00148459

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 28, NO. 4, JULY / AUGUST 1992 907

Energy-Efficient Lighting and Lighting Practices for the Pulp and Paper Industry

Aurele J. Maillet, Member, ZEEE

Abstract-The subject of energy-efficient lighting and lighting practices for the pulp and paper industry offers an opportunity to discuss energy-efficient lighting technologies, commencing with new current lighting products, the advantages and disadvantages of these new lighting products, coping with the disadvantages, their performance and design, and ways to apply these new products in an effective retrofit or in new construction applications. We will also review current recommended lighting practices for indoor and outdoor applications, and we will establish guidelines for improved techniques and economics with recommended illuminance values as applied to new projects or in the modernization of existing pulp and paper facilities.

I. INTRODUCTION NERGY-EFFICIENT lighting of the 1990’s offers an E enhanced environment through reduced glare, better

color rendition, and lighting controls that are more re- sponsive to occupant wants and needs. The investment in such optimized lighting systems, that is, the luminaire, ballast, and lamp combinations, can contribute to high productivity and real energy savings compared with those of the 1970’s and 803, where delamping and lower wattage energy-saving lamps were the more common methods used to save energy.

Today, we have the state of the art in energy-efficient lighting design. New products, retrofit technologies, viable management techniques, and better controls, all proven by practical experience, achieve a balance between opti- mum lighting and energy cost or savings.

The purpose of good industrial lighting is to provide energy-efficient illumination with quality and quantity sufficient for safety and to enhance visibility and productivity within a pleasant environment. The 1991 American National Standard Practice for Industrial Lighting [l] con- tains specific references to recommended illuminance levels in paper manufacturing.

Two excellent papers have been written (the first in 1966 by Page and O’Neil 131 and a second in 1970 by Engle [41). Those two papers were used as a guide for a third paper written and published in 1984 by Maillet [5]. This paper will add to the 1984 paper, which was entitled

Paper PID 91-26, approved by the Pulp and Paper Industry Commit- tee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation at the 1991 Pulp and Paper Industry Technical Conference, Montreal, Canada, June 3-7. Manuscript released for publication September 4, 1991.

The author is with Xenergy, Inc., Burlington, MA 01803-4543. IEEE Log Number 9108226.

Current Energy-Efficient Lighting Technologies as Ap- plied to “Current Industry Standards.” We will discuss the advantages or disadvantages of various light source, lighting cost analysis, life-cycle cost, energy concerns, current recommended illuminance values, the selection of luminaires, and ways to apply these luminaires by areas for a typical pulp and paper mill.

11. VARIOUS LIGHT SOURCES The efficacy of the lamp sources is the measurement of

light output in lumens per watt of power consumed. This is shown in Table I[6]. The incandescent and mercury vapor sources consume more energy for the amount of lumens they produce. These two light sources can be replaced very easily. Careful attention must be given to the selection of the proper light source. Some of the more common light sources for use in pulp and paper applications are shown in Table II[61.

Consideration must be given to lamp lumens (initial and mean), lamp life, start-up/restrike time, temperature and color rendering on a task, and lumen maintenance (the loss of light as the lamp ages). However, more important than the previous light source considerations is our goal to optimize the total lighting system performance, the luminaire, ballast, and lamp combination. Today, we talk about lighting system performance or (relative light output/watt) when we describe various lighting systems.

111. ENERGY-EFFICIENT LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES A. High-Zntensity Discharge (HZD) Sources

For most industrial applications, the prime light source used today for both new and retrofit situations is the high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamp. The lamp offers high efficiency, acceptable color, long lamp life, and good lumen maintenance. Mercury vapor (MV) sources are easily replaced with a metal halide (MH) lamp source (white light) if color is very important or preferably with a HPS lamp source (yellowish light) if that color is acceptable. The color-improved, HPS lamp source does not offer the lamp life and efficacy (lumens per watt) that the standard HPS lamp source provides.

A low-pressure sodium (LPS) lamp source (orange light) offers high efficacy and has excellent lumen maintenance, but the color is monochromatic and, if used, must be applied with considerable care. Its application should be limited to tasks where color discrimination is not a re-

0093-9994/92$03.00 @ 1992 IEEE

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908 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 28, NO. 4, JULY / AUGUST 1992

TABLE I EFFICACY OF LIGHT SOURCES

Light Source ~

Lumens/Watt*

Incandescent Mercury Vapor Fluorescent Metal Halide High Pressure Sodium Low Pressure Sodium

17-24 40-60 70-110 65-115 50-140

135-180 ~ ~ ~

*Does not include ballast watts/or lamp watts rise over life.

quirement. The high-lumen maintenance of a LPS lamp source is compensated by an increase in a lamp's rise in wattage over life.

High-intensity discharge (HID) sources include the MV, MH, HPS, and LPS lamps. There are some disadvantages to these sources; they all need a ballast to regulate current and voltage, the HPS lamp requires a starting aid, and all HID sources have a delay in restriking immedi- ately after power interruption.

B. Four-Foot Fluorescent Lamp, Ballast, and System 1) Four-Foot Fluorescent Lamps: Correlated lamp color

temperature is measured in degrees Kelvin, describing the overall warmth (3100°K for warm white) or coolness (4100°K for cool white) produced by the lamp source. Midrange is 3500°K.

Color rendering index (CRI), which is a numbering system from 0-loo%, indicates the relative color rendering quality of a light source when compared with a standard reference source of the same chromoticity. In general, the higher the number, the better the color rendering qualities.

Fluorescent lamps are still the dominant light source for office areas and light industrial applications. All lamp manufacturers now offer, in addition to the single coat T12 (1.5-in diameter) fluorescent lamps, a thin-coat triphosphor lamp, and a thick-coat tri-phosphor lamp in standard 40 W, and in 34- and 32-W energy saving versions. See Table I11 [6] for an increase or reduction of light output and the CRI.

The 40 W T10 (1.25-in diameter) fluorescent lamp is also available with 17% more rated lumens and can be installed on a standard 430-ma existing magnetic ballast

T12 and T8 lamps are available, and a hybrid ballast (Cathode cutoff) is designed to cut off power to the rapid-start T12 lamp filaments once the lamp is started.

The high-frequency 25-kHz high-frequency (electronic) ballast improves the T8 fluorescent lamp efficacy, afford- ing the opportunity to deliver the same relative light output for less power. These ballasts are quiet, weigh less, operate cooler, have a longer life (typically 70000 compared with 45000 hr for a magnetic ballast) and can operate three or four lamps on one ballast. If the ballast is operated in an instant start mode rather than rapid start, as in most T8 electronic ballasts,, the lamp life will be reduced from 20 000 to 15 000 hr at 3 hr/start.

All inductive equipment such as fluorescent magnetic, hybrid, and electronic ballasts develop third harmonics due to the nonlinearity of the magnetic circuit and lamp. Most ballast manufacturers offer electronic ballasts that meet the utility requirements of 20 to 30% total harmonic currents to qualify for rebate incentives.

Harmonic currents may cause problems in branch circuit wiring, overload neutral conductors in a three phase, four-wire system, as well as overheat transformers.

3) Four-Foot Fluorescent-System Performance! As shown in Table V [6], [7], a four-lamp recessed 2 X 4 ft lens luminaire retrofit shows ballast factors, watts, relative light output, and system performance. When comparing alternate systems lamp and ballast performance, the (40 W) T12 standard lamp and the standard 430-ma magnetic ballast is the base system.

