rhythm glossary comes to us from Bill Kiely. Please email anycomments, additions or corrections to [email protected].

We appreciate all reliable information and/or input.

ABAKWA - The ritual and rhythms of the Abakwa/Carabali secret society

brought to Cuba by the "leopard society" of the Efik and the Ejagham people,who come from southwestern Cameroon, southeastern Nigeria, and the Calabar

Islands. This all male cult, founded in 1839 in Regla, Cuba, is centered in thedock areas of Havana and Matanzas in Western Cuba. In Cuba, members of the

secret magico-religious society were spoken of by outsiders as "nanigos" or theCross River (Africa) Sect. Their rituals feature the masked spirit dancers, called"ireme," as well as complex ideographic symbols are known as "anaforuanas."

Drums, bells, rattles, and a friction drum are used to accompany the dance ofthe "ireme." The drums include three small "enkomo" drums with goatskin

heads, and a "bonko" drum which is about three feet tall. All drums are playedonly by hand. As in Haiti, sticks appear not to be used on goatskin, but are

sometimes used on the body of the "bonko" when marching. An "uyo" frictiondrum roars throughout the Abakwa ritual, but it is kept hidden inside the lodge;

this tradition draws on that of the unseen "leopard drum" of the Ejagham andNgbe people in West Africa. (See also "BRIKAMO," "NANIGO", "NANIGA")

ACHERE (ah-chay-Ray) - Gourd rattle used in sacred music dedicated toShango

ADARRUM RHYTHM - A key component of Brazilian condomble ceremonies,

the rhythm appeals to all orixas generally rather than to one specifically. Therhythm is binary and very regular, but the tempo is rapid.

AFOXE (pronounced "ah-fo0-shay") - From Bahia, Brazil, Afro-Brazilian

rhythm and dance movement. The afoxe rhythms derive from the ritual musicof Candomble, which is Yoruba (Nigerian) religion in Brazil. Modern afoxesongs are often sung in the Yoruba language and are also concerned with theCandomble gods, as well as contemporary social issues. (see SAMBA)

AFRICAN DRUM ENSEMBLE - Typical arrangement in an African ensemble

includes: overlapping call and response vocal exchange between solo cantor anda chorus, one or two bell players who hold unchanging rhythms, hand clapping,

and usually four drummers. The polyrhythmic blend of "six over four" timesignatures is characteristic of the African rhytmic feel.


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AFRO 6/8 - Generic name for any of the hundreds of ritual and cult rhythms

brought to Caribbean from Africa.

AGUERE RHYTHM - Brazilian condomble rhythm that is associated with thedeities Oxossi and Iansan.

ALABE - Lead drummer in Brazilian condomble ceremonies. He directs the

singing, improvises on the lead drum ("rum"), and often serves as solo singer.The alabe is accompanied by two other drummers, known as otun and ossi.

ANA - The fundamental spirit of the drum, in Afro-Cuban theology.

ANAGO - The creolized version of Yoruba language as spoken by Cubans..

ARARA (a.k.a.RADA, or ARADA) - Dahomean (West Africa)-born cult fromthe Fon communities in Cuba. Arara is also known in Haiti as Arada, or Rada.

In Cuba, this cult is strongest in the Provinces of Havana and Matanzas. InHaiti, Rada is part of "Arada-Nago" cycle , based on the rites of Dahomey andNigeria respectively, and has a strong Yoruba influence.

In Cuba, the drum battery is composed of carved West African style peg drumswith cowhide heads, played with a combination of hands and sticks, similar to

the Haitian technique. The drums are named "hu-gan" (largest), "xumpe," "hun-hogulo," and "huni."

In Trinidad, the Dahomean peoples maintain a Rada cult tradition, separatefrom the Yoruban "Shango" cult on the same island.

ASSOTOR - A large ritual Rada drum used for rare ceremonies in Haiti.. Insome places the drum is very large, as tall as or taller than a man. It is said that

the assotor is so sensitive the breeze will cause it to vibrate, like a violin. Inparts of Haiti the dance built around this drum is called the Assotor. (see

HOUNTOR)

ATABAQUES - The generic term for barrel-shaped drums in Brazil. Normally

played as a set of three, namely, the "rum" (ilu), the "rumpi", and the small drum

known as "le." The rumpi and the le are generally played with sticks. Skins areof cowhide or deerskin.

AVANINHA - The rhythm used to open and to close Brazilian Candomble oros,or ritual gatherings.

BACHATA - Guitar-based Dominican hybrid musical form combiningmerengue with salsa, Afro-Antillean folk and the romantic ballad.

BAION - From Brazil, a rhythm very similar to the Samba, but more staccato


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while the melodic line is smoother. (see SAMBA)

BAKONGO - Influential African ethnic group in Cuba.

BAMBOCHE - Any Haitian "good time" dance gathering.

BAMBOULA - From the Virgin Islands, similar to Juba drumming in Haiti.Often played by women in the Virgin Islands. Probably related to the Baboule,

a "Martinique" or Juba style of dance/drum found in Haiti. Sometimes featuresthe KA drum. (see JUBA)

BANDA - In Haiti, a sensuous dance step that is often seen during the annualRara festival. The banda is also danced at funerals, its sensuous hip-thrusting

movements signifying that life comes out of death. (see CALENDA)

BATA - The group of three double-ended drums used in the rituals of theLucumi/ Yoruba cults in Cuba, and in their West African homelands.

Individually known as Iya (large), Itotele (middle), and Ana (small). Recentlythese drums have been used for secular music, such as Batarumba. (see alsoLUCUMI, BATARUMBA, and SANTERIA)

BATARUMBA - A recent innovation within the Rumba complex that adds the

thick texture of Bata or Santeria rhythms (from Afro-Cuban religious rituals) tothe already dense Rumba percussion battery; the dance movement blends both

"salsa" elements and traditional religious gestures. (see RUMBA)

BATUCADA - A percussion-only session in Samba, or in a Samba parade. The

rhythm originated with theAfrican dance "batuque" from Angola and the Congo.

BATUQUE - The name for the Yoruba religious sect in the Brazilian state ofPorto Alegre. The term imitates a drum-beat. The parallel sect in the state of

Bahia is known as "Candombles nagos," and in Pernambuco it is known asChango or Xango.

