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Manning, Maryann Murphy; Manning, Gary L.Beading Instruction in the Middle School (A WholeSchool Approach).National Education Association, Umahineon, D.C.7989p,National Education Association, Order Department, TheAcademic Building, Saw Mill Road, Nest Haven,Connecticut 06516 (Stock No. 1707-2-00, $4.5C)

MF01 Plus Postage. EC Not Availatle from !DRS.*Content Reading; *Intoqrated Curriculum; *MiddleSchools; Program Development; Program Evaluation;Reading Failure; Reading Improvement; *ReadingInstruction; Reading LevA4 *Reading Programs;Recreational Reading; Remedial Reading; SecondaryEducation; Teaching Techniques

ABSTRACTThe eight chapters in this bock are designed to

present a rationale for a developmental reading program in the middleschool and to provide Biddle sckcol teachers with concretesuggestions fcr teaching reading. The first two chapters present aroverview of middle school phitosophy and the rationale for providinireadirq instruction a+ that level. The third and fourth chaptersprovide practical suggestions for the development of readingactivities fcr students at different ability levels. chapters fiveand six examine the various content areas of the middle schoolcurriculum and suggest how teachers of these subjects can stressreading improvement. Chapter seven offers ways tc increaserecreational reading amorg students, and chapter eight discusses waysto evaluate reading programs. (PI)

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Reeding nstructionin the WWiI@ School

(A Whole School Approach)

By Maryann Murphy Manningand Gary L. Manning

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National Education AssociationWashington, O.C.

2

Copyright 1079National Education Assotiation of the United State

Stock No 1707-2.00 (paper)

Library JE Congress Cat.-loging In Publication Data

Manning, Maryann Murphy.Reading instruction in tht middle school.

Bibliography:1 Reading (Secondary education) 2. Middle schools.

1. Manning, Gary L., joint author. II. Title.

L81632.M:7 428'.4'0712 79-442-

ISBN 0- 8106 - 1707 -2

3

CONTENTS

Introduction 7

Chapter 1 READING A VITAL PART OF THE.MIDDLE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

Chapter 2 AS DIFFERENT AS DAY AND NIGHTTHE VARIED READERS 15

Chapter 3 THE REMEDIAL READERS 27

Chapter 4 THE ON GRADE LEVEL READER andTHE ACCELERATED READER 3o

Chapter 3 READING IN THE BIG FOUR ENGLISH,SOCIAL STUDIES, SCIENCE, AND MATH 48

Chapter 6 READING IN RELATED AREAS OF THECURRICULUM no

Chapter 7 JUST FOR THE FUN OF ITRECREATIONAL READING 71

Chapter 8 EVALUATION OF THE READINGPROGRAM 75

Notes $5

Annotated Bibliography $9

The Author.Drs. Gary and Maryann Manning are Assowte Professors of

Education at the University of Alabama, Birmingham

The ConsultantsThe following educators have reviewed the ript and provided

helpful comments and suggestions Vivian Arthur. Language Arts

Teacher. Grand County Middle School, Moab, Utah, Dr Arthur E

Garner. Associate Professor of Education, Memphis State University,

Tennessee; Eunice E C;yger. seventh grade Remedial Reading teacher.

North Junior High School, Omaha, Nebrask.., Ian Kuker. Reading

teacher. Jam** Bowie Ir. High School. Amarillo. Janis Spark-

man. classroom teacher, Decatur Middle School, Decatur, Alabama

INTRODUCTION

Theo book has two moor purpose. to present a rationale for Adevelopmental reading program in the meddle school and toprovide middle school teat ere with concrete suggestions forteaching reading.

Middle school teachers are concerned that students in middleschools improve their reading skills We agree that readinginstruction is one of the important missions of the middle schoolIt is the responsibility of all schools to teach reading, and ofmiddle school teachers to improve the reading abilities and fosterthe reading interests of their students. But 1.0w does one teachreading in the middle school? There is certainly no single solutionto this problem, We will discuss here several ideas or alternative.for the middle school teacher.

Teachers hear a great deal about individualization these days,but educators define individualization in different ways. Forsome it means that all students are working on different skill.and different activities. This concept of individualizationfrightens many teachers who doubt they can manage group ofstudents each working on different skills

We believe that individualization means developing individualstudents to their optimum levels. There are many ways teacherscan work toward this goal in small group, large group, andone-to-one settings. These approaches will be discussed, andmaterials and activities to help teachers in their attempts to meetstudents' needs will be described

We will also describe readers who exhibit different readingneeds. We do not mean to imply e hat there are only three types ofreaders, or that readers should be grouped and sew rated on thebasis of ability. Rather we hope to illustrate the many readingprofiles of middle school students and suggest that options existfor teachers who are striving to provide appropriate readinginstruction for these students.

Experienced tea:hers recognize there are many barriers toimplementing a quality individualized reading program.

rtmentalization, where the instructor teaches severalic?iefrearent groups of students each day, is one mayor barrier,Others include short periods, large classes, and few materials If

lit Ai 11iYi Os*, 1 lit 1k 1% Ifs, lift sill >I 'I

et044 ha, At tit 101IMMAIe tit tfittlttlitr their barrier. they .tittevitffie itiVitheed 111 t twit Own Jef irretit mating lift% vitt..

This book i. tiritatiiirt.11110 flea Tollitt set 11441. In thew., two

chapters we present as, overview of middle school philosophy

and tha rAtionato I it including reading ins. rut Hon in the maileschool program Baffin Two It flamers i and 4) provide.

prattkal suggestions for feather. who wish to develop appeoprtate reading AktiVitir. for student. at JO terrnt ability levelsIn Section Throe if hapters S and tti we CAATtir the carious

content areas of the middle lit hoot t Writ ulurn and *wort, how

leather. of these content arra. tan alreaorradioA improvementSection Four (C hapter ?) sugge.t. way. to fr.isr lei 1 rAtitimilreading among student. Finally in bri lion live vier 0) ',yr&multi ways to evaluate reading programs in the middle sc hool

Throughout thts book, we find ourselves laced with a k hour

between ideal and what is ,'rat 11%41 Muc h bring w ruler,

or said todoy is at the ideal level Ideally. middle school student.

well ret f' reading instruction in an individual or small groupsetting. assisted by trained personnel with unlimited frotturt etof time and energy Idea.; students ar given appropriateleading materials in all OM '111 areas with directed reading

activities designed to hrl,, item improve flw reading .kill. ineach area

Realistically. teachers are often confronted with too ,tiativstudents, too few material.. and not enough time us which to

implement an ideal program The prat tit al appro.,' h call. for

teachers to talkie a higlik at the option available to them within the

limitations of their particular situation. We hopr this bookprovides some prat lit a' suggestion. tor t aring teat hers in middle

lit boob, and that thew suggestion. otter uhallrngrs Anil thepromise of reward.

7

CHAPTER 1READING - A VITAL PARTOF THE MIDDLE SCHOOLCURRICULUM

instruction for the ten. to foiirtron=yeavold hAstradition* received husk attention The assumption wai thatteaching reading was the lob of elementary school teacher« andthat Wile could be done for students who reached the meddleschool level lacking the necessary reading skills II poor readersreceived any attention, it was provided by English teachers whooften had ludo or no specialised training in reading instruction

More and more. teachers of middle school students arelearning to provide quality reading programs Instructors realisethey can help students who have reading problems as well Ailthose who are already goad readers An increasing number ofcontent area teat hers are helping students improve readingskills as reading becomes an integral part of .ie middle schoolprogram

NATURE OF MIDDLE SCHOOLS

The middle school movement. much like the junior high schoolmovement earlier in this century. is committed to creating aunique curriculum for the ten- to fourteen.year.okl TeacherNIFthese youngsters are challenged to develop and implementlearning environments tailored to the needs And abiliti1P6 Of thisage group

Middle school pupils are a challenge to teachers because oftheir diversity in physical. social. emotional. and intellectualcharacteristics. When Piasters stages of intellectual developmentare considered, we realise that middle school children range fromthose who understand only the real and concrete to those whoare able to think theoretically and abstractly Middle schoolpupils of t*day are different from those of a generation ago Theeare maturing faster physically, probably due to improvednutrition. disease prevention, and better medical care In aLion. these youngsters ha.% a different perspective of the word,

to NI ti Os. 1.44% toil 1441 401 it ft tit N #1

possibly because they are more aware 01 the ohtinkftts worldthrough inireatiew esposure to media

Strickland and Alosarider la suggest the 'Yin At trial pro grarn

lot student between the ages of ten and fourteen us I vv. several

purposes

I To serve the educational needs of the 'in between Alter."(older thildten, preadolestint,, early *Joke, 'nos) ft aschool corning between the mhos,' for earlier ihildho.odand the high school

2 To provide optimum individualization of 'writ ulum andinstructkin for a population tharattarited by great yamability

3 In relation to the foregoing aims, to plan. implement.evaluate, and modify. in a tontinuing iurrkulum iievVrkir-rnne program, (Writ ulum that provides for (a) a planned

!locomen(' of concepts in the general edut Alton area.. (b)

rnagsr emphasis on the Interco*. and skills for tontinuedlearning, / a balanced jprogran, of as idorato, y pikperipm es

and other activities and serykes for pet tonal development.and Ith appropriate attention to the development of values

4 To promote continuous progress through and smootharticulation between the several phases and levels of thetotal educational programTo facilitate the optimum use of personnel And fat lime.

available for :continuing improvement of satooling

Several of these points have Joe*, implit Atkins for reading

met rut tion Purpose Two slate that middle s 114,101 students are

greatly different from one another and the edut Ato.inal program

must be individualized in order to meet those dtfferenc es Middleschool teachers recognise there is a wide range of reading ability

among their students Teachers should therefore try to identifythndnifferences and make accommodations for t ht se differences

As related to read hg, Purpose Three suggests that the re.d

ing program needs to be developed and modified on *continuingbasis Teachers need to identify reading Interests and skilldevelopment levels of their students so they tan plan an

apkiropriai reading programPurpose Four implies that middle school teachers need to take

9

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A WHItfl. %C,1 4(X)1. APPROAC H

ttovw in we tireilittor a tittJ4lr trading ittolgtaint/4' MAO* the litnitiviti$ Vs% ottitiirttil4Itittt Applttittbatr lot

middle 1401 hool trading smarm 'ion

1 A Jtrate reading program ehou14 es sat sri the tt1;iltrihsrul both to miprove taillnd 011, and tis hrlp

learn its resell/or pirriual *Jowl Ai tilati !turn tr.todtrigI hie prgram hiuld hr imlovJuallset1 Is. mirk thr tirrAlsof 4Jitivititerili as thrtt prrirsvrstudent kers* pet itittal trsrlu 1,t..ittr iiireading and hour trotulat lopp, '1.1 lira 1,$ i olifrit Ms !lirreading trot her

4 1 hr reading program hult1 help pt,p,I,s1,0 I far tired torintrllw luAl iirtfrlisrvirrtl bv, hrIpmg Ihrm Jr% rh.p trakl,timtrlAird shall. for iontinurd 'causingt he reading program houla Ihr.p trAshrl lit rt$ 1$4rt rsii.troiluilv 4110 mfr. . .tin.rrn. sealing. and .slur. IhatIhry may not hr able to rportsrr.,r &tr. Ili

tt the reading pritgf pro% Kir studrnla tie 11h AtiInt14171.1f14011.11 biter to, i realise And etilr .it

with their ia*.m.s1r. tots .4':,r Lit .11etiti .15 Is% II er

the reading program to 1011.ih I . r a. .1i1$1114- tis rislitiovatsely it/ reading material. $.1t s issilr f tigr sit ',lin A,,jlaved. sit rraii.ststltIte

Metidir hi$11,1 nJusatusr, are srsirrr.trd in smith-mit-minx ant hreading program Hut 1il etlilf r a stn'r7atul prole:JAM I he %choirei hoot IA %Air. and adminitratiois mu.. I*, imir ss.mmltlrJ toeand involved in the reading tomer! se. cf 1$11r5i i .511 hr liken toguarantee whole /10411 suppkot t I hr fir at tarp is thr ro,thhhmint of a reading «Immure

0

IA NS Aitthrt. t iktO4 trs Olt MOSS t s. to r it

1011I A IILADING COMMITTIIMiddle schools should have a reads-,g summons, mode up of

guidance counselors, lbranons, content area freshets, readingteachers, adountstrators, and other specahrinf personnel Nurmower. suggest* the duties o4 this contrnittee include

I Determining a philosophy of readinga Determining ways of &otioning students need. in readong

slobS., Deciding what kinds of materials 'posher* should be

encouraged to purchase4 Recommending ethoolwide 'stomping plans5 Helping teacher group students and individualise inootrus

bon in the classroomShowing teachers how to rostognote the need for vs. ilootypes of *kW development and showing them how to *Mistythese needs

7 Showing teachers the value of the 1)irectiod Heading AI I 'Itsty, SQ3R. budding interests, rtt

sl Determoning how the loshoolwoolr reading program pan becoordinated and providing such 000rdinatiooDetermining methodology and material. to be used inevaluating the successes And failures of the program

10 Determining polkors to be used on ,Piliarvar training

READIM: riAlHERNMiddle schools that have trained reading opirasalnitii are

forts nate These re:it:1g teat hers t an o ornmunic ale to the entirefaculty the special of students in the remedial programThese epottabste can also provide useful iuggetionsand supportto content area teachers in the area of reading

LANGIIAGL ARTS fLACHLRS

Students differ greatly on the *lolls of writing, handwriting."Ana, listening. speaking. and reading A. much as possible.