4) Energy Cost Saving Four-Foot Fluorescent: Table VI describes the equation for energy cost savings and simple payback, and Table VI1 relates the energy cost and savings per year, the installed cost, and simple payback for each retrofit that was compared in Table V.

C. Eight-Foot Fluorescent Lamp and Ballast Technologies The eight-foot slimline and high-output fluorescent

lamp sources also offer a standard single-coat lamp and triphosphor higher color rendering lamps in both standard wattages as well as energy-saving versions as shown in Table VI11 [6], [7]. At this time, there is no high-frequency (electronic) ballast that will increase the efficiency of the 1500-ma very high-output or power-groove lamp sources.

system. The introduction of the T8 (1-in diameter) fluorescent D. Compact

lamp source offers a high color rendering quality and has had a major impact on the lighting industry. The T8 fluorescent lamp source offers improved system performance and unique design flexibility and can be operated in conventional luminaires, using the same medium bi-pin lamp holders as a retrofit for existing luminaires. It is the same length as the highly used T12 lamps. However, the T8 lamp system does require a new 265-ma magnetic ballast or a new high-frequency (electronic) ballast.

2) Four-Foot Fluorescent Ballast: Table IV [7] describes various four-foot fluorescent ballasts and their reductions in input power.

Energy-saving core and coil (magnetic) ballast for both

Most incandescent sources can be replaced with compact fluorescents, which are available as twin-tube, quad- tube, and as hard wired, screw-in, capsule or reflector units. There are disposable types (throwaway) or reusable types (separate ballast and lamp components). These twin tubes and quad tubes are listed in Tables IX [61 and X [61. Size, dimming, cold temperatures, and power factor are barriers to the use of this product.

Table XI shows, in Example #1, that an incandescent is replaced with a compact fluorescent going from 60 to 15 W with the same relative light output. In Example #2, a 75-W incandescent lamp is replaced, saving 80% of the input power for the equivalent light output.

MAILLET: ENERGY-EFFICIENT LIGHTING AND LIGHTING PRACTICES 909

TABLE I1 VARIOUS LIGHT SOURCES

Efficacy Start-Up/Restrike** * Initial Lumens Time Life * *

Watts Lumens Per Watt* (Minutes) (Hours)

Incandescent 100 1750 150 2880 300 6360 500 10 850

1,000 23 740

100 4200 175 8600 250 13 OOO 300 24 000 400 22 500

63 OM)

Mercury Vapor (Deluxe White)

Fluorescent (Warm White) 40/32 3200/2900 75/60 6500/5800

110/95 9200/8500 215 / 185 14 000/13 000

32 2500 75 5600

100 8500 150 13 500 175 14 000 250 20 500 400 40 000

1,000 125 000 1,500 155 000

70 DX 3800 95 DX 5200

150 DX 10 500 250 DX 22 500 400 DX 37 400

35 2250 50 4000 70 6400

100 9500 150 16 000 200 22 OOO 250 30 OOO 310 37 000 400 50 000 750 110 000

1 ,000 140 OOO

35 4800 90 13 500

180 33 000

Metal Halide (Clear)

Color Improved-High Pressure Sodium (Clear)

High Pressure Sodium (Clear)

Low Pressure Sodium

17 19 21 22 24

42 49 52 80 56 63

70-109 76-110 72-106 70-71

66 75 85 90 80 82

100 115 103

54 55 70 90 94

52 67 83 95

107 110 120 119 125 147 140

137 150 183

Immediate/Immediate Immediate/Immediate Immediate/Immediate Immediate/Immediate Immediate/Immediate

5-7/3-6 5-7/3-6 5-7/3-6 2-4/10 5-7/3-6 5-7/3-6

Immediate/Immediate Immediate/Immediate Immediate/Immediate Immediate /Immediate

2-4/5-10 2-4/10 2-4/10 2-4/10 2-4/10 2-4/10 2-5/10 2-4/10-15

5/10-15

3-4/1 3-4/1 3-4/1 3-4/1 3-4/1

3-4/1 3-4/1 3-4/1 3-4/1 3-4/1

3-4/1 3-4/1 3-4/1 3-4/1 3-4/1 '

3-4/1

7 / 1 9/1 9/1

750 750 750

1000 lo00

24000 + 24000 + 24000 + 10 000 24000 + 24000 + 20 000 18 000 18 000 12 000

7500 5000

10 000 10 000 10 000 10 000 20 000 12 000

3000

10 000 10 000 15 000 15 000 10 000

16 000 24000 + 24000 + 24000 + 24000 + 24000 + 24000 + 24000 + 24000 + 16 000 24000 + 18 000 18 000 18 000

* Initial Rated Lumens-Ballast watts and lamp watts rise over life are not included. * * Life (hours) is that number of hours at which it is expected that 50% of a group of lamps are likely to fail.

0 Fluorescent at three hours per start. 0 High intensity discharge sources at 10 hours per start.

* * * To 95% lumens.

E. Other Lighting Technologies rect it downward. This usually allows a 50% reduction in lamps and ballast. The disadvantage to this product may

I ) Specular Reflectors: By improving paint reflectivity cause a cavern (or) tunnel effect in the space. and redirecting light directly under the lighting luminar- In a recessed lighting luminaire, the existing white ies, specular reflectors permit lamp reduction without painted reflector is covered with a new specular reflector. significantly reducing light levels on the work surface. The luminaire efficiency increases, especially if the lamp

In an open industrial fluorescent luminaire, specular sockets are repositioned, reflector reflectivity. In addition, reflectors take the light going up and sideways and redi- luminaire light distribution increases since a large portion


TABLE 111 FOUR FOOT FLUORESCENT LAMPS

~~

Standard 40-W T-12 -Single coat-(CRI = 50/60) -Thin coat Triphosphor-5% increase in light output

-Thick coat Triphosphor-6% increase in light output (CRI = 70)

(CRI = 80) Standard 40-W T-10

Energy-Saving 34-W T-12 -17% increase in light output (CRI = 80)

-Single coat-13% reduction in light output (CRI = 50/60) -Thin coat Triphosphor-7% reduction in light output

-Thick coat Triphosphor-5% reduction in light output (CRI -- 70)

(CRI = 80) Energy-Saving 32-W T-12 (Cathode cutoff)

-Single coat-13% reduction in light output (CRI = 50/60) -Thin coat Triphosphor-7% reduction in light output

-Thick coat Triphosphor-5% reduction in light output (CRI = 70)

(CRI = 80) Standard 32-W T-8 -8% reduction in light output (CRI = 75)

TABLE IV FOUR-FOOT FLUORESCENT BALLAST

TABLE V LIGHTING TECHNOLOGY COMPARISON DATA

(77°F Test Room, Four-Lamp Recessed 2 X 4-ft Lens Luminaire)