BATUQUEIROS - Name for the percussionists participating in a batucada, or

percussion session in Samba. Brazilian street percussionists who beat outrhythms on found objects and o n fixtures, celebrating the omnipresence of "thebeat."

BEGUINE (BIGUINE) - From Santa Lucia and Martinique, named after theFrench word for "flirtation" or "darling." Possible roots in the Ghanaian

rhythm known as La Sinimowa.

BELAIRE - A woman's dance from Trinidad, in which only one woman dancesat a time, accompanied by three drums and the "chac-chac," along with the


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singing of chants. This dance implies a strong ethical code.

BEMBE - A West African ritual form characteristic of the Afro-Cuban Santeriareligion; any of several cult rhythms taken from this ritual. Also, the term for arhythm and song session that draws on these rhythms. Batarumba grows out ofone version of this hybrid rhythm. (see SANTERIA, BATARUMBA)

BIG DRUM NATION DANCE - An African-based celebration on the island of

Carriacou, integral to harvests, weddings, wakes, boat launchings, etc. A typicalBig Drum ceremony lasts from sunset to sunrise. Three drums, made of smallrum kegs, along with a gourd rattle, make up the Big Drum battery. Two small

"bula" drums (the "parents") keep a repetitive tumbao. The larger "cot" or cutterdrum (the "child"), tuned higher and outfitted with a buzzing snare device

across the head, acts as lead. (see CURBETA)

BOLERO (CUBAN) - Adapted from the Spanish Bolero brought to Cuba; gaverise to the Bolero-Rumba. Played in moderate to slow tempo.

BOMBA - A dance reportedly brought to the Caribbean from the town of Limbain the Belgian Congo. In Haiti, this dance, sometimes called the Limba, is part

of the Petro group, using two Petro drums, performed in honor of the loaBomba.

In Puerto Rico, the Bomba is now a popular dance of the coastal towns,featuring vocal call and response, accompaniment by a single maraca, sticks

("cua"), and two barrel-shaped drums ("bombas" or "tamboras")) played withbare hands. African influence traced to Bumba (Congo) people. (see PETRO)

BOMBO - The bombo note, named after the Cuban bombo drum, is theaccented part of the "one-bar clave" figure (the note occurs on the "and" of two.)

Bombo accent plays heavily in the conga, or comparsa, rhythm.

BONGO - Afro-Trinidadian dance, often performed by two men. Very rapidand intricate in footwork. Designed to allow dancers to express a wide range ofemotions.

BRIKAMO - The secret association for women that is similar to the (male-only)Afro-Cuban Abakwa cult.

BRULER CARNIVAL - The Haitian ritual occuring between Carnival and Rarawhen Rara bands set fire to bits of cloth or masks used in Carnival.

CABILDO - Afro-Cuban social club and mutual aid societiy, or "nation," manyof which were formed in the early ninteenth century. (see COMPARSA,

IYESA)


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CADENCE - French-Antillean dance music based, in part, on the compas-direct

from Haiti.

CAJONES (a.k.a.CAJA) - Different-sized boxes which are used as drums inAfro-Cuban rumba styles known as yambu and/or "rumba cajon."

CALENDA (a.k.a. "Chica") - Traditional Haitian dance steps, derived fromBantu traditions, described as early as the eighteenth century. The dance

resembles today's hip-twisting "banda" in Haiti. (see BANDA)

CALINDA - Afro-Caribbean "stick dance" known in Haiti as the Calinda, in

Trinidad known as the Calinda or the Mousondi, in Puerto Rico as the BombaCalindan, and in Surinam as the "battle dance." Known in the U.S.A. as the

"limbo." The counterpart in Brazil is known as the Capoeira. (see CAPOEIRA)

CALYPSO - Afro-Trinidadian form, featuring an improvisational rhythm andsatirical lyrics that are often rephrased completely out of meter. Calypsonians

compete at annual carnival.

CAMPANA (a.k.a. BONGO BELL) - Name for the bell played by the bogocero.

CANBOULAY - Slaves extinguishing fires on the cane plantations carriedtorches, sang, and marched to the fields in what became known as the burning of

the cane or Cannes Brulees.

CANDOMBLE - Syncretic religion of Brazil which is based on African Ifa

deities and rituals, with veneers of Catholicism. In Brazil, there is a rich varietyof candombles: Nago (Yoruba), Ewe, Ketu, Oyo, Ijesha (Iyesa), Angola, Congo,

and otheres. Candomble uses West African drumming and language.Generally related to Latin Santeria and French Caribbean vodou, as well as to

Brazilian religions called Umbanda and Macumba. A Candomble rhythmensemble features three drums (atabaques), the largest of which is played by themaster drummer. (see UMBANDA, MACUMBA)

CAPOEIRA - Combination martial art/dance in Brazil accompanied byberimbau, percussion, and chant. Related to Calinda "stick dance" in Haiti,Trinidad, and Puerto Rico. (see CALINDA)

CARABALI - Afro-Cuban descendents of the Ejagham peoples of theCameroon, who brought the Abakwa traditions with them to Cuba. (see

ABAKWA)

CARISO - Cariso is the melodic memory of our African past found in theBritish and U.S Virgin Islands. Traditionally, Cariso was sung by our ancestors


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to relay messages of rebellion as well as to make biting, social commentary.

CARNIVAL - Afro-Caribbean festival derived from combining European pre-Lenten festivals with traditional African masquerades.

CASCARA - See GUAGUA, PALITO, CATA

CATA - Haitian term meaning to keep time, as with sticks, or with one piece of

metal on another. Usually for work parties or for dancing. A "catalier" is onewho "catas." Cuban term for same is "guagua", "palito," or "cascara."

CHA CHA - A slow version of the Cuban Mambo. Accent is on the open tone

of the "four and." (see MAMBO)

CHANGUI - Cuban musical form popularized by Emilio Reve and others.

CHARANGA - Cuban orchestra which features violins, solo flute, timbales,

piano, and unison singing.

CHORO/ CHORINHO - A largely instrumental Brazilian music, whosesentimentality is tempered by jazziness and percussion.

CHOUVAL BOIS - Traditional Martinique style featuring wooden flute,percussion (Ti Boi0, and lead bass drum.

CINQUILLO -A fast-paced, five-beat accent which is characterisic of

merengue.