11

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11111111144$11 art* teachers should individualtre triettut I 410-411

OW nerd* of Oath %WPM 11 104i hey. are to 4.4wrsitiithimportant task, 1/111;141104 *titan aJatittilla time to ,it14 withstudents and atm*, a variety trf MAIO, 111* Al their tballital

CONTENT ARIA TEACHEIts

COV11111 areas can be an arena 111 reading iftIprtivrtarrt1 ifleachers can Ks* IIW reachno different it. thy...Joh use of h14raitillP1 1141 muhilsivtil lest and nmprint ittrIlia t tti 4f aliveplanning and sharing of material. .An reinlot.e and or. ...oak,offetthv initruction

ADMIN1$TRA TORS

Teachers nerd 40d1111,11141,4411041 tradership and 'limit, it aneffective wholo.schoul readmit program i. is. Ir impirm,ntedAdministrators tan show their support by pArimiottltig on thereeding committee and supporting ochre tea. her efforts Theirmust be budgetary commitment. 10 14111 Jr* elosittivrit, tradingmaterials. and reeding 10/14 bar* Ad...mist yahoo,. must work withteachers 10 develop Olt% live .4 hedulino that will (abattoirimplementation of the trailing program.

GIIIDANCE 1:()lifil,St I ogs

("goyim/yr totabit440r* an help teat lier gather &.t4 useful indetermining flatitl* 44 student. in evalu,,tina the «ho ot tradingprogram. and in establishing future 'tier. for that program

MEDIA `PL CIAL Is ts

Media specialists tan iiarislitAntly in. fray. leather rile.11v4114410 by providing teacher. and student.with material* at 411keels of reader* difficulty and rriatertal* 'Kat appeal hi t 4110u*interests far use in remedial and Jr. * elpmental readout C. ontentarea teacher* can obtain from the media *pet Oho topic material.wfttlert for ffatiorit at Yarttritt kat lryel old a variety ofnonprtnt materials

14 RIADIN(, INS I PVC HON IN THE MIDDLE. SlliOOL

THE CHALLENGEWhen the staff members in a middle school make concerted

efforts to improve reading instruction, improvement will alwaysoccur. Cooperative effort ensures the best results. Improvedreading is not the responsibility of the language arts and readingteachers alone; it is a responsibility shared by the entireprofessional staff. Good reading programs don't just happen,they are planned.

13

CHAPTER 2AS DIFFERENT AS DAY AND NIGHT -THE VARIED READERS

Middle school students differ from one another in terms ofsocial, emotional, physical, and intellectual development. As theyundergo rapid physical changes, they must simultaneously makemany psychological and social adjustments. Rapid mental growthaccompanies these changes and adjustments.

Students in the ten to fourteen age group also differ widely inachievement. Goodladu in School, Curriculum, and the Individualwrites:

The broad spread from high to low achiever steadilyincreases with an upward movement of heterogenousclasses (relatively homogenous in chronological age)through the school. In the intermediate grades, this spread isapproximately the number of years designated by the num-ber of grade-level: that is, by the third grade, three years; bythe fourth grade, four years; by the fifth grade, five years.However, since the spread in achievement acceleratesslightly faster than a year-per-year of schooling, the overallrange in junior high school classes is approximately two-thirds the median chronological age of the groups.

In subject areas, such as reading and language arts, wherechildren can readily proceed on their own in a var;ety of out-of-school situations, the spread from high to low achieverfrequently is one and one-half to twice the number of thegrade level. Hence, in the fifth grade, there frequently is aneight year spread in reading achievement between the bestand poorest readers.

Middle school students fall into three broad groups: (1)accelerated readers who read "above grade level" materials withno difficulty, (2)"on grade level" readers who, with guidance, can

11

16 READINC INSTRUCTION IN TH1 MIDDLr SC11001.

read printed materials written for their grade level, and (3)remedial readers who, even with guidance, have great difficultywith materials written for their grade level. Within these groups,we can also expect a wide range of differences, all of which haveimplications for instructional planning.

ASSESSMENT

Given this high degree of variability, how do teachers plansuccessful reading programs? A first step is to determine thegeneral reading levels of the students. This information mayalready be available from scores on reading subtests and fromwritten observations made by teachers.

Students' grades in content areas might give a clue as toreading ability. Many time, however, assigned grades are notaccurate indicators of reading level. Students who receive highgrades may indeed be excellent readers or they may be averagereaders who possess very good study habits. Similarly, not allstudents who receive low grades have reading difficulties; whenexcellent readers are not motivated, they sometimes receivepoor grades.

Each student's reading achievement should be measured asthat student enters the middle school. Teacher evaluations arecritical here. Teachers from the feeder elementary schools.should be asked to complete a simple form for each student toassist the middle school teacher with assessment.

Testing is another evaluation tool. If an achievement test .witha reading subtest has not been administered within the last year,

a reading test should be given. Standardized tests, criterion-referenced tests, informal inventories, or a combination of thesetests can be adminstered to obtain more complete information.Teachers also need data that reflect students' abilities in decodingwords, comprehension, vocabulary, and study skills.

Test scores should be viewed with caution, however. Readingachievement scores should be used only as a rough guide indetermining students' instructional needs. Ideally, teachersshould administer both informal reading inventories anddiagnostic tests to get a detailed picture of students' strengthsand needs. Certainly if students have severe reading problems, itis necessary that both kinds of tests be administered. However,

15

As Different as Day and Night '1 he Varied Readers 17

since administering the two types of tests is a time-consumingprocess, it may not be necessary for all students. Again, it isimportant to remember that teacher observation provides thebest verification that test data are accurate.

MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS AS READERS

There are three different kinds of readers in the middleschools: the accelerated reader, the "on grade level" reader, andthe remedial reader. Once general reading level has beenassessed, more specific information can be gathered on eachstudent.

THE ACCELERATED READERS: ALL SYSTEMS GO

These readers have little or no difficulty with decoding wordsor comprehension, though some have problems with rate orstudy skills, and some need to 'prove anj increase theirvocabulary. Examples of the accelerated reader are Mary Sue theBookworm, and James the Capable Reader Who Doesn't.

Mary Sue is the typical studious pupil, and printed symbolshave always been "duck soup" for her. At one year she turned thepages of the book her mother read to her at bedtime, and sheeasily recognized the names of her favorite cereals by the age oftwo and a half. At four years, she was printing her name and wasbeginning to read the Dr. Seuss easy readers. Teachers didn'tknow how to challenge her in kindergarten and in first gradebecause she was so far ahead of the class. Motivating Mary Sue toread is no problem. She hac books in her own personal bedroomlibrary and devours anything given to her at school. She isseldom without a book, usually a book for older readers.

James is a capable reader, but he doesn't read. He crawled at anearly age and walked at nine months. Though he liked to listen tohis mother and father read, he was more interested in movingaround. In kindergarten and first grade he mastered everythingthat was presented, but reading was not his idea of recreation.Little League baseball and Peewee football are his idea of the wayto spend free time. On achievement tests he scores severalnotches above grade level, but his teachers are concerned that hec:oesn't like to read and doesn't read at a very efficient rate.

Teachers in the middle school are often confronted with

1 r;

18 READINC INS1RIA TION IN ME MINX St. 11001

students like Mary Sue and James, students who need only aminimal amount of help. In order to provide for them, theteacher may use an evaluation sheet similar to the one below:

Accelerated Readers (X indicates th. help is needed)

Comm- Pronun- Vocab- StudyStudent's Name pension ciation Rate ulary Skills Interest

Mary Sue X

James X X X

A ch. rt like this one helps content area teachers provide forstudents who need little if Any help with reading. In Chapter 4there are specific suggestions for teaching these students.

THE "ON GRADE LEVEL" READERS: SAILING ALONG

These readers are usually able to handle most materialswritten at their grade level. (Teachers should remember,however, that not all textbooks are written at the grade level forwhich they are used. Readability checks reveal that sometextbooks are at an ability level as much as two or more gradesabove the designated grade.) This group needs what have oftenbeen referred to as developmental reading activities. Readinginstruction needs to be a part of their language arts curriculum,and content area teachers in particular need to use strategies,such as a directed reading activity, whenever they assign printedmaterials. This approach is explained in detail in Chapters 5 and 6.

Susan the Conscientious Student and Daniel the Charmerrepresent two students who read at grade level. Daniel hasalways been known for his good personality. At six months, hewon the smile award in a baby beauty contest. When a sociogramis administered, he is always a leader, and teachers, other adults,and classmates like him. He isn't such a star in academics,however. He doesn't receive bad grades, but neither does heexcel. He finishes assignments on time and usually receives anaverage grade. While he doesn't like to read entire books, he doesread sport magazines and short mystery stories. Daniel doesn'thave trouble recognizing words in textbooks, but he doesn'talways comprehend as well as one would expect. He is the closest

1?

As Different as Day .:nd Night The Varied Readers IQ

thing to an average student one could expect to find.Susan has always been a favorite of her teachers. Helpful and

not demanding a lot of attention, she always receives a superior

grade in conduct. Her teachers would not call her a superstudent, but neither would thcy classify her as slow. She

comprehends best when she reads for a specific purpose. If Susandoesn't understand, she asks i er help. She has been in theaverage reading group since fist grade ..nd seems interest'd in

school. Susan doesn't cause worries for h!r teachers.The content area teacher and the language ,rts teacher may

wish to use a chart like the one below to summarize the needs of

average students like Daniel and Susan:

On Grade Levee Readers (X indicates that help is needed)

Compre- Pronun- Vocab- Study

Student's Name Decoding pension ciation Rate ulary Skills Interest

Daniel X X X X

Susan X X

While these students do not need to devote large amounts of

time to intensive reading instruction, some guidance is

necessary. Too often reading is not taught in the middle grades,

but reading instruction is very important for students like Daniel

and Susan. Specific suggestions for working with these readers

are given in Chapter 4.

THE "BELOW GRADE LEVEL" READERS: HELP! HELP!

Remedial readers are unable to read grade level materials.They offer a serious challenge to middle school teachers

committed to developing the reading potential of every student.It is difficult to provide a general profile of the remedial reader.

This group ranges in ability from the virtual nonreader to thereader who just needs a little push.

The nonreader has virtually no decoding skills. This student'shistory of failure to read has led to the development of negativeattitudes, and the student may even brag, "I can't read." Oftenthese students have self-concept and peer acceptance problems.

18

20 REA1)11%. INS !RU( I ION IN TIP %III )I )I I )1

Jerry the Challenge is a typical nonreader. Childhood was noteasy for Jerry. He was late to crawl and walk, and his language

` development was slow. There were few reading materials inJerry's home, and since his parents didn't read very much for\recreation or information, Jerry probably didn't perceive readingas important or fun. In first grade, Jerry just wasn't able to sitvery long and listen to teachers or other students rea.'. Seatwork, such as practicing letters of the alphabet and coloringcircIes, didn't hold Jerry's interest. He was always in a lowreading group, but his reading was even lower than that ofothers' in the group. Al this point in time, Jerry really doesn'tthink he can learn to 'Tail and, therefore, he seems to have lostthe desire to read. He can, however, decode a few words, andwith the direction of a teacher he can read very simple storieswritten at a primary level.