Light System Relative

Ballast Output Performance Lamp Type Ballast Factor Watts (RLO) RLO/Watts

Standard Standard

Energy-Saving Standard

Energy-Saving Standard

Standard Energy-Saving

Energy-Saving Energy-Saving

Energy-Saving Energy-Saving

Energy-Saving

40-W T12 Magnetic 0.95 174 100 100

34-w Magnetic 0.90 155 95 107

32-W Magnetic 0.90 144 93 113

40-W T12 Magnetic 0.95 162 101 108

34-w Magnetic 0.88 139 93 116

32-W Magnetic 0.88 131 91 122

34-w Electronic 0.75 119 86 125 Energy-Saving

34-w Hvbrid 0.95 116 87 130 Standard

Standard 32-W T8 Magnetic 0.95 132 104 137

32-W T8 Electronic 0.92 106 101 166

Standard magnetic ballast

Energy-saving core and coil (magnetic) ballast-430 ma with (40-W) T-12 lamps

Energy-saving core and coil (magnetic) ballast-265 ma with T-8 lamps

Energy-efficient high-frequency or electronic ballast with (34-W) T-12 lamps

Energy-efficient hybrid ballast (Cathode cutoff) with (34-W) T-12 lamps

Energy-efficient high-frequency or electronic ballast with T-8 lamps

-7% reduction in input power




TABLE VI ENERGY COST SAVINGS EQUATIONS

First-Year Energy Savings:

Watts Saved X Energy Rate X hr/yr 1000

Energy = Dollars

Saved

Simple Payhack

Simple = Payback

in Years

Installed Cost First-Year Energy Savings

20-W incandescent lamps can usually be converted with a -39% reduction in input power compact fluorescent exit sign retrofit kit. A single 9-W

compact fluorescent lamp will consume approximately 11 of light goes directly below the luminaire. This product typically offers a 50% energy savings by removing two lamps in a four-lamp luminaire; there is, however, some reduction of light (about 20%).

Most specular reflectors are available in aluminum, silver, and multiple dielectric coating. 2) Current Limiters: Current limiters are devices that

limit the amount of current flow through a fluorescent lamp. They are wired in series between the ballast and the lamps and are permanently mounted in the fixture cavity area.

Current limiters are available in standard 20, 30, and 50% power-reduction ranges. Light output is reduced by the same amount as the power reduction.

Typically, these units should be installed in overlit areas where delamping or disconnecting fixtures is not feasible.

Current limiters are not compatible with all types of fluorescent lamps and ballasts. They may be unsuitable for operation of energy-saving lamps. 3) Exit Signs: Exit signs equipped with two 15-W or two

W with the ballast. A new LED exit sign will consume 6 W, or a new electroluminescent exit sign will consume 2 W of energy. Note that the existing exit signs should utilize the downlight component to get the 1 fc require- ment at the egress as required by Life Safety Code [lo]. The LED and electroluminescent signs do not offer that feature.

IV. ENERGY CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES A. Occupancy Sensors

Occupancy sensors are finding widespread energy cost- saving applications. Basically, there are two types: passive infrared and ultrasonic disturbance. Each has its strengths and weaknesses. Both usually have sensitivity and time-delay adjustments. Most applications involve switching off all or a portion of the lights (and HVAC equipment when possible) in unoccupied areas such as offices, conference rooms, class rooms, rest rooms, cafeterias (or portions thereof), storerooms, libraries, computer rooms, etc.

Passive infrared sensors are the most popular type but

MAILLET ENERGY-EFFICIENT LIGHTING AND LIGHTING PRACTICES 911

TABLE VI1 LIGHTING TECHNOLOGY COMPARISON DATA (ENERGY COST AND SAVINGS)

(77°F Test Room Four-Lamp Recessed 2 x 4-ft. Lens Lumhaire)

Energy Saving/ Installed Simple

Lamp Type Ballast Watts Yr. cost Payback

Standard 40-W T12 Standard Magnetic 174 Energy-Saving 34-W Standard Magnetic 155 $4.56 $11.00 2.4 Energy-Saving 32-W Standard Magnetic 144 $7.20 $13.00 1.8 Standard 40-W T12 Energy-Saving Magnetic 162 $2.88 $50.00 17.4 Energy-Saving 34-W Energy-Saving Magnetic 139 $8.40 $52.00 6.2 Energy-Saving 32-W Energy-Saving Magnetic 131 $10.32 $54.00 5.2

Energy-Saving 34-W Hybrid 116 $13.92 $58.00 4.2 Standard 32-W T8 Magnetic 132 $10.08 $68.00 6.7 Standard 32-W T8 Electronic 106 $16.32 $65.00 4.0

Energy Cost and Savings based on $0.08/kWh energy rate 3000 hr/yr operating hours

0 Does not include utility rebate incentives or maintenance savings.

Energy-Saving 34-W Electronic 119 $13.20 $62.00 4.7

TABLE VI11 EIGHT-FOOT FLUORESCENT LAMP AND BALLAST TECHNOLOGIES

Energy Standard Saving Electronic Ballast Mag. Ballast Ballast Watts Watts Watts

Slimline 425-ma (Single Pin Socket) Two 75-W standard lamps 1 73 158 141 Two 60-W energy-saving lamps 138 123 113

Two 110-W standard lamps 257 237 209 Two 95-W energy-saving lamps 227 207 178

High-Output (HO) 800-ma (Recessed Double-Contact Socket)

Very High Output (WO) and Power Groove (PG) 1500 ma (Recessed Double-Contact Socket)

Two 185/195-W energy-saving Two 215-W standard lamps 450 N/A N/A

lamps 390 N/A N/A

TABLE IX INCANDESCENT COMPACT FLUORESCENT

LUMEN COMPARISON

Incandescent Compact Fluorescent

Watts Lumens Watts Lumens

40 455 1-7-W Twin 400 1-9-W Quad 600

60 870 1-13-W Twin 900 2- 7- W Twin 800

1-13-W Quad 860 75 1190 2-9-W Twin 1200

1-18-W Quad 1190 100 1750 2-13-W Twin 1800

2-13-W Quad 1720 1-26-W Quad 1800

150 2850 2- 18-W Quad 2500 200 4010 2-26-W Quad 3600

Initial Initial

have limited range and can be blinded by partitions, file cabinets, and bookcases.

Ultrasonic sensors have fewer range problems but can- not detect quiet occupants and can easily be triggered by any noise, whether it is human or not. The sensors are especially good in rest rooms when partitions obstruct the infrared sensors.

Some passive infrared sensors include an ambient light

TABLE X

TEMPERATURE

Twin Tube Temp. Quad Tube Temp.

COMPACr FLUORESCENT LAMP SIZES / MINIMUM STARTING

Min. Start Min. Start

(T4) 5 W (T4) 7 W (T4) 9 W (T4) 13 W (T5) 18 W (T5) 24 W (T5) 36 W (T5) 40 W

0°F (T4) 9 W 25°F 0°F (T4) 13 W 32°F

29°F (T4) 16 W 32°F 32°F (T4) 18 W 32°F

32°F (T4) 22 W 50°F 50°F (T4) 26 W 32°F 50°F (T4) 28 W 32°F 50°F

sensor that can be adjusted to leave the lights off in the occupied space if there is sufficient daylight.

B. Dimming System Until recently, the dimming of lights was limited to

incandescent lamps, unless special dimming fluorescent ballasts were used. Recent technology advances now allow dimming of standard fluorescent lamps in entire circuits without requiring special ballasts. Dimmers save energy in several ways:

In overlit areas, they permit uniform reduction of light, bringing it to more comfortable levels (i.e., 200 lux 20 fc to 400 lux 40 fc in office areas with video display terminal users). In perimeter areas, they can be combined with pho- tocells to dim automatically when daylight fulfills all or part of the lighting requirements. In all areas, dimmers allow for variations in lamp output with age. After group relamping, the lights are dimmed to achieve the desired level. Then, as lamps age and light output decreases, the dimmers permit gradual increases to maintain the desired light on the work surface.