CLAVE - The key to Cuban musical understanding, and to the fit betweenCuban dance and music. The term clave refers to both the rhythmic pulse and to

the hardwood sticks used to express this pulse. Often written as 3:2 or 2:3. Theclave is always "in force" even when it is not actually being played. (see

TUMBAO)

COLUMBIA - The fastest basic form of the Cuban Rumba complex; involves aseries of solos performed by competing males. Played in 12/8 meter with 3:2clave. (see RUMBA)

COMPARSA (a.k.a."Conga") - In Cuba, a large group of "conga" musicians

accompanied by an entourage of dancers performing a specific choreographedroutine. The comparsa features paired male and female dancers, followed by ahuman chain of dancers known as a "cola" or tail. The comparsa often includes

elements of the cabildo, a mutual aid organization with direct African precedent.Dancers in the U.S.A. know the Comparsa dance as the "Conga," after the


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"conga line." The Cuban "boku" drum, three feet long and conical in shape, was

traditionally brought out as a marching drum during a comparsa. (see

CABILDO, CONGA, PASEO)

COMPAS DIRECT - A contemporary Haitian variant on the merengue dance ofthe Dominican Republic. Popularitzed by bands like Tabou Combo.

CONGA - In Cuba, this term refers to a small group of musicians within a

neighborhood comparsa who all play the same rhythm and are followed by theneighborhood residents. Outside of Cuba this term often refers to the rhythms ofthe comparsa parade, and also to the tumbadora, segundo (or "tres golpes"), and

quinto drums of Cuba, which collectively are called "conga drums." (seeCOMPARSA, PASEO, CABILDO)

CONGADA - A Brazil processional and dance form. The congada combines

elements of European folk or street theater with African form. It was (and is)danced by both blacks and whites who "played" characters from the medieval

poem "The Song of Roland," which recounted battles betwee Europeans andMorrs (Moslem Africans.) The procession is accompanied by drumming onatabuques, and also by stringed instruments such as the viola (guitar with five

sets of double strings) or rabeca (fiddle), which come from the Portuguesetradition.

CONJUNTO - Cuban orchestra featuring vocals, two trumpets, piano, bass,

conga, bongos.

CUBAN CLAVE - A nickname for Rumba clave, because of its use in

Cuban folkloric music. It is also called "black clave."

CULT DRUMMING STYLE - When three drums are used, the "first drum"carries the basis beat (tumbao): in cult (religious) drumming this is the high-

pitched drum, but in secular it is generally the low-pitched one. The "seconddrum" carries a counter beat, while the "third drum" improvises, leads.

CUMBIA - Panama's Afro-Caribbean rhythm. The drum battery includes the

caja drum, the requinto, repicador and the pujador.

CUMFA - In Guyana, South America, this ceremony has been traced back to

the Karomantee (Winti) African ritual of moon worship. The ritual is held onthe first day of August. Five or six drummers participate, all playing with barehands. (see YUKA)

CUMINA - Afro- amaican celebration rhythm, originally played with two "keg"

drums (known as Kbandu and Playing Cast), a bass drum, and rattles. Goatskinheads of keg drums are beaten with hands only, while the bass drum is struck


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with a thick stick, one end of which is wrapped in a piece of cloth or hide.

Played for rejoicing.

CURBETA DRUMS - In Venezuela, these African-type drums make up therhythm battery for the "Big Drum Golpe." The term golpe (slap) refers to thesongs and the rhythms that are employed. Related to the "Big Drum" tradition

of the island of Carriacao. (see BIG DRUM NATION DANCE)

DAHOMEY - Ancient kingdom of Western Africa, neighbors to the Yoruba..Dahomey is now called the Republic of Benin.

DAMMIER (a.k.a. "l 'ag 'ya") - "Fighting dance" of Martinique.

DANZON - Cuban dance form in 2/4 time which originated in the 30's and 40'sin a "charanga" orchestra. Danzon is an adaptation of the SON to the musical

form of the Spanish contradanza, employing more Spanish strings than the son.

DESCARGAS -Jam sessions which took place in the 60's in the U.S. as part ofthe Latin Jazz movement.

DIA de REYES - Day of Kings. Epiphany. A feast celebrated withprocessions and dancing by Afro-Cubans in colonial times.

DJUKA - see YUKA

ESCOLA DE SAMBA (Samba "schools") - Community social clubs, originallybased in the favela, or poor neighborhoods, which compete in Rio's carnival.

ESHO (ay-SHOW) - "Hold." A vocal signal during the Afro-Cuban bembe to

hold the rhythm and support the dancer.

ESTRIBILLO - The call-and- es onse vam used in earl Cuban son music, andwhich later gave way to the montuno or mambo section.

EXTEMPO - Lyrically improvised calypso; a tradition that connects Trinidad to

Africa.

FETE - In Trinidad, fete describes a party with music, dance, and food; from the

French word fete, literally meaning festival.

FON - Dahomean tribe whose traditions predominate in Haiti, Cuba, and in

northeastern Brazil. In Cuba the Fon are known as Arara.

FORRO - Style from northeastern Brazil, employing accordian, triangle, and"zabumba" drum.


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FREVO - Breakneck northeastern Brazilian rhythm and dance from Recife. The

word "frevo" means "feverish" or "heated" in Portugese. The frevo featuresmany brass instruments, as well as drums and percussion.

FUNGI - Musical form native to the British Virgin Islands, whose name means

"cook up" or "combination of," and characterized by a variety of instruments.

GAGA - Cuban version of Haitian Rara Festival. (See RARA)

GEGE - Traditional Dahomean people related to the Fon of Benin.

GARIFUNA - The "Black Caribs" who originated on the island of St. Vincent.

The Garifuna trace their roots to the intermarriage of indiginous Carib Indiansand West Africans who survived a slave ship grounding in the late seventeenth

century. Today Garifuna people are found in small pockets throughout theCaribbean, where they maintain strong West African musical and religious

traditions.

GOOMBAY (a.k.a. Gombey) - The name of a drum in many Caribbean nations.

In Jamaica the "gombey" has a box-like shape and is played with the hands. Inthe Bahamas it is called "goombay" and is conical in shape. The term also refers

to the Gombey masquerade troupes on several islands, and to the rhythms thatare played for these festivities.

GRANBO - Haitian bamboo tube played by beating on the ground; used in placeof drums. Similar instruments are employed in Africa.