Teachers who work with students like Jerry need to usespecific, carefully chosen reading methods. More important,they must be interested in these students and able to com-municate that interest. Middle school teachers who aresuccessful with these nonreaders may lack formal tiainio.g inreading but communicate an "I know you can succeed" attitude tothe student. The fewer students the teacher works with at onetime and the longer the titre available for reading instruction,the more successful will be the effort.

The low level readers can read only the simplest materials I.,wvocabulary, high interest materials. They can handle very little inthe way of content area materials. These students usually havenegative attitudes toward reading because of their record offailure. Teachers can make progress these students byproviding speci instruction in reading :,Rills tailored to eachpupil's individc...: reading problem. A caring teacher can oftenprevent these students from becoming school dropouts.

Andrew the Passive Child is a low level reader. Andrew'spediatrician described him as a quiet baby who liked to sleep. Heeventually mastered everything that other children did, but mustdevelopment was months behind the average. His first attemptsat learning to read were disastrous. Even the simplest readinessactivities were difficult for Andrew. To make it even worse,Andrew has a sister two years younger who was reading simplenooks by age six. Consequently, he hates reading or any activityassociated with reading. In middle school, Andrew can read at

1. 9

As Different as Day and Night I Jr, l'arkli Reader. 21

about the third grade level. So he is not a nonreader, but just aslow reader with a very negative attitude toward reading. Hisnegative feelings are reinforced by failing grades and teacher andfami!y displeasure. Even his peer group treats him as if he isdumb because he is not up to par in reading.

Another type of remedial reader needs just a little push tobecome an on grade level reader. These students can readtextbooks but are often frustrated because they need helpdecoding and comprehending. These readers need a shot ofmotivation and extensive prr:tice in reading. They requirespecial attention but may not necessarily need specializedremedial teaching in reading.

An example of this sort of reader is Lottie the Underachiever.Lottie didn't walk or talk early, but neither was she extremelylate. She enjoyed listening to books and would ask herkindergarten teacher to reread stories that she liked. She has acollection of books given to her by friends and grandparents.Kindergarten and first grade were smooth for Lottie, and in bothyears she scored above average on achievement tests. Everythingwas fine until Christmas of the secoad grade when Lottiedeveloped pneumonia afte.r a long illness wits. colds and flu. Aftera hospital stay of several weeks, she missed three months ofschool. Lottie's mother tried to help her with homev,ork duringthis time, but even so she had begun to trail he- classmates.Though she cannot read her textbooks, she manages to answerquestions by listening in class. e doesn't hate to read, but shedoesn't read very well. Now in s. venth grade, Lottie is reading atleast three years behind grade level.

Recordkeeping i4 important to help teachers summarize needsand establish programs for all these types of remedial readers.The following is an example of a general recordkeeping form:

Remedial Readers IX indicates that help is needed)

Decod- Compre- Pronun- Vocab- StudyStudent's Name ing hension ciation Rate ulary Skills Interest

Jerry X X X X X X X

Andrew X X X X X X

Lottie X X X

20

22 REAL v(, INSTRIA TION IN t111 N111)011 st 1k )(It

PROVISIONS FOR IMPLEMENTINGA RE.NDINC PROGRAM

Middle school teachers have discovered several methods formeeting the special reading need, nt their students, and tiltfolio% -ing five organizational designs are considered esptappropriate: (1) a reading skills laboratory, (2) reading classesdesigned for special needs (not necessarily remedial), (3) indi-vidualized language arts programs, (4) reading instruction inthe content areas, and (5) recreational reading. No one approachis complete in itself; a whole school reading program needs toincorporate all five designs.

A READING LABORATORYA reading laboratory is an area within the middle school

specifically designed to serve many remedial students, a placefor developmental reading and study skill instruction The read-ing laboratory staff could include reading teachers, aides,volunteers, peer tutors, and students from teacher traininginstitutions.

In the laboratory students can find materials to assist themwith improvement of reading skills. These resources might in-clude low reading level, high-interest materials for remedialstudents, study skills materials, specific skills materials for stu-dents of all levels, and hardware designed to increase readingrate. Students may be scheduled Into the lab for instruction orcan be encouraged to go during independent learning periods.

SPECIAL READIN6 CLASSES

Special reading classes for remedial students involves morethan grouping a classrmun of students on the basis of readingability. These classes should be held apart from regularclassroom activities, perhaps as a substitute for a given languagearts period, during an independent study period, or in place of orin addition to other scheduled classes.

Remedial reading classes should be kept small if students are torealize improvements. During a fifty- to sixty-minute period,reading teachers can work with no more than a group of twelve

21

A. chrtem., as No and Mehl HI, hIrr 23

to fifteen students. Progress often hinges on the specialrelationship the reading teacher develops with each student, andthese relationships take time to foster. In order to be effective,the teacher also needs enough time to plan appropriate activitiesfor each student.

Multdeveled reading materials appropriate for the middleschool student must be available to the special reading teacher. Itis vital that teaching materials be appropriate for this level. A skillthat has been introduced in the primary grades and must beretaught in the middle grades cannot be introduced with pri-mary materials, because materials intended for young

will turn off a middle schooler.Special reading classes with trained teachers, adequate time,

small class size, and appropriate materials can make the dif-ference between success and disappointment in the reading skilldevelopment of middle school students.

INDIVIDUALIZED LANGUAGE ARTS PROGRAMS

Ideally, all language arts classes for middle school students areindividualzied. With individualization, the reading needs ofstudents at all grade levels can be accommodated: developmentalreading materials are available at all reading levels and un-mastered skills are developed individually or in small skill groupsinstituted for a short period of time

This ideal is hardly ever achieved, however. For a variety ofreasons, including large class size and departmentalization, it isoften difficult to implement a totally individualized program.Even when such language arts classes are established, it issometimes difficult for the teacher to give the low level readingstudents the time they need. For this reason, special readingclasses and /or reading labs can complement an individualizedlanguage arts program.

READING IN THE CONTENT AREAS

Although content area teachers cannot be expected to teachremedial decoding skills, it is their responsibility to developcomprehension, extend vocabulary, and improve study skills.

24 Kt AIMS( . 1%st t 1k I% I Iti 111 h

Since the reading material of each content area has its assn styleand unique vocabulary. content area teachers must developteaching methods appropriate to their particular discipline

If content area teachers fail to make provisions for studentswho cannot decode or comprehend the assigned material. thestudents will derive nothing from the assignment and in additionwill develop negative attitudes toward both the subject andtoward reading in general. Teachers need to accommodate thereading differences among students by presenting the subset t in

a variety of ways: multileveled materials. nonprint materials, andclass activities such as small group discussions For a thoroughdiscussion of content areas, see Chapters 5 and r

RECREATIONAL READING PROGRAMS

Recreational reading programs serve many purposes First.students develop positive feelings toward reading They aremore likely to feel good about reading if self - selection and selfpacing is a part of the program Second, recreational readinggives students practice in all reading .hills Third, studentsdevelop a taste for good literature when middle school librariesmake available good preadolescent and adolescent literatureIn short, recreational reading program+ give student anopportunity to develop lifelong reading habits A program ofrecreational reading is absolutely es-ential in a whole sc hoolreadirA program

ORGANIZING THE READING PROGRAM

Middle schools may differ from one another in the wad theyare organized; therefore, organization of the reading programmust differ also. Two hoped for characteristics of middle schoolorganization are team teaching and large blocks of time Inmiddle schools still using a departmentalized organization,teachers can combine the reading r, ram with the languagearts program. This approach reduces the number of studentsteachers :wed to observe and Increases the amount of time spentworking with the students For instance, instead of seeing 150

students in a separate subject approach, the teacher might have

75 to 90 students

iltfterfoll . 1).41 att.' ..s.tif;P i ;4. ..o. ..% ;:.

VALUE OF TEAM TEACHING

Team teaching exists when two or more teachers plantogether and work together for the benefit of their studentsTeaching teams can be interdisciplinary or oriented to aparticular subject area. Interdisciplinary teams have teacherrepresentatives from all mayor disciplines, with the team havingcomplete responsibility for planning and implementing theinstructional program for a group of students Subpect areateams have teachers from a single subject area share studentsduring a block of time

Advantages of team teaching include

I. Teachers can provide for flexible grouping so moreindividualization can occur

2 Teachers can make best use of student skills through peertutoring

3. Time can be better utilized so students have the timenecessary for reading instruction

4 Materials can be shared and thus be available to morestudents

Middle schools that are organized into teat hang teams t an bettermeet the diverse needs of students Once they have madedecisions about the reading needs of their students, the teamteachers can direct their efforts at meeting those net, ,Is through-out the school day

GROPING WITH GROUPINt;

Some teachers feel that they can meet the reading needs oftheir students by subgrouping the large class on the basis ofreading ability. Certainly, grouping within the (lass is superior towhole class instruction or ability grouping entire classes Butability grouping of any kind does not narrow the range of abilitiesenough to ensure that the individual needs of students are metSince many teachers recognize this and also realize the problemsassociated with ability grouping, they It'dk for other alternatives.Some form of individualized reading program is usually the bestsolution.

2:

26 RL ADIM . INS 1 Alt 1 k)S. IN III) Mit it it I st I it it it

DIAGNOSTIC /PRESCRIPTIVE ORGANIZATIONFOR THE TEACHING OF READING SKILLS

Numerous commercial and teacher-developed checklists of

skills, and accompanying tests, are being used in schools The

tests help teachers identify students' skill strengths and weak-

nesses, and teachers then prescribe . (twines that will develop

the identified skill. Although this approach has something to

offer the remedial reading teacher. it presents many problems

for middle school language arts teachers.Most of these systems are designed for the elementary

stuient. Hours and hours are required to administer tests.record student profiles, and wnte prescnptions Of course,

middle school teachers should be familiar with students' reading

development, but we do not recommend use of a reading system.

Too much emphasis on specific skills can result in a fragmented

reading program with too little attention devoted to practicing.

applying, and enjoying reading

SCHOOLWIDE ACTION PLAN

In every case, teachers need to be involved in the development

of an action plan for the improvement of reading If teachers are

involved in the development of plans. they are much more likely

to implement them. A reading committee should have a wide

representation of teachers and be in constant touch with the

entire faculty. No two middle school reading plans will be alike

because the students, the physical resources, the personnel, and

the material resources are different in each school.

A strong staff development program should be a part of the

schoolwide action plan. Through staff development, teachers

can become more aware of the needs of students and of ways to

meet these needs Together, in cooperative effort*. teach-

ers can implement effective reading programs for their middle

school students.

lo

CHAPTER 3THE REMEDIAL READERS

Teachers recognize many middle schoo! students are frus-trated by their inability to read materials appropriate for theirage growl. This group of frustrated readers offers the middleschool taff one of its greatest challenge.

THE CHALLENGE OF THE.REMEDIAL READERS

As a group. remedial readers in the middle school d.sp lay thefollowing characteristics: II) insufficient decoding skills, (2)inadequate comprehension. (3) limited sight word vocabulary, (4)inability to read silently. (51 poor attitude toward reading. (o)feelings of "I cannot read," and (7) poor self-concept

INSUFFICIENT DECODING SKILLS

Many remedial students are unable to decode words inmaterials at or near grade level. There is a range of ability here.from the virtual nonreader to the student who can decode orcall words but not efficiently or with ease

Teachers may be able to identify these difficulties throughstandardized tests. However, for zeroing in on specific problems.

criterion referenced test or a diagnostic reading test should beused. Informal reading inventories, as suggested by Potter andRavi., are of tremendous "id in pinpointing difficulties.