C. Daylighting and Perimeter Dimming Facilities should attempt to utilize daylighting to meet

lighting requirements whenever possible. The best places

~


TABLE XI INCANDESCENT REPLACEMENT TO COMPACr FLUORESCENT

Example # 1

Standard Incandescent Lamp-60 W Screw-in compact fluorescent lamp

-15 W with ballast -75% reduction in input power -3% reduction in light output

Example #2

A typical 8-ft-high ceiling in a corridor or hallway utilizing a 75-W R30 incandescent spot lamp in a recessed high hat luminaire

13-W quad fluorescent lamp with a screw-in ballast with a reflector -15 W with ballast -80% reduction input power

Size, dimming, and cold temperatures are barriers in using this product

to do so are in windowed perimeters, lobbies, atriums, perimeter stairwells, and areas with skylights.

Most buildings constructed since 1980 have separate perimeter lighting circuits; other buildings must deter- mine whether the lighting circuits allow for reduction in perimeter areas without reducing light in areas receiving no daylight.

There are three ways of achieving the reductions:

1) Where lighting luminaires have multilevel switching, output can be reduced simply by switching off one or more of the lamps.

2) If the lighting circuit has a dimmer on it, the entire circuit’s output can be reduced by dimming.

3) Entire circuits can be switched off.

D. Photoelectric Control Photoelectric controls are useful for turning off unnec-

essary lighting when other sources (i.e., daylight) are available. They are often used in combination with other lighting controls such as dimmers, occupancy sensors, and timers. Photoelectric control is also utilized for outdoor lighting, especially for parking lots.

E. Energy Management Systems Energy management systems use micro and minicom-

puters to control the lighting and HVAC functions in a facility, especially if areas are not in operation 24 hr/day.

The latest generation energy management systems em- ploy microcomputers that can be used alone in a small building or networked to control larger facilities. Most systems have many options, including alarm and reporting functions.

These systems generally have paybacks of 1-2 yr because they operate the facility more efficiently, and they reduce the labor required to troubleshoot and correct building problems. If a modem is installed, it can be accessed from a remote location (such as the users home on weekends).

Because these systems are often complex and represent a sizable investment, the selection procedure is critical to obtaining an optimal system.

V. ILLUMINANCE RECOMMENDATIONS The pulp and paper industry, similar to other industries,

have established recommended illuminance values. These are shown in Table XI1 and are single specific, maintained illuminance values that, in its opinion, represents appropriate illuminance for listed tasks. These are not intended to be interpreted as requirements for regulatory minimum illuminance.

These illuminance values are represented as recommended target values for efficient visual performance in the modification to existing lighting systems and for design values in new lighting systems.

VI. LIGHTING COST ANALYSIS

General lighting cost analysis (no. 1) [8] was provided for this paper on the following three typical paper mill areas. The first analysis (Tables XI11 and XIV) is based on a new lighting installation a high bay area paper machine operating floor with an illuminance value of 700 lux 70 fc, compared with a 400-W mercury vapor, metal halide, and HPS lighting system.

Our second analysis (Tables XV and XVI) is for a lighting renovation in a paper machine basement, with an illuminance value of (300 lux) 30 fc compared with an existing 200-W incandescent light source with a 175-W metal halide and 150-W HPS lighting system.

Our third analysis (Tables XVII and XVIII) is the same as the second, except we compare an existing 175-W mercury vapor system with a 175-W metal halide and a 150-W HPS lighting system. The following are some general assumptions.

1) 10000 sq. ft. illuminated area 2) wiring and distribution system cost from outlet box

back to and including a distribution panel, estimated at $200/kW load and based on rated system input watts (high starting currents are not included)

3) installation labor to hang and connect the luminaire to an outlet box estimated at $20/manhour

4) spot lamp replacement labor estimated at $10/lamp 5) luminaire cleaning assumed at relamping with cost

included in relamping labor 6) based on 8760 hr lamp burning per year 7) energy cost estiqated at $0.06/kWh 8) annualized owning cost assumes 10%/yr straight-

line depreciation plus 5%/yr for miscellaneous carrying charges equals 15% of capital cost (initial cost less lamps)

9) reflectances = ceiling 70%/wall 50%/floor 20%/ room cavity ratio = 1.

VII. LUMINAIRE SELECTION Pulp and paper mill environments vary greatly. Lighting

luminaires should provide good photometric properties, efficiency and uniform distribution of light. They should have an Underwriters Laboratories (UL) UL-1570 listing


TABLE XI1 PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY RECOMMENDED MAINTAINED

ILLUMINANCE (INDOORS) Area/Activity LUX

Groundwood mill grinder room 700 Paper Mill-Preparation

Beater room 300 Brown stock washers 500 SW, HW Kraft bleaching

operating floor 500 SW, HW Kraft bleaching

basement 300 Lime kiln 300 Color plant ’ 1000 Digester operating floors 300 Digester inactive floors 200

Paper Mill-Machine Room Paper machine room

basement 300 Headbox, slice, wire,

and press 700 Working aisle 700 Roll dryer 500 Calender, reel, winder 1000 Rewinder lo00 Mezzanines 300

Coater and supercalender 700 Finished roll storage 300 Cutting and sorting 700 Trimming 700 Inspection loo0 Storage room or warehouse

Inactive 10 Active 50 Shipping railroad shed 50 Shipping truck shed 50

Paper Mill-Finishing, Inspection, Shipping

Maintenance Shops and Stores Medium benchboard and

machine work 500 Fine benchboard and machine work 1000 Instrument repair 750 Electrical rooms 300 Heating and ventilating rooms 300

Close work 1000 Geperal 500

Stairways, corridors* 100 Elevators, freight and passenger* 100 Toilets and washrooms 200 Locker Rooms 200

Laboratories

Services Spaces

Power Plant-Interior (Power, Boiler, Recovery Boiler, etc.)

air-conditioning equipment, air preheater and fan floor, ash sluicing 100

Auxiliaries, pumps, tanks, compressors, gauge area 200

Battery rooms 300 Boiler platforms 200 Burner platforms 300 Cable room 100 Coal handling systems 100 Coal pulverizer 200 Condensers, deaerator floor.

evaporator floor, heater floors

Main control boards** Auxiliary control panels* * Operator’s station** Maintenance and wiring areas Emergency operating lighting Gauge reading

manifold area

Control Rooms:

Hydrogen and carbon dioxide

100

500 500

1000 300 30

300

200

Footcandles

70 30 50

SO

30 30

100 30 20

30

70 70 50

100 100 30

70 30 70 70

100

1 5 5 5

50 100 75 30 30

100 50

10 10 20 20

10

20 30 20 30 10 10 20

TABLE XII-(Continued)