GUAGUA - Cuban term for stick pattern played on side of drum or on wood

block. "La Gua-gua" is a percussion block made from an avocado log, playedhorizontally in Cuban rhythm sections Also, Cuban word for bus. Such stick

work is referred to in Brazil as "pailla," and in Puerto Rico known as "cua," andin Haiti as "cata." (see PALITO, CASCARA)

GUAGUANCO - A contemporary, urban form of Cuban Rumba wherein the

male pursues the female and the female tries to avoid his pelvic gesture("vacunao"). Based on pantomime of rooster and hen courtship. Modernguaguanco was worked into the son style. (see RUMBA)

GUAJIRA - Rural musical form that takes its name from the Guajiros, theHispanic peasants of the interior of Cuba. Related to the Punto.

GUARACHA -In Cuba, both a dance and song in alternate 6/8 and 3/4 time.

Originally a Spanish dance brought to Cuba by Andalusian planters.


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GWO KA - Percussion and street rhythm from the Antilles, and now centered in

Guadeloup; gwo ka strongly influenced zouk.

HAUTE TAILLE - Afro-Caribbean version of the French square dance.

HOSAY - Caribbean festival of Muslim origin, celebrated by East Indians.

HOUNTOR - A Haitian ritual dance, in which the giant Assotor drum is used.Literally, the word signifies "spirit of the drum." (see ASSOTOR)

IBO (a.k.a. Igbo)- An African ethnic group living east of the Niger River. InHaiti the term Ibo often refers to a popular dance. Neither a Rada nor Petro

form, the Ibo dance lies somewhere in between. In the past drummers usedspecial Ibo drums, which were played as a set of two. The maman was six feet

high, and the seconde was about four feet high. The heads were of snow whitesheepskin, laced with long sissal ropes instead of pegs. Today Petro drums are

often substituted, since they are played as a set of two.

IFA - The West African method of divination that is central to most syncretic

religions of the Afro-Caribbean, including, among others, Cuban Santeria andBrazilian Condomble.

IYESA (a.k.a. Iyesha) - The Yoruba-based music and dance of Cabildo Iyesa in

Matanzas, Cuba, which was formed in 1854. The name refers to a district inNigeria. Ensemble music features three or four bi-membraned drums (of whichthe "caja", or box, is the lead drum), two agogos, and a guiro or agbe. A creole

addition is the "bajo" (bass) drum. The drums are cylindrical, hollowed out ofcedar logs, and have two goat-skinned heads fastened with hemp lacing. Only

one head is played, using a small stick of goyaver wood. The heads of thosedesignated as sacred drums may not be tightened with the use of fire or heat.

Like the Lucumi bata drums, the sacred caja drum "speaks," communicating itstonal speech in Yoruba. There is also an Iyesa sect in Brazil. (see alsoCABILDO, LUCUMI, YORUBA)

JENVALOU (a.k.a. Yenvalo) - From Haiti, the supplication dance of theNigerian Dahomey rites, usually danced by the older people. A battery of threeRada drums and the "ogan" (irons) create the rhythm.

JONKONNU - Annual festival that is celebrated variously in Jamaica, theBahamas, and many other islands. In no two places are the festivals exactly the

same. It grew out of African dance and masquereades combined with Englishfolk festivals. It is usually celebrated around the Christmas and New Year's

holidays. This festival is known on Jamaica as Jonkonnu, orJohn Canoe(perhaps derived from the French words "Genie Connu"); in Jamaica it is


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characterized by an entourage of wire screen masked and costumed male

dancers. Contemporary Bahamian Junkanoo shares only a nomenclature with

the Jamaican practice. (See ROOTS JONKONNU)

JOROPO - Venezuelan form that features the quatro guitar, harp, and maracas.

JOUCOUJOU - A traditional Haitian instrument of gourd rattles mounted on thethree tips of crossed poles.

JOUVAY - The first day of Pre-Lenten Trinidad Carnival; the term derivesfrom the French 'jour overt" (opening day); participants in jouvay bands often

cover themselves with mud or ash, soot, and oil, while others dress in old wornclothes or dilapidated costumes.

JUBA (a.k.a. THE MARTINIQUE) - From Haiti, played by two drummers on

one drum, called "Tambour Juba," that lies on the ground. The drum is shorterthan a Petro, though constructed in the same way. One player plays the head,

using his heel for a damper; the second player, called the "catalier," beats sticks, or "catas," against the body of the same drum. No sticks are used on thegoatskin head. The Juba dance is sometimes called the Martinique, originally

connected to funeral rituals and harvest festivals.

JUKA - see YUKA

JUMBIE - see MOCO JUMBIE

JUMP-UP (a.k.a.Calypso Jump) - Trinidadian parade dance involving a chain

of linked dancers; similar to the "conga line" in Comparsa.

KA - Traditional African style drum found throughout the Caribbean and inBrazil, and even in ninteenth century New Orleans. This large peg-style drum is

normally played horizontally, with one drummer using stick, hands, and evenbare heel to produce rhythm, while a second player keeps time by beating stickson the body of the drum. The sound is reported to carry great distances, and the

Ka drum is used in rituals that can last for as long as two weeks.

KAWINA - Percussion and vocal music from Surinam, South America.

KAROMANTEE - The tribe from Ghana, whose culture predominates inJamaica and in many other English colonies in the West Indies, e.g. Barbadosand St. Lucia. The "winti" drum is specific to these people. The Karomantee

are also represented in Surinam. (see CUMFA, also YUKA)

KETU DRUMMING - An Afro-Brazilian (Yoruba) style named after a town inDahomey.


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KIMBISA (a.k.a. MAYOMBE) - Afro-Cuban cult, one of the many Congo area

groups known to have existed in Cuba. Numerous Congo "tribes" are spoken ofby present-day Cubans, including the Palamonte, Biyumba, Mosundi, CongoReal, Mundeli, Loango, Mondongo, and Bafiote. The deities have differentnames from the Yoruba pantheon. Drums, mounted with goatskin heads,and

tightened with ropes and wedges, are played only with hands. The drums aresometimes supplemented with wrist rattles and hand-held rattles.

In Haiti, the Mayombe peoples contributed the deity "Yaombe" to the Radapantheon. Their Congo-derived drums, however, are similar to Petro drumsrather than Rada drums in design. (see also YUKA, PETRO, RADA,

MOUNDONGE)

KIONU (a.k.a.Sihu) - Trinidadian ritual for the dead held nine days after deathfor highly placed members of the community. The ritual called for two drums;

one Kionu drum is a clay pot covered with deerskin, the other drum is a doublegourd floating in water.