To determine if students can decode printed material, theteacher can select a one-hundred word passage and ask eachstudent to read the material aloud. The student who miscalls nomore than two or three words from the passage will probably beable to decode the material with little or no difficulty. If theseselections are graded, the teachers can determine the readinggrade level for the student. Graded material is available from

2t

214 RI ADINt. INs NIA IoN IN III! MII I at

commercial informal reading inventories such as Sivarolli's:0

or from graded basal reader selections. To determine specificdecoding problems, the student is asked to read orally while the

teacher records the types of errors the student makes, Oralreading errors or miscues can provide useful information aboutstudent decoding, especially if miscues are analyzed as sug-

gested by Goodmanil.Once teachers determine reading grade level and specific

decoding problems, students can be provided with activities that

help them overcome their general and specific difficulties withdecoding. Spacheal and Burmeister' suggest excellent activitiesdesigned to remediate decoding difficulties.

The following activities are designed for the student withdecoding difficulties:

1 Phrase flash cards We recommend the use of flash cards

with entire phrases rather than single words so that sightwords can be presented in a meaningful context.

2. Writing stories Provide situations where the student writes

or dictates stories. The words will be meaningful because

the student wrote them, and that interest should motivatedecoding.

3. -Nynt" games Games can be played using antonyms,homonyms, and synonyms. For example, form small teamsof three students each and ask teams to come up with the

most examples of antonyms, homonyms, or synonymsduring a set period of time. Student interaction aids inbuilding vocabulary.

4. Prefix activities Fewer than twenty prefixes comprise over

eighty percent of all words containing prefixes. (Prefixesused most often include ex, un, in, pre, he, coin, and rr.)

Commercial and teacher-made activities such as matching

games, word sheets, and prefix bingo can help studentspractice the use of prefixes.

5. Suffix pantomime Have students act out different sets of

suffixes. For example, with suffixes the word big becomesbigger or biggest. Encourage students to use comparativesuffixes in a dramatization. This kind of activity often givesstudents a better understanding than written exercises

can provide.

27

RI ,P1111411 1111,11

6. Word ending game The must commonly used word endingsinclude iv. s, ed. and moil. Demonstrate how these wordendings are used in context. Blacken out the word endingsin a newspaper or magazine article and ask students tosupply the missing word endings.

7. Word families Use phonograms or word families such ashat, mat, sat. Many programmed materials use word families,or you can make sliding card slotters, small pizza wheels, orpuzzle pieces. After the students identify the words, askthem to write stories using these words.

8. Word games Bingo or other sight word games are oftenused. Before deciding if these games are worthwhile theteacher must consider the time spent playing the game, thenumber of unknown words, and the effectiveness ofthe game.

INADEQUATE COMPREHENSION

Some students are able to pronounce words but cannotcomprehend materials written at their grade level. Once teachersare certain that youngsters can decode a given selection, theycan assess the level of comprehension.

There are several reliable procedures to measure comprehen-sion. Teachers can ask students to discuss selections they haveread. First ask for an overview of the passage, then ask specificquestions about the selection. The questions should be inter-pretive as well as factual. If the student can answer at least sixquestions out of ten, the material is probably suitable for thatstudent. If students are having difficulty comprehending whatthey read, the teacher should ask: What is the difficulty? Arestudents interested in the material? Were they reading thematerial for a particular purpose?

Comprehension is a complex area worthy of much attention.The following strategies are of interest to those teachers seekingto improve students' comprehension skills:

1. Listen for the main idea For students who have troubleidentifying main ideas, teachers can read short paragraphsfrom content area materials the social studies book, forexample. Progress from paragraphs where the main idea is

2 (.?

30 RI ANN( IIN IN IIII St WI )1

sir

obvious to paragraphs where the main Wee imbedded.

Reading aloud allows students to hear the idea. and avoidsother reading problems. Students can be asked to read theparagraph at the conclusion of the exercise. The sameprocedure works for finding supporting ideas.

2, Clair sznviset Make doze exorcises by deleting one or twowords from a sentence written at the appropriate instruc-tional level, For maximum effectiveness, choose sentencesfrom newspaper articles, comics, and other high-interestselections. Black felt-tip pen can be used to obscure selected

words when using a newspaper article. If sentences areretyped, make sure all deleted words are replaced by lines of

equal length. For example: The pitcher the ball

to the third.4. Multileveled kits Multileveled kits offer materials on a

wide range of reading ,c vels and come complete withcomprehension exercises. Most kits have simple directionsfor starting, maintaining, and evaluating students'progressin the materials. When using kits it is important for theteacher to confer with students on the amount of materialread and the degree of comprehension. Many new kits arespecifically designed for students who require low-level,high-interest material.

'4. Classifying games Classifying can be taught throughcommercial or teacher-made games that help studentsidentify main ideas. Teachers can start with simple picturesof automobiles and ask students to classify cars as foreign ordomestic. Students move on to word cards and classifythings like fruits and vegetables. When students can classifysimple objects, they can progress to classifying phrases.

5. Sequence activities Comic strips provide sequencing exer-cises that are inexpensive and interesting. Lover the comicstrip with clear Contact paper, then cut out each individualcomic picture. Ask students to place the pictures in logicalorder. Students may assemble a comic strip in an order thatis different from the original, but so long as the conversa-tion is logical, the activity has served the purpose of gettingstudents to think about correct sequence.

6. High-interest, low-vocabulary workbooks Several companiespublish workbooks of this type. Workbooks can be used as

29

I hi I

designed or can serve AM a springboard to many individualactivities. Activities on single or double pages are morelikely to interest students because they can be completed ina short time. One workbook can yield numerous activities,and if two workbooks are used no pages are lost inmounting. An answer key should be available for elf-checking.

7. Intlivitiwal conferences As with peer tutoring, humaninteraction yields high returns in comprehension develop-ment. A teacher's questions and reinforcement can help astudent greatly improve thinking comprehension.

8. Peer tutoring Many students lust need to hear otherstudents explain how they arrived at right answers. Byhearing verbal accounts of another person's ways of solv-ing or understanding, students can improve their owncomprehension.

O. Small group interaction Provide opportunities for discussionand interation. Students' thinking becomes dearer whenthey hear another person's point of view on selected topicsor issues.

LIMITED SIGHT WORD VOCABULARY

Remedial readers in the middle school often have somedecoding skills but are handicapped by a limited sight vocabulary.Teachers might become aware of this handicap by listening whenstudents read aloud on an individual basis. Al' rnately, teachersmay administer an individual sight word list such as the DolchBasic Sight Word List' or the Fry Instant Words"). Tests such asthese can be administered to a group, with the teacher askingstudents to circle the listed words as they are pronounced.However, if time permits, the individual method of adminis-tering sight word tests is superior.

There are many ways for teachers to help students improvetheir sight word vocabulary. Here are a few suggestions:

I. Checkers Make checkerboards and write a word on eachsquare. The game is played like checkers, but before playerscan place checkers on a new square, they must pronouncethe word on that square.

2. Dominoes Make word dominoes by dividing index cards

1(1 %I I\ '0141 e I Ie Iti IN I I it \ III it '1

into two parts and writing a W4ild on Eat h halt Use ras hword more than oiler Play thr game like Irgula, dominoes,to make a move, students march word. that Mr the same

,a Limo l hr game is played like regular bingo with weirdlard', divided into twenty -t swore. A word is written meach square Students cover the weird with a marker assomeone pronounces it

4 Football Make a cardboard football field with linesindicating 10 yards, and add eardboaid toothall Makesight weird cards and plate them fate up A student whocorrectly identifies a weird Avant es the ball 10 yards Anincorrect identification means a penalty, so the player guessbackward 10 yards the pity is similar to football; thewinner is the student who mores all the way down theboard

INA1411 1 N 1t) .11) Sll N; 11

Some students cannot read silently in do so k 11h cliffit %thyThe alert teacher can spot these students reading aloud verysoftly or forming the words with their lips when asked to readsilently These readers of ten have problems with eomprehmonand of eouPer read slowly Many reading programs emphassieoral reading, and this may eontributv so the problem, t hildrenreceive little, if any practice in silent reading

flow c an teat hers help students improve silent reading skills'The following tee 'innies have been sue, esoul

1 Cheterng gum Students who read sot tiv to themselves ormove their lips when reading of tc., have lithe ulty breakingthis habit. N ,iungsters who chew gum or put a pencil intheir mouth are made aware that their lips are moving. Thisis a first step to breaking the habit

2 R .1 with audiotapes Listening to tapes that Accompanybooks can help students read without moving their lips Thetapes save readers the task of sounding out the words,and often subvocaliting disappears

3 hind, read, and read 1 he' best possible remedy is prak tick.Most students who read of ten on an independent level stopreading orally and subvoeally.

31

II, .11,.,

POOR TITIU UM it)WARCI RIAPIN6

Middle schoolers who do not read well generally dislikereading, This negative attitude is usually bolstered by gradingpractices and the verbal and nonverbal behavior of teachers,family, and peers. informal inventories of reading interests andreading attitudes can be used to identify these students, whoavoid reading whenever they ion It is not easy to help studentsovercome poor attitudes, but the following suggestions can besuccessful:

1. Work forfker Middle school students are greatly influ-enced by their peers; therefore, having a fellow studentwith a good attitude toward reading work with a readerwho has a poor attitude is very ...ffecto.e. In most cases apeer tutor can bring about change much faster than ateacher.

2, Sonitiko is fen Students who are given opportunities tochoose their own reading materials usually choosematerials meaningful to them. Offer choices covering awide range of interest and readability, and ask students tomake their own selections.

FEEUNGS OF -I CANNOT READ.'

Some students not only have a negative attitude towardreading but are convinced that they cannot learn to read. Mostremedial readers in the middle school have developed thesefeelings. It is a challenge to provide remedial readers withopportunities for success. You could try these approaches;

1. Language experience storm Demonstrate to the student thatshe or he can read something; ask the student to dictate astory and then read it back. Students who experience smallsuccesses often enough will soon realize that they can read.In order to be successful this type of remediation mustoccur on an individual basis.

2. Confidence conferences Teachers need to have individualconferences with students to convey their confidence ineach student's learning potential. Many students have been"bottle fed" so long they are unaware the responsibility for

1

1

32

34 Kt Anil*, INhitidUt tIt1N IN Pill MI1 11 It I tlt littii

learning to read is these own Om e they adept the rexpon

obility for learning to read, they twit may do monirthing

about it

POOR SELF-CONCEPT

Poor readers have difficulty developing healthy self-concept*

because schools and society place such high premium on being

able to read. Many poor readers question their value as human

beings. While there are inventories such as the Cooperomith to

assess self-concept or self-esteem, sensitive teachers can usually

spot students with a low opinion of themselves, Here are few

suggestions for helping students improve self-concept.

2. Rodin: with pow, *Wroth One of the best ways to

increase students' self-esteem is to have them help younger

students read. Low achievers can help younger students so

long as they know lust a little bit more than the younger

ones. The tutors should experience a surge of self -

confidence because they achieve status with the younger

students.2. Proms your worth All middle school students need to prove

their worth, but especially those with low self-concepts.Volunteer activities. in no way related to reading, can make

students feel worthwhile and can have a positive effect

upon reading achievement For instance. you might ask

students to make table decoration. for a home for the

elderly.3. &renew a? anything Mast students in any middle school can

do something well. If students do not seem to excel at

something, it is probably because they have never been

given a chance to do so. The student who can catch Fifteen

pennies flipped from the elbows should receive attention

just as the student who can hop fastest on one foot.

Youngsters should have opportunities to excel in non-

academic areas.4. Chown makefor woos If the only option given students Is to

read a 300-page book, certain students will perform poorly.

If there are many choices, ranging from reading several

short articles to reading an entire book, more students will

I h. Xt misit,t .t.1, I

experience success with the assignment and thus led goodabout therneolve.

READING APPROACHES APPROPRIATE FORMIDDLE SCHOOL REMEDIAL READERS

Middle school teachers can choose among many differentapproaches to reading instruction for remedial readers: ( I)Individualised reading, (2) language experiente. (3) basal reading,(4) programmed reading, and (3) an eclectic or combinedapproach.

INDIVIDUALIZED READING

In an individualised program students select their own readingmaterials and pace themselves. Teacherstudent 'inferencesprovide opportunities to discuss trade books or other extra-curricular materials the student is reading. During conferencesthey also work on skill development when it is appropriate to doso. Both teacher and student keep records of conferences. notingthe strengths and needs of the student.

Barb* and Abbotti present mans practical ideas regardingindividualized or personalized programs. They emphasize that inaddition to the actual teaching of reading, a reading programmust develop the student's love for reading.