Area/Activity Lux Footcandles

Laboratory 700 70 Precipitators 100 10 Screen House 200 20 Soot or slag blower platform 150 15 Steam headers and throttles 100 10 Switchgear and motor control

centers 300 30 Telephone and communication

Tunnels or galleries, piping

Turbine Building:

equipment rooms 200 20

and electrical 100 10

Operating floor 500 50 Below operating floor 200 20

Visitor’s gallery 200 20 Water treatment area 300 30

Office Areas-see [91 Building Exteriors Entrances

Active (pedestrian and/or conveyance) 50 5

infrequently used) 10 1

Building surrounds 10 1

Parking lots 8 0.8 Log unloading 50 5 Log pile-active 30 3

Conveyors 20 2

Inactive (normally locked,

Vital locations or structures 50 5

Roadways 4 0.4

Log pileestorage 5 0.5

Power Plant-Exterior (Power Boiler, Recovery Boiler, etc.) Boiler areas

Catwalks, general areas 20 2 Stairs and platforms 50 5

bottom ash hoppers 50 5

Fan deck, platforms, stairs, valve areas 50 5 Pump areas 20 2

Ground level areas including, precipitators, FD and ID fans,

Cooling Towers

Fuel Handling Barge unloading, car dumper,

unloading hoppers, truck unloading, pumps, gas metering 50 5

Conveyors 20 2 Storage tanks 10 1 Coal storage piles, ash dumps 2 0.2

Horizontal general area 20 2

Horizontal general area 20 2

Building surrounds 20 2

unloading bays 50 5 Entrances stairs and platforms 50 5 Switchyards 20 2

Substation

Vertical tasks 50 5 Transformer yards

Vertical tasks so 5 Turbine areas

Turbine and heater decks,

* Or not less than one fifth the level in the adjacent areas. * * Maximum levels, controlled system

10

standard for fluorescent lighting luminaires, UL-1571 for 50 50 incandescent, or UL-1572 for high-intensity discharge

100 lighting luminaires. Additionally, they should be listed for use in wet locations. These luminaires should also contain 30

3 30 stainless steel hardware. Certain corrosive areas also re-

quire corrosion-resistant finishes. Lighting luminaires used in warm or hot areas of a mill 20


TABLE XI11 GENERAL LIGHTING COST ANALYSIS NO. 1

PAPER MACHINE OPERATING FLOOR 700-Lux 70-FC, HIGH BAY AREA, INDUSTRIAL-TYPE DIRECT UNIT 400-w

Mercury 400-W 400-w Vapor (CWA) Metal Halide HPS

Lighting System Description Crest Factor 2 (Peak-Lead) (Lead)

Basic Data 1) Rated initial lamp lumens

per luminaire 2) Estimated lamp life (hours)

at 10-12 hr/start 3) Group replacement interval (hours) 4) Average input watts per luminaire

5) Coefficient of utilization 6) Ballast factor X thermal factor (fluorescent) 7) Lamp Lumen Depreciation factor-LLD 8) Luminaire Dirt Depreciation factor-LDD 9) Number of luminaires required for

10) Connected load kW (#4 X #9) Initial Cost 11) Net cost of one luminaire 12) Wiring and distribution system cost

13) Installation labor cost per luminaire 14) Net initial lamp cost per luminaire 15) Total initial lamp cost per luminaire

(#11 + #12 + #13 + #14) 16) Total initial cost (#15 X #9) 17) Annual owning cost per luminaire

(15% of #11 + #12 + #13) 18) Total annual owning cost (#17 X #9) Operating Cost 19) Number of lamp spot replaced per year-no

(including ballast losses)

700 lux 70 fc

per luminaire

group relamping (8760 hr X number of lamps/unit x #9 + #2)

20) Replace lamp cost per year (#19 X net lamp cost/lamp)

21) Labor cost for spot replacements (#19 X spot labor rate/lamp) at $10/lamp

22) Annual energy cost per year (#lo X 8760 hours X 6$/kWh)

23) Total annual operating cost (#20 + #21 + #22)

Total 24) Total annual cost-owning and operating

25) Relative total annual cost for equally (#18 + #23)

maintained footcandles

22 500

28 500 spot

445 0.77 1 0.493 0.875

94 41.83

$133.00

$89.00 $50.00 $19.41

$291.41 $27 392.54

$40.80 $3835.20

28.8926

$560.81

$288.93

$21 985.55

$22 835.58

$26 670.78

100%

40 000

20 000 spot

445 0.85 1 0.8 0.895

29 13.195

$156.00

$91.00 $50.00 $42.71

$339.17 $9835.93

$44.55 $1291.95

12.702

$535.64

$127.02

$6935.29

$7597.96

$8889.91

33%

50 000

28 500 spot

452 0.86 1 0.881 0.875

21 9.492

$220.00

$90.00 $50.00 $43.43

$403.43 $8472.03

$54.00 $1 134.00

6.45474

$280.33

$64.55

$4989.00

$5333.87

$6467.87

24% -

(Illuminance) x (Area) (Lumens per Luminaire) x (Coefficient of Utilization) x (Light Loss Factor)

(#9) Numberof = Luminaires Dirt Condition (1)-Very Clean

should be UL listed for elevated ambient temperatures of 55 or 65°C rather than the standard 25 or 40°C listing. In hazardous locations, luminaires must be UL-844 listed by proper class and division, as required by the National Electrical Code [ 111.

The most common high bay or low bay area-type industrial indoor luminaire is classified as a direct unit. A direct unit is one that emits practically all (90-100%) of the light downward toward the working area, with less than 10% upward. Many direct unit luminaires have an open top and bottom reflector for ventilation. The self-cleaning chimney action creates a stream of air through the reflector, carrying dirt particles out the top.

Another type is the semi-direct unit, which is a unit that emits 60-90% of the light in the downward component and 10-40% in the upward component. The advantage of this unit is that it reduces the luminance ratio between the luminaire and the background.

The luminaires are also classified according to distribution of light in the downward component from highly concentrated to widespread. This classification is ex- pressed in terms of suggested spacing-to-mounting height ratios or, more recently, as spacing criterion.

The low mounting lighting luminaires that are enclosed and gasketed are usually available for pendant mounting, ceiling mounting, wall mounting, or stanchion mounting.


TABLE XIV LIFE CYCLE COSTS (OVER NEXT 20 YEARS) ANALYSIS No. 1

400-W Mercury 400-W

Vapor (CWA) Metal 400-W Crest Halide HPS

Factor 2 (Peak-Lead) (Lead) ~

Total Estimated Net Lamp Cost

Labor Estimated at $10/Lamp

Estimated Lighting Maintenance

Estimated Electric Cost at 6e/kWh

System Total Operating Cost Over 20 yr

Total Initial Cost Total 20-Yr Life

Cycle Cost Total Energy Consumption

(kW) at 8760 Hrs/Yr for 20 yr

$10 303.85

5308.53

$10 101.40

2395.40

$5150.57

1185.95

$15 612.38

439 716.96

$455 329.33 27 392.54

$482 721.87

7,329

$12 496.80

138 705.84

$151 202.64 9835.93

$161 038.57

2,312

$6336.52

99 779.90

$106 116.42 8472.03

$114588.45

1,663

The luminaires are also available with several optical assemblies such as globe, globe with reflectors, and refrac- tor units. They vary the light distribution such as long and narrow, asymmetrical, and symmetrical.