KUNGER - Brazilian drummers' game or dance, involving challenging interplaybetween one dancer and one drummer at a time.

LIMBO - Trinidadian dance of acrobatic skill. Origins traced to Africa. (see

CALINDA)

LUCUMI (loo-koo-MEE) - "My friend" in Yoruba. A Yoruba greeting in Cuba.The term is used to refer to a person of Yoruba descent or to describe any

feature of Yoruba culture in Cuba. Sometimes santeria religion is called simply

"Lucumi." Music sung and played in praise of the pantheon of "orisha."usical instruments include three bata drums, large shekeres, and various bells.

True bata playing involves the bata drums expressing themselves in Lucumitonal language. The religious beliefs, drums, songs and dances are the basis of

the creolized Afro-Cuban reli ion known as Santeria. see IYESA, SANTERIA,BATA)

MACABRETA - From Jamaica, an exhibition dance inherited from colonial

days. Dancers recall the grief and delirium caused by being chained to hugeSpanish jars to guard masters' possessions. Term macabreta derives frommacabre, or gruesome.

MACAYOMBI - Stilt dance known in Dominican Republic and Bermuda.

MACUMBA - Brazilian syncretic religion, largely derived from Bantu traditionsof Congo and Angola. Originally called "cabula," but renamed later after the

absorption of further influences, such as Yoruba elements, Native Americanspirits, Catholic saints, and the spiritists' dead.. Separate from Brazilian


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Condomble. (see CONDOMBLE, UMBANDA)

MAHI (pronounced "my-eee") - Haitian dance/drum form that belongs to theVodoun or Arada-Nago cult ritual. Played with three drums and iron bell,sometimes adding "ganbos" (bamboo stamping tubes).

MAKUTA - Bantu (Congo) fertility dance that influenced the development ofCuban Yambu and other Rumba forms. The Makuta and the Brazilian Maracatu

seem to derive from the same Congo source. (see YAMBU, MARACATU,RUMBA)

MAMBO - A hybrid of Cuban rhythms and modern U.S. jazz elements. Popularin the U.S. in the 50's. The form also refers to an instrumental section of a salsa

or merengue tune, employing heavy rhythms to back up the solos. Derivedfrom the Rumba, the Mambo has been further developed into the Cha Cha, the

Double Mambo, and others. The term mambo refers to a priestess in Haitianvodoun rites. (see CHA CHA)

MARACATU - Brazilian dance and rhythm, played at a medium tempo.Probably derived from the same Congo source (coronation ceremony) as the

Afro-Cuban Makuta. There is an annual Maracatu, or parade, in the Reciferegion of Brazil. The featured drum is known as the zabumba.(see MAKUTA)

MARTILLO - The basic pattern played on the Cuban bongo drum; the term

means "hammer."

MARTINIQUE - (see JUBA)

MAS - A Trinidadian term denoting the masquerade costumes of individual

Carnival participants, as well as Carnival itself.

MASACOTE - A non-exact Cuban rhythm involving two drummers soloingalmost simultaneously, while also answering one another in their rhythmicpatterns.

MASQUERADE - On St. Kitts-Nevis, a Christmas masking tradition. The bandincludes bass, kettle drum, and fife.

MAYOMBE - (see KIMBISA)

MENTO (a.k.a. "Burro" and "Shay-shay") - Originally a calypso-like Jamaican

folk music with a gentle, lilting melopy and topical, sometimes mildly risquelyrics. Recently, mentor has become a Jamaican party and night-club dance for

couples, similar to Cuban Rumba, Virgin Islands' Bamboula, Martinique'sBeguine, and Haitian Meringue.


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MERENGUE - Dance music of the Dominican Republic that traditionally calls

for a two-headed drum called the tambora and a metal scraper called a guiro.Originally regarded as a "country-type" musical form, merengue is now a

successful pop style throughout Caribbean and Latin America. Merenguepattern has three parts: the merengue, the jaleo, and the apanpichao. Although

clave is not played with merengue, the rhythm fits over 3-2 clave.

MERINGUE - Name for several different Haitian popular dance forms, one ofwhich is similar to Dominican merengue.

MOCO JUMBIE - Caribbean stilt-dancer; the term is of African Origin.

MONTUNO - Not a rhythm but an Afro-Cuban dance or song form, using calland response between improvisations by the lead singer and repeated phrases by

a vocal chorus. In essence, a Montuno is the section where the melody stopsand the rhythm takes over. ike a "mambo" section, a montuno is also used as a

rhythmic support for a solo instrumental improvisation. Any Cuban rhythm canhave a Montuno part; e.g., Son Montuno.

MOUNDONGUE (a.k.a. Mondongo) - O e of many Congo tribes represented inthe Caribbean. In Haiti, the Danse Moundongue is played with two Petro-type

drums of different size and tone. The deity "Moundongue" is one of themalevolent Haitian loas. In Cuba, the Mondongo people are thought of as a

part of the Kimbisa/ Mayombe cult. (see KIMBISA)

MOZAMBIQUE - Adapted from the conga rhythm, mozambique was made

opular by Pello el Afrokan in Cuba, and later popularized in New York City byEddie Palmieri.

MYDAL (a.k.a. Myal) - In Jamaica, this is one expression of the sacred

Pacomania cult. One of the ceremonies is known as the "Ground Table."Traditional Mydal music employs two drums, the large one called "panya" and

the small one "zombi" (Bantu influence.) During the colonial period,

"mydalism" became an anti-white secret society. (See PACOMANIA)

NAGO - This Haitian dance gets its name from the Yoruba Nagos of the interiorof the African Slave Coast. Belonging to the Dahomean or Vodoun "nation,"

Nago has the the same drums and "ogan" as the Rada. The player of the largedrum frequently becomes a soloist here. The Nago is not an "all night" dance.The term Nago also refers to Brazilian Yoruba people.

NANIGA - Afro-Cuban secular dance, loosely based on the religious ritual of

the dance forms and motifs of the ABAKWA ("Nanigo") secret society. Oftenplayed as an extended percussion section break during the performance of a


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Cuban SON. (see ABAKWA)

NANIGO - see ABAKWA

NYAHBINGI - Jamaican percussion and chant music exemplified by RasMichael and Count Ossie.