Teachers who favor the individualised approach feel its majorstrength is that students are reading materials interesting tothem and appropriate to their level. Student-teacher conferencesusually last from three to ten minutes and are scheduled at leasttwice per week. The high degree of personal attention given eachstudent seems to motivate readers and build self-confidence.

One drawback of the individualized approach is the amount oftime required to conduct conferences and keep individualrecords. Then, too, many teachers feel they must read a bookbefore they can conduct a conference. This need not be anobstacle, however. By scanning the book during the conference,a teacher can ask meaningful questions about characters, plot,and setting without having read the entire book.

Although individualized reading is an excellent way tomotivate the remedial reader. the teacher must make extra

3

dt AIM*, irss 'MA IlotsI N III, AM )1 I It sl

efforts to find reading materials easy enough yet suffiiientlyinteresting to hold the attention cc. middle school student.

LANGUACA EXPERIENCI

T language experience approach encouragri students to talkabout what they are thinking The *Adler buddy upon orallanguage skills by allowing students to dictate or write theirthoughts on paper.

Ali suggests that this approach helps students trail,* theinterrolationship among reading, writing, speaking, listening,and thinking. A major advantage of the language experienceapproach is that the reading materials are meaningful to thereader since the words are derived from the student's ownexperieve. Critics of the approach point out that since thereading materials are those written by the reader. there is *cantopportunity to develop new ideas through reading

Although the language ',Aperient., approach c an br valuable.the process is quite time consuming if the student cannot writean therefore mutt dictate to the teacher If dictation is

necessary, try using a teacher aide. volunteer, t rossAge tutor. orpeer tutor t' record the dictated mimes

BMA' READINGBas I renters are set, of books containing reading .rlet lion*

graded in difficulty Specific skill. are int rodta ed and ,eguent edai,,rding to the philosophy of the writer. and editors Theteacher's guides contain suggestions for teething and offer arationale for the approach. Mob: basal readers are accompaniedby workbooks and other supplementary materials

If basal readers are used in a middle school remedial readingprow sm, they should not be followed page by poe withaccompanying workbooks. Often the basal reader spells failurefor tf,- student who has known only failure with basal. Studentsshould not be reading from basal* used in previous grades, eventhough they may be appropriate to the students' reading levels.

Oral reading of basals is valuable for purposes of diagnosis andtor sharing. Although some teachers are strong believers in oralreading, too much oral reading can be harmful. Remedial readers

3:5

benefit most when the oral readers are good readers If poorreaders share orally. they should precuts, first and read onlyshort selections.

PROGRAMMED READING

Programmed reading materials present learning tontent insmall steps and provide immediate reinforcement of a student'sresponse. An advantage of provammed reading is that studentscan proceed at their own rates, One disadvantage is that remedialstudents may get frustrated if their progress is slow

THE ECLECTIC OR COMBINED APPROACH

There is no one best method to teach reading to remedialreaders. Teachers who are successful use several methods,selecting the most appropriate ones for each student

Some say that the eclectic approach is a "cop out" and thatteachers cannot function under this system Granted, it is noteasy to use several approaches, and teachers must understandthe reading process, be well versed in materials and approaches.be proficient in assessing students' needs. and be organised inmanaging materials and records.

A teacher using an eclectic approach uses one or moreapproaches best suited to the Warning style of a particularstudent. For example, the teacher observes that Sarah, aremedial reader, does not seem to be making much progress witha programmed reading approach. so the teacher decides to try acombination of language experience and individualised reading.These two approaches, along with peer tutoring, prove to bevery effective.

Several variables influent the number of approaches used 111the learning needs of the students. (2) the quality and quantity ofmaterials available to the teacher. (1) the management skills andexpertise of the teacher, and 1s1 the number of students in theclass. Teachers need to remember that differences amongremedial readers are probably as striking as differences betweenremedial and accelerated readers, and therefore they shouldexercise caution in assessing remedial readers and implement-ing instructional strategies. Experience. interest, and staff de-

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Attitude is important, too 1 oi hers need to be ton guardagainst their OWfl negative thoughts that students Cannotwill not reed When teacher, believe that atisiientii tantiot learnto read, their suwione will probably be ionfirmell Remedialreaders have failed often and they need teathero who believe thatthey will succeed Teachers who perceive remedial readers inpositive ways are headed in the right dirvition While Is...shins*sperms« is important. 'arms and enthusiasm are Vital

CHAPTER 4THE ON GRADE LEVEL READERAND THE ACCELERATED READER

dia0i :jive& level readers are those student who have littledifficulty reading materials typically aimed at their current gradelevel. Accelerated readers are excellent reader§, kmpetent withmaterials designed for students in grades higher him their ownThough both groups still have reading needs, many times thriceon grade level and accelerated reader. become kit in the crowdbecause their reading abilities seem in step with grade levelreeding demands

The on rprZinse kwl and accelerated middle school readers havefew or no problems with the OMITS ion of some new anddifficult words or proper nouns, Since these students have noserious problems with comprehension. it is difficult to identifytheir specific strengths and weaknesses However both groups

;3=some direct reading instruction aimed at meeting thetug needs (1) need for better comprehension. (2) need for a

wider and mom varied vocabulary. (3) need for improved studyskills. (4) need to increase flexibility of rate. and (St need to domore recreational reading

NEED FOR BETTER COMPREHENSION

Reader, who have excellent decoding skills may still esportent* difficulty comprehending Middle schoolers need tocomprehend at three levels literal, interpretive. and evaluativeAs one teacher put it. students need to be able to read the line.read between the lines, and read beyond the hews Students whoare accustomed to literal or factual questions may have &Ilk ultyanswering questions at the Interpretive and evaluative levelsFor ideas about various levels of questions. see Sanders,.

Teachers can use several methods to determine the com-prehension abilities of on grade level students They can havestudents read a selected passage and then ask them questions

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On grade level and 4tcrIrr Aril 'student. mitten nrej lo my tease

their reading voa Ando y and add Iii the ri*hnes, 0, theirlanguage Ltmtted vocabulary can br thr result of a homeenvironment where vocabulary is meager and where parents jovery little voluntary reading Tracher can asses. atudents'vocabulary by observing their writing, by listening to their orallanguage. and by being aware t their ablisly to define words

ht, t tt, t loot,: Neo4.. ., I. . S 7 .4 45

In in tonal strategies designed 61 1fflptitve voi41110411, 1/6644*

1 foams uositieft einisies Students oak. *imply wootsli sink44 ieso r4 it and tver and wrote as many 111011614, OW thewards as they can Allowing students to work with a buddyts a good system Alter the student. have kited multiplemeanings for the selected words. they can Ii., 'Whet wordswith multiple meanings

1 onne* fotemoterinst *IN:tents think of all the *Ain too itsIKel are related to orti.o,n nouns. such a. dos a, of 'WowStudents work in poir and needn't defend their choices

.t t minima kaihai me* 4+4 diassa*ro, All of these creosoteform. of poetry are useful in developing vocebtlarY (Mostlanguage arts methods honks have doodad cies. rsptions ofthese wr$11nig hornw 1 Writing these lypv* of poetry may bea group effort triads. for instance, tan be composed by 4small group

4 Aleitahrt 4vefthuergy Student. go through the alphabet,writin the first words that come to mind ft,t cash Ismer toethe al bet Students tan work in pairs or in Owe's, and11w ru can vary For instance. students tan WV how manytomes they can proceed through the alphabet in a fifteenminute period. sir they can hoot three words for each letteror record only fivtletter word.

, Mosaist ionic An old party game that works with rnisickeschocAirs involves giving student. letter combination. andasking them to form as many word. as they i an from thecombination He sure the seed word contaons enoughvowels SO that several words c an be spelled from it Vary therules to allow students to add letter* to form new words. or6114Irkl illtiliffIll to NtOide of three or tour letters

ti Afinirry words Form the class into several groups andmnul rue t each student within the group to browse through arnagasine to fond three word. new to then, that they 'honkno one the in the group know. The student wrotes eachword on separate card Doctoonaries should be availableEach student will show one card to the group to see ifanyone in the group knows the word After the meaning nochecked in the dictionary. the nest student present. a cardA poem is given for each known word

4 3

42 READING INSTRUCTION IN THE MIDDLE SCHOOL

7. Crossword puzzles Crossword puzzles from the newspaperor from puzzle books can provide an excellent vocabularyexercise. Many students enjoy composing their owncrossword puzzles to be used by other students.

8. Synonym fun Students look up ten common words in thethesaurus and then write a silly story using the moredifficult synonyms for those words. Students can work inpairs and share their stories with another pair of students.

f.1. Obsolete words Students make lists of words'no longer inuse, getting tips from parents and other adults. Alongsidethese obsolete words, write words that are commonly usedin their place today. This is a good team activity andstimulates much interest in vocabulary development.

10. Listing sexist words Middle schoolers enjoy finding thosewords in their vocabularies based on the word man, forinstance. Students today are aware of sexist language andmany delight in making lists.

11. Regional or dialect dictionary Students enjoy developingdictionaries of words common to one particular region ordialect. Every part of the country has words that are uniqueto that region. Middle school students can usually think ofsome words, but this is a good activity in which to involveadults.

12. Slang dictionary Middle schoolers love slang and are usuallydelighted to have the opportunity to develop a slangdictionary (It is important to emphasize the differencebetween slang and profanity.) This is a good small groupactivity.

NEED FOR IMPROVED STUDY SKILLS

Students must acquire study skills if they are to becomeindependent learners. Major task areas include locating informa-tion, organizing information, and using graphic aids. Withinthese task areas are included several specific study skills forexample, using an appendix, using an encyclopedia, and usinga glossary.

Many middle schoolers who read without serious problemsdesperately need to improve their study habits. Teachers can

41

The ()rs Grade 1 eve/ Reader and the .1,,ell rated 1:,,ider 4

determine if students possess good study habits by observingtheir work and by administering informal inventories con-structed to assess skills in this area. Helping students analyzetheir current study habits is a first step toward developing goodhabits. The following inventory helps students identify presenthabits and indicates to the teacher and the students studentlearning preferences. The inventory can be modified to meetparticular needs by including or excluding certain items.

STUDY SKILLS INVENTORYHOW I LIKE TO STUDY

Like NotMe Like Me

1. don't like to check my own work.2. study best in the morning.3. like to choose my assignments.4. like assignments that I do myself rather

than those done in a group.5. like writing but I don't like reading.6. like daily assignments rather than

week-long assignments.7. wait until Cie last minute to finish my

assignments.8. enjoy drawing.9. don't plan my work very well.

10. study best at night.11. like to finish my work on time.12. don't like to use the library.13. like to make things as part of my

essons.14. want to finish my work at school.15. would rather work in a group than

work alone.16. study best in the afternoon.17. can find anything I want in the library.18. like to check my own work.19. organize my time well.20. don't mind reading but I hate writing.

4 `)

44 READING INSTRUCTION IN THE MIDDLE SCHOOL

There are many ways to teach students good study skills.Experienced teachers have had success with these methods:

1. Fun witk following directions Students work in pairs to writedirections for simple activities such as making a paperairplane. After students complete the writing, they ex-change directions with another pair of students and carryout the directions. This exercise helps youngsters learn tofollow printed directions on packages, instructions includedwith kits, and step-by-step science experiments.

2. Oral note taking Some students have difficulty decidingwhat ideas should be written down when making notes onwritten material. A good exercise starts with the studentsreading a few simple paragraphs aloud. After discussingwhat the students think is important for note writing, theywrite their ideas on the chalkboard. This note takingactivity is followed with a written activity.

3. Library orientation Many middle schoolers need to becomemore aware of the resources of the school library in order tofully utilize its facilities. The content of an orientationsession will depend upon the knowledge and experiencethat the students already demonstrate. Avoid lecturesessions; it is usually best to follow a brief introduction withexercises that require students to actually find informationor practice other library skills. For instance, to teach the useof the biographical dictionary, ask students to find severalactual biographies. Many librarians will prepare interestingexercises.

NEED TO INCREASE FLEXIBILITY OF RATE

It is important that readers are able to read different materialsat different rates. Many on grade level and accelerated readersread all materials at the same rate rather than adjust the rateas appropriate. Teachers need to provide opportunities for thesestudents to gain flexibility in reading rate. The observant teachercan determine whether students vary reading rate to fit the typeof material and the purpose for reading.