Consideration should also be given to which ballast type the luminaire should contain to serve one’s needs. Bal- lasts with a better degree of voltage or current regulation cost more. In the case of an HPS luminaire (usually a normal power factor reactor, high power factor reactor, or high power factor autotransformer), ballast is available with the luminaires. In addition to regulation, attention should also be given to the starting current and operating current of each ballast type. Table XIX is an example, for a typical 100-W HPS lighting luminaire:

A normal power factor ballast makes the electrical distribution system less efficient. It requires larger or more breakers, larger wire size or more wire, larger con- duit sizes, and a larger distribution transformer for the equivalent connected load.

VIII. LIGHTING APPLICATION BY MAJOR MILL AREAS

A . Groundwood Area Once the bark is removed from the logs, the logs are

sent to the grinders to separate the wood fibers mechani- cally. The personnel working in the grinder area should have an illuminance value of 700 lux 70 fc on the work platforms to enable safe movement for observation of hoppers and efficient shifting and/or handling of logs. The lighting luminaires used in the high or low bay areas should be industrial-type direct units or enclosed and gasketed lighting luminaire for low ceiling areas.

B. Brown Stock Washers General lighting illuminance values of 500 lux 50 fc

should be provided in this high bay area, using industrial-

T

type direct-unit lighting luminaires. The process is generally carried on under hoods. Supplementary lighting, with incandescent reflector lamps, is usually added to the hood enclosure on the outside, projecting inward on the stock.

C. Sojbvood and Hardwood fiafi Bleaching Bleaching areas are corrosive, and lighting luminaires

should be enclosed and gasketed with a corrosion-resistant finish. The basement area should be designed for an illuminance value of 300 lux 30 fc, and the operating floor should have 500 lux 50 fc.

D. Digester Areas The most critical area in a digester is on the operating

floor, where an illuminance value of 200 lux 30 fc is recommended with 200 lux 20 fc on the ground or chip conveyor floor and 100 lux 10 fc on the inactive floors. Enclosed and gasketed lighting luminaires should be used with a corrosion-resistant finish. The upper-level lighting luminaires should be rated for elevated ambient temperatures.

E. LimeKiln A lime kiln is joined on one end with a mud filter area

and on the opposite end with a firing area. In all areas, enclosed and gasketed lighting luminaires should be used with a corrosion-resistant finish; an illuminance value of 300 lux 30 fc is recommended. If the kiln area is covered, the luminaire should be rated for elevated ambient temperatures.

F. Paper Machine- Wet End The wet end of the paper machine is high in humidity

and temperature. Avoid placing the lighting luminaires over the fourdrinier wires and presses. Most mills have a drop cover ceiling over the fourdrinier to help eliminate condensation that might form and drop into the wire area.

For lighting the high bay paper machine operating floor, an illuminance value of 700 lux 70 fc is recommended, using industrial-type direct-unit lighting luminaires rated for elevated ambient temperatures. Supple- mentary lighting under the wire must be tailored to the job, depending on the equipment and mounting points available. Low-voltage watertight lighting luminaires are best suited for this task.

G. Paper Machine-Dry End The dry section is the start of the dry end. Hoods are

utilized to contain the heat, and only aisle lighting is necessary from the ceiling area. The use of industrial-type direct-unit lighting luminaires rated at elevated ambient temperatures with an illuminance value of 500 lux 50 fc is recommended.

Supplementary lighting is needed inside the dryer hood. The luminaires and wiring must be carefully chosen to suit the high-temperature environment.

The calender, reel, and winter area of the dryer end is an active area and is very dangerous. The use of industrial-type direct-unit lighting luminaires with an illumi-

-~


TABLE XV GENERAL LIGHTING COST ANALYSIS No. 2

Paper Machine Basement Floor 300 Lux 30 fc, Low Bay Area, Enclosed and Gasketed Unit

200-w 175-W 150-w Incandescent Metal Halide HPS

Lighting System Description (Existing) (Peak-Lead) HPF (Reactor)

Basic Data 1) Rated initial lamp lumens per luminaire 2) Estimate lamp life (hours) at 10-12 hr/start 3) Group replacement interval (hours) 4) Average input watts per luminaire

5) Coefficient of utilization 6) Ballast factor x thermal factor (fluorescent) 7) Lamp Lumen Depreciation factor-LLD 8) Luminaire Dirt Depreciation factor-LDD 9) Number of luminaires required for 300 Lux 30 fc

10) Connected load kW (#4 X #9)

Initial Cost


Net cost of one luminaire Wiring and distribution system cost per luminaire Installation labor cost per luminaire Net initial lamp cost per luminaire Total initial cost per luminaire

(#11 + #12 + #13 + #14) Total initial cost (#15 x #9) Annual owning cost per luminaire

(15% of #11 + #12 + #13) Total annual owning cost (#17 X #9) Number of lamp spot replaced per

year-No group relamping (8760 hr x number of lamps/unit x #9 - #2)

Replacement lamp cost per year (#19 X net lamp cost/lamp)

Labor cost for spot replacements (#19 X spot labor rate/lamp at $10/lamp)

Annual energy cost per year (#lo X 8760 hr x 6e/kWh)

Total annual operating cost (#20 + #21 + #22)


25) Relative total annual cost for (#18 + #23)

equally maintained footcandles

4010 750

spot

200 0.59

1 0.925 0.959

143 28.6

0 0 0

$1.50

0 0

0 0

1670.24

$2505.36

$16 702.40

$15 032.16 $34 239.92

$34 239.92

100%

14 000 10 000

spot

210 0.70

1 0.74

0.852 49

10.29

$146.00 $42.00 $50.00 $32.06

$270.06 $13 232.94

$35.70 $1749.30

42.924

$1376.14

$492.24

$5408.42 $7213.81

$8963.1 1

26%

16 000 28 500

spot

170 0.706

1 0.87 0.75

41 6.97

$174.00 $34.00 $50.00 $38.16

$296.16 $12 142.56

$38.70 $1586.70

12.6021

$480.90

$126.02

$3663.43 $4270.35

$5857.05

17%

(#9) Numberof = (Illuminance) x (Area) Luminaires (Lumens per Luminaire) x (Coefficient of Utilization) X (Light Loss Factor) Dirt Condition (4)-Very Clean

nance value of 1000 lux 100 fc is recommended. Avoid placing the luminaires over the sheet of paper.

Rewinders and inspection stations should also be designed with an illuminance value of 1000 lux 100 fc. Areas for coaters, supercalenders, cutting, sorting, and trimming should have an illuminance value of 700 lux 70 fc, using industrial-type, direct-unit lighting luminaries.

H. Paper Machine-Mezzanines Auxiliary equipment (i.e., heating and ventilating equip-

ment and pumps) is located on the mezzanines. An illuminance value of 300 lux 30 fc is recommended with enclosed and gasketed lighting luminaires.

I. Paper Machine-Basement Basements are usually very wet areas. The aisle area is

covered with pipes, tray, conduits, and heating and venti-

lating ducts. Locate the lighting luminaires as high as possible, usually 8-10 ft. above the floor. These luminaires must also clear fork lift truck traffic. Utilize enclosed and gasketed luminaires in wet areas and open luminaires in dry areas. An illuminance value of 300 lux 30 fc is recommended.

J. Power Plant-Power Boiler, Recovery Boiler, etc. Power complexes need light primarily for maintenance.

The tasks of inspection and operation are performed at limited points, and these areas can be defined with recommended illuminance values, varying from 500 lux 50 fc in the turbine area to 300 lux 30 fc for inspection. General area lighting can be accomplished at 100-200 lux 10-20 fc.