OBEAH (a.k.a. "Obi") - Jamaican syncretic religion, generally related to

Vodoun, Santeria, and several others. This term, taken from the Ashanti word"obayifo," also refers generally to any form of Afro-Caribbean medicine. (seePACOMANIA)

ORO - The public ritual that is part of condomble practice in Brazil. It takes

place at night and on a variety of occasions.

PACHANGA - Latin American dance rhythm very popular in the early 60's.Also popular in francophone Africa.

PACOMANIA - Jamaican ritual within the sacred Obeah cult; dance featuresthe use of straw switches and fans to lure or to dissipate spirits. The secular

version of this cult dance is called the Mydal. (see MYDAL, OBEAH)

PAGODE - "Partido alto" Samba (slow tempo form) with improvisation. lso arecent movement in Brazil of informal jam sessions. (see SAMBA)

PALITO -Afro-Cuban rhythmic patterns played along with the clave whenplaying rumbas; also, the sticks usedto play these patterns. (see also GUAGUA,

PAILLA, CATA)

PALO - Afro-Cuban and Afro-Haitian ritual, part of the kimbisa and mayombeliturgy; includes palo-mambo, the palo-monte and yuka. Palo is related to the

religious belief and ritual of Petro, the Congo-derived culture in Haiti. (seePETRO, YUKA)

PARANDA - Cuban term for any neighborhood group of musicians or singers

who are active in the comparsas. (see COMPARSA)

PARTIDO ALTO - A slow tempo form of Brazilian samba.

PASEO - In Cuba, a sub-category of a traditional neighborhood comparsa.Older, estabished groups are known as comparsas; newer, smaller groups are

called paseos.

PETRO - Haitian vodoun cult (of Congo-Guinee group) that is markedlydifferent from the Rada cult (Arada-Nago group.) In fact, if a Haitian possesses


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both Petro and Rada drums, the Petro drums are kept in one room and the Rada

drums in another. The Petro "loa", or deities, are generally stern, if not

malevolent, while the Rada loa tend to be gentle. Another useful analogy is tothink of Petro as "military" and Rada as "civilian." Petro rhythms are alwaysplayed on two drums with goatskin heads (called "baka" and "ti baka"). The useof sticks is never permissible. The drum heads are held to the bodies by cords

fastened to the base, unlike Rada drums. Only occasionally is an ogan (metalbell) used. Pigs are the customary Petro sacrifice, and the characteristic color is

red. The use of magic, whips, fire, and gunpowder is common in Petro. Petrorhythms and rituals are the basis for the annual festival known as Rara. (see alsoVODOU, RADA, RARA, PALO)

PLENA - Afro-Puerto Rican form which features hand-held frame drums calledpanderetas, as well as guiro, and harmonica or accordian.

POTENCIA - A sub-group within the Abakwa Society in Cuba, sometimes a

lodge with specific membership. (see ABAKWA)

PREGON - A type of Cuban son adapted from the calls of Cuban street vendors.

A popular pregon known in the U.S. is "El Manicero," or "The Peanut Vendor."

PUNTO - A rural Cuban dance form related to the Guajira. (see GUAJIRA)

PUNTA - Traditional Garifuna (Black Carib) dance driven by West Africanrhythms. (see GARIFUNA)

QUADRILLE - Quadrille began as a square dance performed by the Frenchcolonists. When the enslaved Africans witnessed the Europeans performing

these dances, they like it and mimicked them. They implemented their ownrhythm, steps and instruments that were absent in European dances. This dance

is mostly seen in the Virgin Islands.

Quelbe - Quelbe originated during the time of slavery in the British and the U.SVirgin Islands. The West Africans who worked on the sugar plantations as

slaves brought with them a percussive and rhythm-based musical tradition andrich storytelling practices. The plantation owners, however, outlawed the use ofdrums by the slaves. Over time, the African descendents turned to the European

colonizers' military bands and social music as models for new instrumentationand melodies. Improvising with available materials, all of the slaves' new bands,

the predecessors of today's scratch bands, ultimately contained at least onemelodic instrument (such as a flute made from cane) and at least one percussiveinstrument (such as a squash made from a hollow, open-ended gourd).


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QUITTA - Haitian dance (of Congo-Guinee group) played on two goatskin-head

drums, with hands only. Quitta-Cheche is "dry," or secular; Quitta-Moye, or

"wet" Quitta, is the sacred form.

RABORDAGE - Haitian Mardi Gras dance. The term also refers to one of thefew Haitian drums traditionally played by women.

RADA (a.k.a. ARADA) - Haitian vodoun family of deities and rituals (of

Arada-Nago group) built around the traditions of Dahomey and Nigeria.Separate and distinct from the Petro family of Haitian deities and rituals, Radaemploys a battery of three peg-type drums, namely the manman, or hountor

(large), the moyen or seconde (middle), and the bebe, or bula (small). Heads areof cowhide, played with combination of stick and hand strokes. Accompanied

by ogans (irons) and often by rattles.Drummers are called "tambouyes." Lead drummer, playing large manman

drum, frequently uses a "baguette" stick against the side of the drum. Small andmiddle drums are played seated, while the manman drum is often played by a

drummer standing. (see VODOU, PETRO)

RAI - Popular music from Algeria, sung in Arabic. Nicknamed "Islamic Blues"

by Western fans. Passionate, with topical lyrics.

RARA - Haitian spring carnival celebration, dominated by Petro symbolism.Rara music features three single-note bamboo trumpets ("vaccines") and

percussion. Now integrated by commercial bands, it is not to be confused with"Rada," a sacred form. Rara is very old, the term itself meaning "loudly" inYoruba. The Haitian Rara parade is led by flag bearers and torch bearers, and

the crowds surge from house to house filling a collection basket with money,food, and other offerings. The parade is led by the "king of Lwalwadi," who is

dressed in towering headdress and crimson clothing. The goal of Rara is notpleasure, but exhaustion. Very demanding physically, Rara is perceieved more

as a duty than an entertainment. ara is known b the name "Ga a" in Cuba andthe Dominican Republic. (see PETRO)

REGGAE - Internationally played rhythm dominated by bass and drums,

originally from Jamaica.

REGLA - Rule, path, order, or cult. Specifically, one of the African religions of

Cuba.