Two strategies have been shown effective in speeding upreading rate:

43

The On Grade !Awl Reader and the Accelerated Reader 45

1. Sped reading devices Teachers might use devices such astachistoscopes, controlled machines, and reading pacers.Tachistoscopes present printed materials for brief periodsof time. Controlled machines use projectors to projectreading materials at varying speeds. Reading pacers haveextensions or arms that move over a printed page from topto bottom at different regulated rates.

2. Timed exercises Teachers might select passages and timestudents to determine reading rates. Students can thenwork to improve their rates on these passages. Speed can becharted on graphs so students can see their progress.Teachers need to be sure that comprehension levels aremaintained as speed increases.

NEED TO DO MORE RECREATIONAL READING

It is important for students to appreciate and enjoy goodliterature. Just because on grade level and accelerated studentsare able to re- I does not mean that they will read for pleasure.Why not? Perhaps they are kept busy reading asaigned materialsor have no adult models who read for pleasure. Some may beturned off because they have to write or give book reports oneverything they read.

Teachers may discover students' recreational reading habits byasking them to complete appropriate inventories; however,caution should be exercised here since some students willrespond the way they think teachers want them to respond.Observing students' reading habits and discussing with thembooks that they have read usually yields the best information.Refer to Chapter 7 for strategies that will help teachers increasethe amount of recreational reading done by their students.

READING APPROACHES APPROPRIATE FOR ON GRADELEVEL AND ACCELERATED READERS

We believe developmental reading instruction is necessary foron grade level and accelerated readers if their reading potential isto be fully realized. Of course, these readers do not need the sameamount or type of reading instruction as remedial readers, butmany are still in need of some instruction. We are not advocating

4'

46 READING INSTRUCTION IN THE MIDDLE SC 11001.

a basal reading series or any other specific approach; however,we believe that reading instruction should occur several timesper week, dependi.ig on the needs of the students. It is best todesignate instructional time, because unless time is allocated foran activity it often does not occur.

A developmental program is one where attention is given tothe development of reading in a planned and systematic way. Theprogram will not be the same for all students because their needsare so divergent. Some approaches appropriate for the on gradelevel middle schooler include individualized reading with tradebooks or basals, and an eclectic or combined approach. Foraccelerated readers, basals are not appropriate.

INDIVIDUALIZED READING

Please refer to Chapter 3 for a discussion of the individualizedreading approach. This approach is well suited to on grade leveland accelerated readers since motivation is high and growth isthus facilitated.

Chapter 3 also contains a section on basal reading. Teachrscan use basal readers with on grade level readers, but studentsshould be allowed to self-select and pace themselves through theliterature selections. The teachers' guides provide helpful ideasfor teaching students who have demonstrated particular needs.

ECLECTIC OR COMBINED READING

The eclectic or combined reading approach is discussed inChapter 3. Of course, the methods used ve .ri on grade level andaccelerated readers are different from th4 ;e used with remedial

readers. Teachers match student nec.,s with appropriatematerials, so that no one approach or matt , .1 is used exclusively

with all students. The number of approaches .id materials in usedepends upon available resources, student needs, teacher ex-perience, and so forth.

READING IN THE LITERATURE PROGRAM

In some middle schools the only material available is theliterature textbook, and some teachers try to meet students'

45

The On Grade LetY1 Reader am! the Atte !crated Readet 4

reading needs through the literature program. Although theteaching of literature can be a valid approach to the teaching ofreading, sad to say it often is the only reading instruction somestudents receive. Teachers need to be certain that students canread the literature textbook. Do not assume that all selectionsare on the same reading level, since level of difficulty can varyfrom one selection to the next.

When using the textbook, teachers need to observe students'reading behaviors, note needs, and provide appropriate instruc-tion to meet those needs. Proper use of questioning techniquescan improve comprehension. The literature book, if usedproperly, can help develop students' vocabulary, spark interest incertain topics, and facilitate recreational reading in those areas.

IN CONCLUSION

Teachers must challenge on grade level and acceleratedreaders and be challenged by them. Teachers need to "take theceiling off" and let students progress at their own rate. Butteachers cannot remove the floor. In other words, there is acontinuing need for reading instruction if students are to makeprogress and become better and better readers.

CHAPTER 5READING IN THE BIG FOUR -ENGLISH, SOCIAL STUDIES,SCIENCE, AND MATH

Students make much progress between the recognition oftheir first word and the time they become a mature reader. Ateach step along the way reading instruction should be different,with goals and activities tailored to accommodate students'changing needs and interests. Many middle school students aremaking progress in reading, but most still need help in becoming

mature readers.It is frequently said that every teacher is a teacher of reading.

Of course, each content area teacher needn't be a teacher ofreading in a remedial sense. But content area teachers need to

understand the reading process and be able to note students'strengths and weaknesses as readers. Also teachers need to pre-

sent printed materials in such a way that students understandthe content presented and can grow in their reading abilities.

Reading in content areas is a big mystery to some teachers. Itneedn't be. Reading instruction here as elsewhere is based ongood common teaching sense andable teachers have been and arealready doing many of the activ .ies recommended here. While

Miss Gertrude Horst (one of our favorite history teachers,retired) and thousands like her may not be able to give names to

the activities discussed here, she and other teachers were in factmaking these activities a part of daily teaching long before it was

vogue to do so. Miss Horst, a bright and caring person, exhibitedcommon sense and great sensitivity to the needs of students, and

these attitudes guided all her teaching practices.Content area teachers are tl-e best "teachers of reading" for

their own subject areas because of the following characteristics:

1. Their enthusiasm for the subject sets a purpose and helps

motivate students to read the mat...rial.

2. Their understanding of the content enables them toidentify the key concepts students should learn from theprinted materials.

4i

Reading ui the Iour 4Q

3. Their knowledge of the vocabulary helps facilitate students'vocabulary growth.

4. Their awareness of resources to use in teaching the contentprovides alternate ways to help students learn.

SKILLS OF CONTENT AREA TEACHERS

To do a good job, content area teachers need to possess eightskills related to reading. Teachers should be able to

1. Use successful techniques for teaching vocabulary in theirown content area.

2. Assist students in improving comprehension.3. Determine if students can comprehend reading materials,

using procedures such as the doze.4. Assist students in becoming flexible in their reading rates.5:Guide reading assignments.6. Assist students with study techniques.7. Determine the reading level of a book using a formula such

as the Fry Readability Graph8. Accommodate the needs of remedial readers in the content

area.

SKILL ONE: USE SUCCESSFUL TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHINGVOCABULARY IN THEIR OWN CONTENT AREA

Teachers are generally expert in the specialized vocabulary oftheir own content area, and therefore they are the best ones toteach that vocabulary. Asking students to do pencil and papertype activities is not a satisfactory way to extend vocabulary, noris it helpful to assign fifteen or twenty isolated words each week.Vocabulary growth is best accomplished within the context ofeach content area. Students' reading vocabularies are limited bytheir previous word range. To build vocabulary, teachers canprovide opportunities for students to experience new concepts;to add to their awareness of vocabulary teachers can use newwords and encourage much verbal interaction.

Because students' vocabularies differ so greatly, content areateachers will find it impossible to teach every student every word

18

30 READINC INSTRUCTION IN TM MINH. ( 114,XX

in a particular reading assignment. Before teaching any newwords, teachers should determine which words are not knownby a majority of the students. A simple test in matching vocabu-lary can help here. Be selective and choose only those wordsnecessary for understanding. Proper nouns or foreign wordswhich students will seldom encounter in their reading shouldreceive less emphasis.

There are several categories of word:, that students often donot know:

1. Words used in speaking but not in reading2. Words with geographic meanings3. Words with scientific and technical meanings4. Words of a general nature that take on Different meanings

in different content areas5. Words that have ambiguous meanings6. Words that are obsolete.

Students learn vocabulary in many different 3ys, lust as theyhave individualized styles for learning other in-ormation. It isthe responsibility of the content area teachers to help each stu-dent develop a strategy that meets that student's needs.

SKILL TWO: ASSIST STUDENTS IN IMPROVINC,COMPREHENSION

One of the primary goals of education is to develop students'thinking processes. Teachers should keep this goal in mind asthey work to produce independent learners who can comprehendand evaluate what they read. Comprehension of printed mate-rials is a thinking process, and as students mature in theirthought processes they display greater reading comprehension.

Reading comprehension can be described on three or fourdifferent levels:

Literal level The lowest level of comprehension is con-cerned with recall of facts, sequeni e, enumeration.Interpretive level This level goes beyond the literal level.The reader makes generalizations, see relationships such ascause and effect, makes comparisons.

"-4

grinding in the Bill FI 51

Critical level At this level, the reader evaluates and judgesinformation. The author's presentation, accuracy, andtruthfu'ness are examined.Creative level The reader becomes involved with theauthor's information and integrates it into his or her ownthinking.

Content area teachers can help students learn to think andcan at the various levels. Too often, the questionsteat ers ask and the activities they assign, both written and oral,are at the literal, fattual level. Good teachers work very hard tostructure questions and develop assignments t ha t will encouragestudents to think interpretively, critically, and creatively. Allmiddle school teachers need to examine their own questioningskills and work on the art of higher level questioning.

An important part of comprehension is learning to identifymain ideas. Often the teaching of this skill is left to the languagearts teacher, when in fact each content area teacher should beworking with students in this regard. Teachers often assumethat students have learned how to locate main ideas early in theirreading instruction. They forget that the skill must be refined asstudents move from easier to more difficult reading material.

Students' abilities to outline and summarize to readeffectively and organize the ideas they read are dependentupon their being able to identify main ideas. Workbook exercisesare not a particularly good way to teach this skill becausestudents may still have difficulty transferring the skill to contentarea reading. Instead, let students practice finding the main ideasin paragraphs taken from regular content area lessons.

SKILL THREE: DETERMINE IF STUDENTS CANCOMPREHEND READING MATERIALS

How do content area teachers determine students' readingstrengths and needs? Chapter 2 contains a section on thissubject; however, some of the methods mentioned there aremore appropriate for language arts and reading teachers. Anyinformation about students' reading abilities should be reportedto the content area teachers on forms similar to the onessuggested in Chapter 2. To be effective and useful, the formmust be simple.

C 1 0

52 RE AlEt%1 17%.',1141 I TR )% I\ Till \111,1 /I I `,1

Oar Procedier

The clnze procedure is one method of determining whetherstudents can comprehend certain written material Hormuthdeveloped this procedure which can be administered easily andprovides valuable information To develop a dole test, theteacher selects a representative passage of 250 words from atextbook for similar material) and types the passage deletingevery fifth word and leaving blank spaces of equal length for eat h

deleted word. Each student receives a copy of the passage and isasked to fill in the blanks. To be correc t the student must supplythe exact word deleted. Each correct response counts for twopercentage points. To determine the student's reading level forthe passage, use the following scale developed by Hormuth

58 100% correct Independent levelJ.44 57'0 correct Instruction I level

0 4Yv correct Frustration level

The beginning of a doze passage might look like this

Each year there are (11 rocodiles on the tact-2) the earth The American is one

14) It is estimated that I Siof 21 have3400 years I herebeen - existence 4t,)

47, laws to protect the ,$ ;

More CheAtng C.,,mprthrnston

Students cannot comprehend printed materials it they cannotdecode the words Teat hers need to he sure students can decodebefore assuming there is a comprehension difficulty A pro-cedure for determining whether a student can decode was de-scribed in Chapter 3 Briefly, on a one to-one basis, 0-4 teacherasks a student to read orally from a Ii word passage selectedfrom a textbook. The teacher keeps a re, ord of words the studentmiscalls, and this gives a valid indication of reading level

0 words missed Independent level1-4 words missed Instrut tional level

or more words misses' Frustration level

If students are at the independent or instructional level, they

Readmit In Ilk B1; 1.9. 53

can decode the material. if they score at the frustration level, donot expect them to succeed with that bo-'..