For high bay areas, the industrial-type direct-unit luminaire is appropriate, and for low bay areas, the enclosed and gasketed luminaire would be recommended. Ballasts

MAILLET. ENERGY-EFFICIENT LIGHTING AND LIGHTING PRACTICES 917

TABLE XVI LIFE CYCLE COSTS (OVER NEXT 20 YEARS), ANALYSIS NO. 2

200-w Metal Incandescent Halide

175-W

(Existing) (Peak-Lead)

150-W HPS

(HPF) Reactor ~~~~~~ ~

Total Estimated Net Lamp Cost Labor Estimated at $10/Lamp Estimated Lighting Maintenance Estimated Electric Cost at 6c/kWh System Total Operating Cost Over 20 yr

Total Initial Cost Total 20-yr Life Cycle Cost Total Energy Consumption (kW) at

8760 hr/yr for 20 yr

$50 107.20 334 048.00

$384 155.20 300 643.20

$684 798.41 .00

$684 798.41

501 1

$26 737.40 8339.80

$35 077.20 108 168.48

$143 245.68 13 232.94

$156 478.62

1803

$8835.65 2315.42

$11 151.07 73 268.64

$84 419.71 12 142.56

$96 562.27

1221 * * * * *

Lighting Investment Payback (Analysis No. 2) Annual Operating Costs $34 239.92 $7213.81 $4270.35

Operating Cost Savings $.OO $27026.11 $29 969.57 Total New Investment $.OO $13 232.94 $12 142.56

Simple Investment Payback Interval 5.9 mo 4.9 mo Simple Return on Investment 204.33% 246.81%

rated for higher ambient temperatures are also a must, especially on the top levels.

K Storage Rooms or Warehouse A properly illuminated warehouse will help reduce

product damage caused by fork lift truck drivers. Care must be taken to locate the lighting luminaires away from the paper storage areas and into the aisle.

An active warehouse should have illuminance values of 50 lux 5 fc and an inactive warehouse with 10 lux 1 fc. These are usually high bay areas using an industrial-type widespread direct-unit luminaires.

L. Control Rooms Recessed sharp cut-off fluorescent lighting fixtures in a

control room is the most common. The luminaires placement must be coordinated with the control panels to provide vertical illumination on the panel faces.

If VDT’s are used in the control room, care must be given to avoid reflected glare on the screen, that is, avoid having the light source reflecting from the surface of control displays into the operator’s eyes. An indirect lighting system is a very good lighting system that controls discomfort reflections and veiling of display information from VDT terminals. To enhance the clarity of a VDT display, an illuminance value of (200-400 lux) 20-40 fc is desired. The fluorescent lighting luminaires should be dimmer controlled or multilevel switching to allow the operator to adjust the light level.

M. Woodyard Most woodyards are 24-hr operations. Closed-circuit

television is used to monitor the barking drums, chip piles, and various systems. One hundred-foot-high tower or high mast lighting is the most popular and least expensive method by which to light a woodyard.

Minimum interior illuminance values around the wood-

yard should be 50 lux 5 fc, and in areas where active equipment is utilized, 200 lux 20 fc are recommended. Careful placement of the lighting luminaires to avoid glare in the operator’s eyes is important. Supplementary lighting can be mounted on buildings, structures, pipe bridges, conveyor supports, etc., for areas that require higher illuminance.

N. Ofices For office lighting, refer to [91.

Ix. EMERGENCY AND STANDBY LIGHTING Emergency lighting from individual battery units lo-

cated in electric or ventilated rooms, utilizing remote heads where needed, is the most common system. A time delay relay can keep the emergency lighting system ener- gized long enough after the power is restored to allow the lamps to cool down and restrike.

Many manufacturers of luminaires have an incandescent quartz lamp standby feature available in their luminaires. The quartz lamp will stay on until the high-intensity discharge lamp reaches a certain light output, and then, it extinguishes. This system is not for emergency use but permits instant light after a dip in voltage or an outage. These are placed in more critical areas of the mill.

X. MAINTENANCE The lighting system should be able to perform its func-

tion of providing adequate light at minimum cost. Without a program of maintenance, the lighting system will depre- ciate to a point where it could be delivering less than one half of the original light due to dirt (LDD), lamp lumen depreciation (LLD) and burned out lamps that are not promptly replaced.

A. Lamp Replacement Lamps in a lighting system can be replaced individually

as they burn out, which is a process referred to as spot

91 8 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 28, NO. 4, JULY / AUGUST 1992

TABLE XVII GENERAL LIGHTING COST ANALYSIS No. 3

PAPER MACHINE BASEMENT FLOOR (300 LUX) 30 FC, LOW BAY AREA, ENCLOSED AND GASKETED UNIT

Lighting System Description

Basic Data 1) Rated initial lamp lumens per luminaire 2) Estimate lamp life (hours) at 10-12 hr/start 3) Group replacement interval (hours) 4) Average input watts per luminaire

5) Coefficient of utilization 6) Ballast factor X thermal factor (fluorescent) 7) Lamp Lumen Depreciation factor-LLD 8) Luminaire Dirt Depreciation factor-LDD 9) Number of luminaires required for 300 Lux 30 fc

10) Connected load kW (#4 X #9)

Initial Cost 11) Net cost of one luminaire 12) Wiring and distribution system cost per luminaire 13) Installation labor cost per luminaire 14) Net initial lamp cost per luminaire 15) Total initial cost per luminaire

(#11 + #12 + #13 + #14) 16) Total initial cost (#15 X #9) 17) Annual owning cost per luminaire

(15% of #11 + #12 + #13) 18) Total annual owning cost (#17 X #9)

Operating Cost 19) Number of lamp spot replaced per


year-No group relamping (8760 hours X number of lamps/unit x #9 t #2)

20) Replacement lamp cost per year (#19 X net lamp cost/lamp)

21) Labor cost for spot replacements (#19 X spot labor rate/lamp at $10/lamp)

22) Annual energy cost per year (#lo x 8760 hours x 6a/kWh)

23) Total annual operating cost


25) Relative total annual cost for equally

(#20 + #21 + #22)

(#18 + #23)

maintained footcandles

175-W Mercury 175-W

Vapor (CWA) Metal Halide (Existing) (Peak-Lead)

8600 28 500

spot

200 0.59

1 0.812 0.75

97 19.4

0 0 0

$13.82

0 0

0 0

14 OOO 10 000

spot

210 0.70

1 0.74

0.852 49

10.29

$146.00 $42.00 $50.00 $32.06

$270.06 $13 232.94

$35.70 $1749.30

29.8147 42.924

$412.04 $1376.14

$298.15 $429.24

$10 196.64 $5408.42

$10906.83 $7213.81

$10 906.83 $8963.1 1

100% 82%

150-W HPS

HPF (Reactor)

16 OOO 28 500

spot

170 0.70

1 0.87 0.75

41 6.97

$174.00 $34.00 $50.00 $38.16

$296.16 $12 142.56

$38.70 $1586.70

12.6021

$480.90

$126.02

$3663.43

$4270.35

$5857.05

54% ~~

(#9) Numberof - (Illuminance) X (Area) - Luminaires Dirt Condition (41-Very Clean

(Lumens per Luminaire) x (Coefficient of Utilization) X (Light Loss Factor)

relamping, or the entire lamp installation can be replaced at one time whether it is functioning or not. This is referred to as group relamping.