ROCK STEADY - Bridge between ska and reggae with ska's tempo cut in half.

ROOTS JONKONNU - Jamaican all-male entourage of maskers, based in the

eastern region of Jamaica. Roots members demonstrate a strongly Neo-Africanstyle, whereas the Fancy Dress bands of western Jamaican parishes demonstrate


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European styles. (see JONKONNU)

RHUMBA (diff. from RUMBA) - Zairean dance music of Franco's generation,influenced by Cuban music. Precursor of soukous.

RUMBA - A Cuban folkloric dance/drumming/song form, as well as a festive,

collective party involving singing, dancing, and percussion. Rumba draws onlanguage and vocal styling from Spain, dance style from West Africa, and

drumming from the Bantu (Congo) region with Spanish inflection. The threetraditional forms of Rumba include Yambu, Guaguanco, Columbia. (see alsoYAMBU, GUAGUANCO, COLUMBIA, BATARUMBA)

SALSA - Term applied (outside of Cuba) to Cuban-style popular music/ dance.

SAMBA - The national dance/ rhythm form of Brazil. A 2/4 rhythm with scores

of variations -- carnival parade sambas (samba enredo), samba songs (sambacancao), partido alto (samba de bregue), "foot" samba (samba do pe), etc. A

basic samba ensemble features surdo (bass drum), pandeiro (small tambourinestruck w/ stick), and bells. (see BATUCADA, AFOXE)

SAMBA-REGGAE - Currently popular rhythm in Salvador, Brazil; develolpedby the "bloco afro" Olodum.

SANTERIA - Afro-Cuban religion drawing from Yoruban traditions as well as

Catholic sources. Santeria is celebrated with very specific rhythms and chants.Related to Haitian vodou, Brazilian condomble. In Cuba, Santeria rhythms aretraditionally played on Yoruba-style bata drums. (see also BEMBE, BATA,

LUCUMI, TOQUE GUIRO))

SHANGO (a.k.a. Xango) - Trinidadian syncretic religion, based on Yorubatraditions. The name Shango refers to the Yoruba god of thunder. Trinidadian

ritual employs a battery of three drums: bembo (mama), congo (papa), andamalie (baby). The drums are all two-headed, but only one side is beaten;sacred drums often have a fetish object placed inside the drum cavity. The drum

heads are tuned with adjustable lacing, which is attached in a way identical to

the lacings of the Tambor drum of Panama. (see YORUBA DEITIES)

SHANPWELS - Haitian word designating a type of secret society which

enforces community morality. Members often sponsor Rara bands.

SKA - Jamaican pop-style from the 1960's; mostly instrumental, horn-based,

ska was originally an up- empo Jamaican interpretation of New Orleans jazz andR&b. (see ROCK STEADY)

SOCA - Trinidadian pop music combining "soul" and "calypso".....hence, so-ca.


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SON - Afro-Cuban musical form that evolved in rural Oriente province; formed

the basis for much of Cuba's popular music, and later, Latin salsa. Thisindigenous Cuban music combines African rhythms and Spanish harmonies.

SON CARIBENO - Fusion of Caribbean styles including salsa, soca, reggae,

zouk, merengue.

SON CLAVE - The key to Cuban son. This clave is the same as a very popularand prevalent clave found throughout sub-Saharan Africa. It differs from therumba clave by only one note, which gives it an entirely different feel. The son

clave has a much stronger feel of 4/4 while rumba clave retains a stronger 6/8feel. Also known as "salsa clave" outside of Cuba. (see CLAVE)

SONGO - Recent innovation in Latin dance music, based on Cuban forms such

as Son, Rumba, and Mambo, combining them with contemporary harmonies,and electronic instruments. The percussion set for Songo consists of guiros, two

or more congas, and timbales/drumset. The guiro is the anchor of this section.Proponents of this form include Los Van Van (Cuba) and Batacumbele (Puerto

Rico). (see SON)

SPOUGE - Soca-variant rhythm originating in Barbados

TAMBORA - Double-headed drum used in the merengue rhythm. It is played

with both hands, one with a stick, the other without. Downbeats are played withthe hand, which the stick plays the syncopations; both play different open drumfigures.

TAMBOUR BAMBOO - Trinidadian rhythm ensembles that use variously-

pitched bamboo sections for percussion tools, in much the same style as Haitian"granbos." Bamboo percussion was originated after the 1883 Trinidadian ban

on African-style drums. Tambour Bamboo groups gave rise to the Trinidadiansteel band orchestras in the 1940s.

TAMBU - Virgin Islands hybrid popular dance, part Bamboula, part

improvisation.

TANGO - Devised by Moorish gypsies, who called this dance "Milonga."

Tango was brought to Cuba and Argentina by both Spanish and Africanpeoples.

TIPICO -Dominican roots music related to merengue. Typico ensemble featuresaccordion and sax along with a tambora-based rhythm section.

TOQUE GUIRO (pronounced "Toe-kay WEE-doh") - Contemporary Afro-


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Cuban musical form that is derived from Yoruba religious ritual music. The

Guiro ensemble is composed of three shekeres, each with a distinct pitch. The

two higher-pitched instruments hold steady patterns while the larger, lower-pitched skekere provides the embellishments and the "conversation.' A guataca(hoe blade) or other bell-type instrument usually accompanies the shekeres, andat times one or more congas are used. (see SANTERIA, BEMBE)

TUMBA - From Curacao; named after the conga drums plaed to produce it

TUMBA FRANCESA - French-influenced Afro-Haitian group of Eastern Cuba.The dance and ritual originally featured escaped Haitian slaves who mimicked

the courtly French dancing style of their former colonial "masters." The TumbaFrancesa ("French drum") performs two special dances, "el mason" and "el

yuba."

TUMBAO - The rhythmic pattern played on the lowest-pitched drum, which issometimes known as the "tumba" or "tumbadora" drum. Typically, the tumba

drum and the bass lock into a groove that accents the fourth downbeat (whenwritten in 4/4 time) of each measure. The combination of the clave and tumbaois probably the most important element of the rhythmic character in popular

Cuban dance music. (see CLAVE)

TYMBALE - The two-headed drum associated with Congo dances in Haiti.

UMBANDA - Afro-Brazilian religion, related to Candomble, that represents ablend of African Ifa religion and French spiritualism. In Candomble, the spiritsmake their presence known by executing characteristic dance movements, but

they remain silent. In Umbanda, however, the "orixas" (orichas) and the spririts,known as Indians and Old Black Folks, are said to speak to the practitioners.