SKILL FOUR: ASSIST STUDENTS BECOMING FLEXIBLE INTHEIR READING RATES

Mature readers do not rea every word. Reading every wordmakes for a slow and inefficient reader at the middle school level.Middle school students need to learn to adjust their reading ratesto the material and according to their purposes for reading.Content area teachers can help students become aware of waysto increase or decrease reading rates:

Sunning Reading to find an answer in a passageSkimming Reading to gain an impression of the contentRapid Reading for the main ideals)Sitorroakding Reading to gain familiarity with content intext s or similar materialCareful reading Reading to analyze as in math problems orscientific formulas.

Students should learn to ask themselves the followingquestions to determine how fast they should read: (1) Howdifficult is the material? (2) Why am I reading the material? and(3) +n. much do I already know about the content? Middleecho valuate reading materials in this way are moreefficie.

SKILL FIVE: GUIDE READING ASSIGNMENTS

The guided reading lesson or directed reading activity areessentially the same and are designed for students who read attheir instructional level, not for those at the independent orfrustration levels. Usually the procedure is used with smallgroups or with whole class reading assignments since it isdifficult or impossible for a teacher to spend so much time withan individual student. The steps for a guided reading assignmentare as follows:

1. Build up the students' range of experience so they can

54 REANNIC INSTRL1 HON IN nil NI tA, I Wool

understand the material and will be motivated torrid it. Byasking students questions about the content. teachers canusually determine if students can relate their past ex-periences to the subject. If not, experiences can be provided

through films, records, discussions, resource people, field

trips, and the like. New vocabulary can also be presented at

this point. Teachers can decide how many new words topresent and plan to use a variety of methods for teachingvocabulary.

2. Set the purpose(%) for reading. A study guide or special

study technique such as SQ3R can help student* clarifytheir purposes for reading. (SQ3R is described on page 56 )Teachers may need to focus on rate adjustment if stu-dents seem to have difficulty with ate

3. Ask students to read the assignment silently, with orwithout the teacher. Because students read at home, at the

library, or elsewhere, teachers need to discuss with themthe optimum conditions for silent reading

4 Develop discussion and other follow-up activities in the

classroom. If reading assignments are seldom discussed in

class, students often do not read with a sense of purpose(Teachers who use good questioning techniques canstimulate students to reach higher levels of comprehen-sion) In-class activities can include oral reading of short

passages that relate to questions, oral reports. and drawing

or constructing representations of scenes or concepts from

the material.5. Encourage the reader to go beyond the original assignment

and read widely on the same topic or in related areas This

step is limited only by teacher and student motivation. Most

reading assignments lend themselves to extended reading

activities.To better understand the recommended sequence for a guided

reading assignment, consider the example of Mrs Walker's sot sal

studies class. The group is studying mountainous regions of the

world, and the reading assignment focuses on the Pyrenees

Mountains that separate France and Spain.

1. Other than a knowledge of the Eiffel Tower, the wineindustry, and France's involvement in World War H. the

3 3

RAnid air r Bra F.ir SS

students have no concept of the terrain of France. Theyknow even less about Spain. and what they know centersaround bullfights and King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.The group has some prior knowledge of mountains ingeneral, having seen some documentaries about mountainsin Colorado. Wyoming, and Alaska

Mrs. Walker quickly realizes that she must develop lotof background before these students can understand theirreading assignment. She prepares slide program that dealswith the Pyrenees Mountains. A middle school teacher whohas traveled extensively In that area is asked to speak to theclass about her travels. Mrs. Walker reads aloud shortstory about fife in these mountains. The new vocabulary isso extensive she prepares study sheet with words anddefinitions for the students' easy reference

2. Since Mrs. Walker regularly uses the SQ3R method toassist students with their studies. no explanation of it isnecessary. The students survey the material and developquestions. They are highly motivated and clearly under-stand the purpose for reading the material.

3. Students complete the silent reading outside of class Theycomprehend the material quite well as a result of all theadvance preparation.

4. Since reading comprehension level is high, class discussionis lively. In one activity Mrs Walker selects questionsformulated during the question part of SQ3R and asksstudents to find and read aloud the passage that containsthe right answer. Mrs. Walker's skillful questioning en-courages analytical and evaluative thinking throughout thediscussion. The border between France and Spain becomesso real for students that several draw pictures and makemurals of the region. One student writes shepherd'sdiary, and two students write creative stories about borderconflicts. One girl brings to school a sweater made from thewool of Pyrennes mountain sheep. Mrs Walker is pleased atthese evidences of students' understanding.

5. The interest in the Pyrenees Mountains does not fade. butcontinues as students study other border regions aroundthe world. References to the Pyrenees are made in subse-quent discussions, and related news items are shared When

50 Kt.At11Nl, INS! KU( ZION U. IIII. MIIfIIII st IIt1t1I

the class studies poetry, at a later date, the students !matepoetry inspired by the Pyrenees Mount ..stn

SXII.1 SIX. ASSIST ST UDEN Ty WI TII STUDY aciSUCH AS SQJR

There are numerous study tchniques that give students anorganized way to get the no tit from what they read. Middleschool students can profit from study techniques, and teacherswho use these techniques feel they improve students' under-standing of textbook content.

One rather simple technique is the SQ3R (Survey, Question,Read, Recite, and Review), developed by Francis P. Robinson".Teachers can follow the technique as described below, or modifyit to suit particular needs.

Survey The student reads to get an idea of what a chapteror section is about. Usually the introduction, the summary.and the first sentence of each paragraph are read carefully.Students are encouraged to glance at any pictures orgraphicmaterials. As a result of 'his quick glance, the student beginsto develop a purpose for reading the selection.

Question The student develops questions from chaptersubheadings by changing the subheadings into questions.Students should formulate no more than three questions foreach subheading. This may sound like a difficult step, butmany content area textbooks are organized in such a waythat it is easy to accomplish this procedure.Read Students read the content to find answers to thequestions they have developed. Since their questions corre-spond to subheadings, ,t is easy to locate the answers.

Recite Students restate the content in their own wordsafter they find the answers to their questions.Review Students can review, either orally or in writing,each section of the chapter. Again students are thinkingabout the answers to questions formulated in Step 2, andadditionally, any other information found in their reading.

We offer one word of caution about using a study techniquelike SQ3R. The first time around, students may become,

5 5

1\ I ti 111, '14

discouraged because it take, so much time to use the method tominimize this problem, teachers might suggest students beginwith short chapters or portions of chapters. Furthermore,students should be encouraged to develop their own study styleby adapting any study technique to meet their own needs.Students should not be required to hand In formal assignmentsbased on study techniques since these methods are designedfor their own benefit. Brief, sketchy questions and answers maybe sufficient.

SKILL SEVEN: DETERMINE THE READING LEVEL OF A ROOKWITH A FORMULA SLAM AS THE FRY READABILITY GRAPH

Content area textbooks are sometimes written at a high-'rlevel of readability than that indicated by the publisher. For thisreason teachers need to determine the reading level of textbooksbefore they purchase or select them for .itliderli 1141

There are numerous readability formulas in use. We recom-mend the Fry" Readability Graph, included on the followingPage.

SKILL EIGHT: ACCOMMODATE THE NEEDS OF REMEDIAL.READERS IN THE CONTENT AREAS

Most teachers are aware that they need to plan for theremedial readers in their classes, but it is not always an easy task.Some of the students (the poorer readers) cannot read thetextbook and other materials used in their class. This problem ismagnified because many content area textbooks are 0, men asmuch as two or three notches above the grade for which they areintended, Thus the textbook is out of reach or very difficult fornot only the remedial readers but also fnr many grade ieyelreaders. To be effective, teachers net4.1 t know the actualreadability levels of materials they use, and thy, tired to as4ess,through such procedures as the dote, each student'" ability toread and comprehend the materials.

Of course, content area teachers cannot assurm the role tremedial reading teachers. However, conte- t area teachers canproviae alternate ways for remedial readers to learn the contentParallel textbooks written for the low level readers may beavailable. A suggested list of materials parallel in (-onto it, butwritten at a lower reading level, is found in the teachrt edition

GRAPH FOR ISTIMATINC READABILITY'I dwArd I ry. Reamer% Univerity Rrding enter.

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Randomly w leer three 100 word passage% from abook or an arts, le Plot the average numbe of syllaHes and the average number of seretene es per 100words 011 the graph to determine the grade level ofthe material ( house. more passage.% per book itgreat variability is observed, and tont hide that thebook ha% uneven readabilit. few btoks will tall inthe gray arra, but when the'. do, grade level St ore%art. invalid

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of some textbooks Some teacher' tear apart lower elementarylevel textbooks and reconstruct them into Miniunit* Otherteachers have rewritten textbooks at a lower readability level,however, because of the time involved, it is unreasonable toexpect teachers to undertake this lob unless they are paid for theextra work. Some teachers read textbooks onto dilIntApt, orrecord someone else reading the textbook.

It is important to remember that low level readers, who workin materials different from the better readers, of ten feel a stigma.Teachers need to do everything pos,ible to minimiir thesenegative feelings,

SPECIFIC CONTENT AREAS

The following discussion deals with several reading issues asthey relate to specific areas of the curriculum See theBibliography for additional suggestions of books that focus onteaching reading in the content areas

SCIENCE

Even when science is taught in a laboratory environment,students need to refer to their science textbook. In order to read ascience text, the student must be able to handle the specializedvocabulary, follow directions, read graphic aids, visualize contentfrom the printed page, ace cause-effect relationships, andunderstand various scientific writing patterns

Preparation is very important here. Students cannot under-stand written material if they lack the necessary backgroundexperience. For some units of study, the actual preparation orbuilding of background experience may take up more time thanthe actual reading.

Science teachers often nse a guided reading activity formatwhen they make reading assignments Science materials containmuch specialized vocabulary; teachers need to be selective andteach students c.oly those words essential for understandingthe content.

Science content often includes figures, mathematical quota-tions, or directions, and students are expected to make general-izations and understand details. Reading rate is usually slow;

o Ni Al 'v.. IOC( Ili 01 ih i lit kill )1)11

however, this varies At '1 ''nth to the witting style, the leaitirri'familiarity with the material and the purpose tot reading

According to Robinsoni,. xis main patterns of writing are 11)

enumerition, (2) classification, Ili generahration, 14) problemsolving, (5) comparison or contrast, and (CO ItNtIrthr Moststudents, including good readers, nerd assistants. in Monist vingthese patterns. Science teachers an help students get the mostout of their reading assignments by providing net rusarybackground information and by guiding scientific reading

Immmtratiati Many (At t. are Kited with few tiles to the

reader as to main ideas and subtopics Outlining and otheractivities will help the student isolate the topic , subtopk, anddetailsOastoromott Topics are usually divided into parts withsubtopit requiring students to determine similarities and

different Students often find it helpful to make charts.(401mb:own The main idea is presented along withsubtopics that support the main idea Students should lookfor the main idea at different places in the paragraph

Problem solving This pattern can take different forms (al asolution following in the form of hypothetical solutions, (h)no solution, (c) a solution, (d) a question and a solutionStudents should learn to identify the problem before findingthe solutionComparison or contrast Ideas are presented through com-parison and contrast Although these two patterns areclosely related, students usually do not have a problemdifferentiating between them. Readers can refer back toinformation given in preceding paragraphs to better under-stand the contrast or comparison.snorner A process or experiment is explained in stepsStudents usually need to be encouraged to read .lowly,striving to understand each step in turn

MATHEMATICS

Math books are often written by mathematicians unaware ofthe reading levels of students who will use the book. Too often

0411)4 Ili till OW is

much of the written material i. beyond the Frac h of manystudents For example, a it vanth gride math test may be writtenat a tenth grade level, making it ow of reach for the on gradelevel reader.

Math texts present other problems as wer 'ire than onesymbol system is being used, since the languor;, i mathematic.consists of math numerals, word., signs, and letters In addition,math texts do not provide the contextual clues present intraditional expository writing.

Students who can read mathematics textbooks with somesuccess display the following skills: they know math symbols andvocabulary, they are precise in reading, they can follow direr .none and understand visuals, they are able to visualise, and theyread analytically.

Mathematics vocabulary presents a real challenge because ofthe technical words unique to mathematics and because manygeneral words such as power. root, and 'prodant take on differentmeanings in math. It is the responsibility of mathematicsteachers to teach these special words since their meanings areunique to that subject. Through observation and informalvocabulary inventories teachers can determine which studentsneed extra help with vocabulary. Teachers need to help pupilsdevelop a background of experience, and guided reading activities can be especially appropriate. Study techniques such a.SQ3R can also be used.