The most economical and ideal time to relamp can be predicted as the point that gives as much light as possible per dollar of operating cost.

Labor cost saved by group relamping an entire light system usually more than compensates for the value re- maining in the depreciated lamps, which are thrown away. The principle advantages to group relamping are reduced cost of labor, more light delivered, fewer work interrup- tions, better appearance, and less day-to-day maintenance.

Many factors affect the economics of group relamping;

among them are lamp cost, rated lamp life, wage rate, electrical energy rate, and annual hours of operation.

Group relamping can be scheduled during vacations, shutdowns, after work hours or on weekends, eliminating costly production disruptions.

B. Cleaning

Significant light losses will result from a failure to remove dirt accumulation on lamps, reflectors, and shield- ing materials. It is common in a poorly maintained industrial lighting system to have light losses of 30% or more caused by dirt accumulation alone.

Although good lighting included planned maintenance,


TABLE XVIII LIFE CYCLE COSTS (OVER NEXT 20 YEARS), ANALYSIS No. 3

175-W Mercury Vapor (CWA) (Existing)

Total Estimated Net Lamp Cost Labor Estimated at

$10/Lamp Estimated Lighting Maintenance Estimated Electric Cost at 6e/kWh System Total Operating Cost Over 20 yr

Total Initial Cost Total 20-Yr Life Cycle Cost Total Energy Consumption (kW)

at 8760 Hrs/Yr for 20 yr

$8240.79

5962.95 $14 203.74 203 932.80

$218 136.54 .oo

$218 136.54

Lighting Investment Payback (Analysis No. 3) Annual Operating Costs

Total New Investment Operating Cost Savings

Simple Investment Payback Interval

Simple Return on Investment

3399 * * * * *

$10 906.83 $.OO $.OO

175-W Metal Halide (Peak-Lead)

$26 737.40

8339.80 $35 077.20 108 168.48

13 232.94 $156 478.62

$m

1803

150-W HPS (HPF) Reactor

$8835.65

2315.42 $11 151.07 73 268.64

$84419.71 12 142.56 $si"

1211

$7231.81 $4270.35 $3693.02 $6636.48

$13 232.94 $12 142.56 43 mo 22 mo

or or 3.58 yr 1.83 yr

27.91% 54.65%

it may be difficult to initiate a good lighting maintenance program; it requires trained maintenance personnel, adequate equipment to do the work quickly, effectively, and safely, spare parts and replacement lamps, and space for stock. This equipment and maintenance is easily put off if not rigidly scheduled.

For those reasons, some manufacturers find it more economical to put lighting maintenance in the hands of companies organized for that specific purpose.

Generally speaking, a maintenance program of simulta- neous group replacement and cleaning at the same time is the most effective and economical.

XI. SAFETY

Safe work conditions are essential, and the effect of light on safety must be considered. Any factor that aids visual effectiveness increases the probability that a worker will detect the potential cause of an accident and act to correct it. Physical hazards are marked according to American National Standards Institute documents.

Table XX lists illuminance values for safety as published by the Illuminating Engineering Society [2]. These are regarded as the absolute minimum for safety alone. These include factors for depreciation in light output of lamps (LLD), collection of dirt and dust on luminaires (LDD), and on other room surfaces. Judgment must be used in determining the effect that burned-out lamps will have on an area.

CONCLUSION The purpose of good lighting in a pulp and paper mill is

to provide energy-efficient illuminance in quality and quantity sufficient for safety to enhance visibility and productivity within a pleasant environment. In addition, lighting should be suited to encompass visual tasks, operating conditions, and economic considerations.

TABLE XIX TYPICAL 100-W HPS LIGHTING LUMINAIRE

~

Starting Operating Current Current Input

Ballast Type (A) (A) Wattage

Normal power factor 2.9 2.1 117 High power factor 1.48 1.06 117 High power factor-autotransformer 0.88 1.15 128

A typical 20-A branch circuit breaker derated 80% equals 16A. Normal Power Factor

per breaker High Power Factor

per breaker High Power Factor- Autotransformer per breaker

16 A + 2.9 A = 5-lighting luminaires

16 A i 1.48 A = 10-lighting luminaires

16 A i 1.15 A = 13-lighting luminaires

TABLE XX ILLUMINANCE VALUES FOR SAFETY*

Hazards Requiring Visual Detection Slight High

Normal'/Activity Level Low High Low High Illuminance Values

LUX 5.4 11 22 54 Footcandles 0.5 1 2 5

Note: See specific application reports of the IES for guidelines to minimum illuminances for safety by area.

'Special conditions may require different illuminance values. In some cases, higher values may be required as, for example, where security is a factor. In some other cases, greatly reduced values, including total darkness, may be necessary, specifically in situations involving manufacturing, handling, use.or processing of light-sensitive materials (notably in connection with photographic products). In these situations, alternate methods of ensuring safe operations must be relied on.

*Minimum illuminance for safety of people, absolute minimum at any time and at any location of any plane where safety is related to seeing conditions.


Today, manufacturers are increasingly aware that better lighting is an important contributor to improved produc-

ple do! Of the several elements that contribute to an improved visual environment and its benefits, good lighting is one of the most effective and economical.

[81

[9]

[lo]

[ l l ]

General Lighting Cost Analysis; General Electric Co., Lighting Business Group, Nela Park, Cleveland, OH. American National Standard Practice for Ofice Lighting, ANSI/IES,

National Fire Codes, Nat. Fire Protection Assoc., Quincy, MA, NFPA 101, 1988. National Electrical Code, Nat. Fire Protection Assoc., Quincy, MA, NFPA 70, 1990.

tivity and maintenance. Machines do not need light, peo- RP-1 1988.

REFERENCES American National Standard Practice for Industnal Lighting,

IES Lighting Handbook. New York Illuminating Eng. Soc. North Amer. 1981 Application Volume. D. J. ONeill and J. Page, “Recommended lighting practice for the pulp and paper industry,” presented at 12th Ann. Mtg. IEEE Zndustly Application Soc., May 18, 1966. J. D. Eagle, “Trends in lighting practices in U.S. pulp and paper mills,” presented at ZEEE Industry Applicahon Soc., June 17, 1970. A. J. Maillet, “Current lighting practice trends for the pulp and paper industry,” ZEEE Trans. Industry Applications, vol. IA-21, no. 2, Mar./Apr. 1985. Vanous Lamp Specification Data; General Electric, Sylvania, Philips and Osram. Vanous Ballast Specification Data; Advance, EBT, Magnetek Uni- versa], Magnetek, Triad, and Valmont.

ANSI/IES-RP-7, 1991. Aurele J. Maillet (M88) received the electrical engineering degree from Northeastern Univer- sity, Boston, MA.

He previously worked for Chas. T. Main Inc. and is currently Chief Electrical Engineer for Xenergy, Inc., Burlington, MA. He has over 25 years of experience in pulp and paper, powers and recovery boilers, hydroelectric dams, power plants, newspaper printing plants, and industrial and commercial projects.

Mr. Maillet is a Registered Professional Engi- neer, a member of the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES), and is currently Northeastem Regional Vice President. He also serves on the Industrial Lighting Committee for the IES.

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