(see CANDOMBLE, MACUMBA)

VACCINES - Haitian "trumpets" made of bamboo tubes in varied dimensions,played in hocketing sequence.

VOODOO JAZZ - Fusion of the Haitian meringue with traditional vodou songs.

Developed in 40's and 50's, it is becoming popular again.

VODOU (a.k.a.Voodoo, or Vodoun) - Afro-Haitian syncretic religion with

influences from West Africa and the Congo River region, as well as fromCatholicism. Sometimes perceived as being informed by two main traditions,the Congo-Guinee group and the Arada-Nago group. The term Vodou often

refers to Rada (Arada-Nago), while the term Petro refers to the Congo-Guineegroup. Drumming styles and the names of the "loa" (gods) in Rada and Petro

are highly differentiated. The term "vodoun" derives from the Fon word for"spirit."


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Generally related to Afro-Cuban Santeria, and to Brazilian Condomble,

Trinidadian Shango, and Jamaican Obeah. (see RADA and PETRO).

WINTI (a.k.a. Karomantee) - A Yuka (Djuka) cult in Surinam, thought to alsoinclude the Sardmaka peoples. The Winti cult orchestra is made up of an iron, aKwakwa, two Apinti drums, a Podya drum, a Mandra (Man drum), and a large

Agida drum. (see YUKA, PALO)

XERE (a.k.a. ADJA) - Brazilian rattles.

YANVALOU - see JENVALOU

YAMBU - A slow, basic form of Cuban Rumba in which a male and female

dance flirtatiously and seductively. The drum parts feature wooden boxes, or"cajones." Drawn from the Bantu dance known in the Congo region as Yuka

(a.k.a. Djuka, or Juka). (see CAJONES, MAKUTA, YUKA, RUMBA).

YORUBA - The West African people from the region of Africa that liesbetween the Niger River and the Nigeria-Benin border. In Cuba, the Yoruba arerepresented mainly by the Lucumi group, as well as by the Iyesa. The Santeria

religion in Cuba is based on Yoruban Ifa pantheon. In Trinidad, the Ifaradition is expressed through the religion known as Shango, and in Brazil Ifa is

syncretized with Portugese, French, and Brazilian Indian traditions inCandomble and other religious forms. (see ANAGO, CANDOMBLE,

LUCUMI, SHANGO, SANTERIA, IYESA, YORUBA DEITIES)

YORUBA DEITIES:

Eshu/ Elegba / Eleggua- The spirit of individuality, change, vitality, and theguardian of the crossroads. Often described as one-legged, he is represented by

a figure with an upright knife on his head, and with cowrie shell eyes. Hiscolors are red and black, his number is three. Eshu is known in Brazil as

"Bara."

Ifa - The god of divination, whose characteristic number is sixteen, and whose

colors are green and yellow.

Osanyin - The god of herbalistic medicine. His locale is the forest, his symbolsare leaves and roots. Often associated with ventriloquism, puppetry. Also

associated with bird imagery, and use of iron bells. Sometimes described asphysically bizarre, with one eye, one arm, one leg, and a squeaky voice.

Ogun - The god of war and iron, sometimes called "the fierce blacksmith ofheaven." Associated with cutting tools (machetes), speeding trains, bullets. His

characteristic number is seven, his colors green and black. Ogun celebratesspiritual vitality and the quickness of hand. Ogun is brother to Oshoosi.


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Obaluaiye - The dreaded spirit of disease (smallpox), who punishes the ignorant,

the immoral, the arrogant. His symbol is the thorn. Extensive "broom" imageryis used. Ritual uses garments and veils made of raffia.

Nana Bakuu - A fearless female warrior, she is the mother of Obaluaiye. Her

symbol is a magic staff called an "ileeshin," used as a weapon against evil.

Yemoja/ Yemaya - The goddess of the surface of the seas and rivers,representing the principle of maternity. She is represented by birds and byround fans. Characteristic number is seven her colors blue and white. In

Havana and Rio she has become associated with the image of the Virgin Mary.

Oshun - The goddess of sweet water, love, and giving. Her symbol is a spray of"witch feathers," as well as round metallic fans. Copper, or yellow, is her color,

and her number is five.

Shango (a.k.a. Xango) - The god of thunder. Owner of the drums, and of allthings made of wood. His symbol is either the thunderax or a dual thunderstoneon top of the head, and his color is red and white. Shango's personality is that of

both a warrior and a lover (fire and water). e is often represented by stone, theeyes of the leopard, the earthworm, or the mortar and pestle. Creolized into

association with St. Barbara.

Obatala - A sky deity, the god of creativity, whose color is white, and whosenumber is eight. e is responsible for forming children within the womb, and isthe protector of the town gates.

Oshoosi - The god of hunting, he is represented by the bow and arrow, or

sometimes by the fly whisk. Brother to Ogun. His number is seven, and hiscolors are lavender and black or blue and orange.

YUKA (a.k.a. DJUKA, or JUKA) - People and dance/rhythm style from Congogroups, including, among others, the Bantu, Mayombe, Moundongo and

Kimbisa peoples. A Congolese secular dance in Cuba bears the name Djuka,

or Mani. It is a "war" dance, in which three drums are played horizontally, thedrummers sitting astride them using both hands, heels, and sticks. The termYuka also refers to the Bantu type Cuban drum battery , individually known as

"caja, cachimbo, and mula" Their skins are ox or cow, and are often nailed on.Shells are often hewn from avocado trunk.In Surinam, the Djukas are a group of primarily Ashanti "maroons" who in

earlier times escaped, along with the Sardmaka peoples, into the SouthAmerican jungles and reconstituted their lives along West African patterns. The

African-based cults in Surinam and in Jamaica include the Karomantee. (seealso CUMFA, KIMBISA, MOUNDONGUE, MAKUTA, WINTI, PALO)


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ZABUMBA - A drum used in the Maracatu processional dance in Brazil.

ZION - A Jamaican cult ceremony. The Zion band is composed of triangle,tambourine, shakers, a bass drum and a snare drum.

ZOUK - Creole slang word for "party." Modern hi-tech Antillean musicproduced mostly in Paris.

0068 - Afro-Caribbean Glossary

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