Math probably requires more rereading th.:n any othersubject. Students must read slowly, intensively, ard prec'xelybecause of the special symbols and unique syntax Of coursematerials dealing with the history or the future of m.,thematic..are usually written in an expository style and can therch reread at a faster rate.

Robinson's has icitntitied three patterns o' .,.ngmathematics: concept development, prim ph develocment, andproblem solution.

Concept development ('resents up. r tiilnal matherr iticalconcepts needed to so,ye ptobletni, St Jdents mos; learn toobserve all elements in the oassape and reread 'hennecessary.Princtple development ('resents a serie's of matt ematicaiconcepts from which itudents develop generalir, lions.

6o

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! hey must efovelop thygeneralisation brtorr they e an solve

the problems Ar with conerpt drvelopmem. the lewdest%

must read tart fully. observe all elements, and trtrad when

nes essaryProblori setlishom Presents problem ',softiies fur students tea

solve Thomas and Robinson am/9014s% *ebbs% an I Pots t

pp 31e13171 detail seven steps that help students readproblem-solving writing patterns

Step I Reed the problem thoroughly. asking, What isthis all about 7

St 2 Reread the problem asking. What am I tee hod

here?"

Step Ask yourself,' What tats ate gtyell7"

step 4 Nest. "'What is my plan eat atta. k

Step 5 Estimate the answer

Step o arry out the opesatsosts

Step 7 (. heck your work

Reading is a part of A mat hemai s program 1..s.hers can he

more successful in tea. hang mat hvittstu - at they devote some

energy and diets time to improving ,tildents' reading skills an

this content arra

50(:1,41 5 UMW,

The content and teaching of IA studies have changed

greatly in the past twenty years I / 4' Inquiry mode of teat hang

requires students to read widely. an many other materials are

being used in addition to testbooky icher% expect students to

think analytically and critically. and students are taught to

identify propaganda and othes horns of bias, separate fact from

fiction, define and analyse issues. and read maps, charts, tabley,

and so forth. In addition, the writing style of middle school social

studies materials is almost completely depository, and it is often

difficult to isolate the main idea from the supporting details.

There is an increase in the use of primary sources, that :se, the

material is reprinted as it appeared originally, in the form of

ni..lapaper articles, documents, and so on Certainly, this is a

re.ummended practice. but at reposes students to materials very

61

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.line reading abilitirs and ststetests al% %%Rh It I striatum.assignments nerd t, be made taking into a, i ruts individualreading levels, bat Igiounik, and Mt Et 1.41%

The reading of literature requires pains ulai skills, includinganaly /mg (harm tugs. rtoginting hdlowitig plot,

reading dialrt t. and reading plays I .su Is literal y styli. is difrereinand requires that students u116ir cliftcrrnt trading Abilities, 11,rexample. In poetry students arr.-111rd tip,,11 to inlet meaningfrom brief or 1.111%t tat' phrase.

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that is unique to rttept those ,yords that des, ribs. wiltingstyle the rot abillary to hr pis-witted depends on thy parts, id,arselection and the VIKablihrs' sit the stusli.lit

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As in the other t ontent areas, teak hers mini., guide radet andpay partit ular attention to the first ter of guided readingbuilding ar experience range (smiled reading au twine,. helpensure th.t readers will understand what they read

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CHAPTER 15READING IN RELATEDAREAS OF THE CURRI( MUM

'The ability to triad 13 4 1. itial measitire tit student ant t rs to MOOgrr.4 tti the mtsltilr ,Ffotfl tllrrttultini Signr ilt.tritrVrt.require only minimum amount* of trading, anti in their arrasstudent. tan autteed without being unduly bandit areed byreading Jrik Irn4 Ir. Nonreaders may ret rive high ArAtirs in anaria hike phy.ltal ratit arson hr. auir of

horne rAlusAtors int omit tly assume that tr. tboolos tor nonacAdrenit arras are written Al lower reading level than Niuefor ai ArMit Ili On the I. ontrary thew trt. are usuallywritten On Krafft, level or even IWO tie three vrar abovegrade level

NONACADI ARIAS 01 1111 URRIC 111 UM

Sys ro Al so tailed nonatadrnu. oshir, .Ir Meted in manymiddle it hook home art. hraith ph. tit .111.6141% Atoll Artand industrial art*

Although the tufly lit n111It dor.. II,reading tiOr% trtitlif t the fief I and tomprehending of more than on iymbol it item note, ivrtsboli torrhythm, volume. and tempo, and the rit addition. miiis, hasit% own tethnital vot abulary 'orontint ;Mimi prriernt. at hallengeto utlet-it% and leather. many word. are of Italian origin

.1-.% word retognit ion *loll% are important in vigill reading, butrt vatted rehear/ate mirsimste th problem sour students (411usually memorite words as they prat lute

Muisit al theory itrrsensi reading problem+ for even the britstudent* Guided reading f twit's.% air helpful here Fortunately,only a small number of students read mutt theory at the middleitt howl level

6.1

kr4Joat kriofti if ovia ..1

When OlUdOrd are called on to trod About the history of musicand the lives 01 titrnpleinttO. a JallOtAtit I Ypr .10 tOrtirf060tttti isrequired the study of mush history usually involvtis shin thositst,tit 4us and ettesf relationships and 4110$0, !ration Mushteachers should guide reading Assignments in this arra

Reading rat. varies Material on mush theory usually requiressnotty stow rrtadirts with much rereading flistgraphies of ionserr can g±r«r y be read mush more rapidly Stu-dontii shouldbe ercurageti to prat lite silent reading of musical notation And

Oingirig or playing l his intrrars acs iarat y and*Teed

Music teethe,. can supplement music lesson with hlm andresold* that build bat kground information l'utshi art I a trtA wide variety of books on minus for eras het. and ltsirIa.

AlirAt first thought, one would suppose that aft 41Ira not intuits

mutts reading I lowever, good reader has r an ails atitagr hrte.AO in other utriel t Most art book* are written for illative,reader. and Art trstbooli .ire otter, ectittrts hy,s 'it three yeAttsabove the grade level tot who, h they or intended Writtendirections for somples art processes require 'artful trading

Each Area of art st ulpture Crs attiti and has itsown highly Petialted von abulary sprs la! terms must heintroduced and esplatned

C.tsided reading at !II:air* t an he valuahlt hrtr and !rat /WI',should consider borrowing Wm. AtIk. *I iit.ra fr,ttti IIIIIalt lihraf,r.and museums to build hat kgrinind tot ,t,,,h-nt,

/10811 AN

feathers unfamiliar with the current I Wilt Ularh I' homeeconomics, or home arts as it is usually t ailed to the middleschool. are in for a surprise In addition to ti lying and sewing,students of both series study shad growth and developmentparenting. housing patterns, consumer edutahttn. homemanagement. and much more Reading lc,,Is are important forunderstanding the sourse content Although a Irxthoitk may heused. it usually represents only a small portion ot the printed

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6'

70 READIN(; INS I RUC TION IN T HE I SCHOOL

of subjects discussed, the readability can vary greatly within asingle book. If you are using a readability formula with healthmaterials, be sure to take several samples from different partsof the book.

Guided reading activities (see Chapter 5) are recommended inthis area. Health teaLhers usually do not have problems buildingbackground information because they can make reference to thestudents' own experiences. Although the vocabulary is tech-nical, most words are of a practical nature and students often usethem in daily conversation and writing.

CHAPTER 7JUST FOR THE FUN OF IT -RECREATIONAL READING

A major objective of middle school education should be thepromotion of recreational reading. This responsibility falls notonly to language arts teachers and media specialists. It is everyteacher's responsibility to model reading behavior, allow time forstudents to read, display books, and reward students for reading.Even physical education teachers can be instrumental by lettingstudents see them carrying or reading books and encouragingstudents to discuss books they are reading, especially in thearea of sports.

There is a great deal of competition for students' out-of-schoolhours. Television is a prime contender, along with communityclubs, church, and sports. Students who come from nonreadingfamilies find it particularly difficult to make time for recrea-tional reading. Parents who value reading set aside time forreading and make trips to the library part of the family's regularactivities.

VALUES OF RECREATIONAL READING

There are many benefits to be derived from recreationalreading: an increase in vocabulary, an improved attitude towardreading, the refinement of reading skills, and the realization thatleisure time reading can provide pleasure, impart information,and broaden one's range of experience.

INCREASE IN VOCABULARY

Students who read for recreation come in contact with a widevariety of reading materials written at different levels ofdifficulty. As they read they meet words time and time again indifferent contexts. In fact, recreational reading is one of thebest ways to build vocabulary.

70

72 READING INSTRUCTION IN THE MIDOLL SCHOOL.

IMPROVED ATTITUDE TOWARD READING

Remedial readers are not the only students with poor attitudestoward reading; some better readers read only when required.Some reading programs teach students to read but do not helpthem develop a love of reading.

Attitudes toward reading improve when middle schoolteachers read good literature to their students, enthusiasticallysharing the special magic a skilled author can weave. Studentsneed to hear the beauty of language, and time should be set asideon a regular basis for this important activity.

Teachers can also help middle schoolers find books written attheir interest and ability levels. Remedial readers are "turned off"when asked to read stories clearly intended for younger children.Help change their negative attitudes by suggesting recreationalreading in high-interest, low-vocabulary books. Many bibli-ographies are available for this p.1 pose.

REFINEMENT OF READING :-KILLS

Some educators mistakenly believe that reading skills can onlybe learned in direct skills lessons. Direct skills instruction may benecessary for some students, but not the best approach forothers. Recreational reading is absolutely essential to thedevelopment and improvement of reading attitudes and abilities.

LEISURE TIME READING CAN PROVIDE PLEASURE

Regretfully too many students and adults do not read in theirleisure time. Prophets of doom say that reading is an obsoleteskill, that the computer and other forms of communication makereading a slow way to process information. Even if reading is"inefficient," it will continue to be a pleasant leisure time activity.

HOW TO ENCOURAGE RECREATIONAL READINGRecreational reading is a valuable activity for the middle

schooler. Teachers can encourage recreational reading in manyways: (1) give them what they want; (2) model reading behaviors;

7

114.1 for Me Fun of If -- Ret n11(1(1,14;1 Reading 73

(3) make books readily available; (4) provide time to read; (5)encourage sharing.

GIVE THEM WHAT THEY WANTSome middle school students report they do not like the

materials they are asked to read. Some teachers demand thatstudents read only "good" literature, that is, the classics. We arenot opposed to good literature, but experienced teachers knowthat these selections do not always accommodate readers' inter-ests. Students should be given the freedom to select the booksthey read for pleasure. Teachers can do their part by providingbooks that meet the varying interests of their students.

An interest inventory can help teachers pinpoint students'interests and will provide information about students' overallreading habits. The following inventory can be modified tomeet individual needs.

INTEREST INVENTORY

1. My favorite magazine is2. My favorite book is3. The part of the newspaper I read first is4. If I could be anywhere in the world,

I would like to be in5. The best vehicle on wheels is6. My favorite musical group is7. My favorite pop song is8. My favorite television program is9. The food I like oest is

10. My favorite thing to do onSaturday afternoon is

11. My mother likes to read12. My father likes to read13. I like to get exercise by14. My favorite person in history was

%2

74 READING INSTRUCTION IN THE MIDDLE 5C 11001_

MODEL READING BEHAVIORS

Students will gain a new appreciation for reading if they seeteachers carrying, reading, and discussing books. Students whohave nonreading parents or are influenced by other nonread-ing adults especially need contact with adult models who liketo read.

MAKE BOOKS READILY AVAILABLE

"Books everywhere" should be the motto of middle schools.Book displays need not be exceptionally elaborate. Middleschoolers often approach a table heaped with paperbacks moreeagerly than a book display that has been beautifully decoratedand arranged. Fader's The New Hooked on Bookss is filled withsuggestions for getting students to read simply by making booksreadily available.

PROVIDE TIME TO READ

Hopefully, teachers and administrators in the middle schoolagree that recreational reading during the school day is aproductive use of time. It may be difficult to evaluate the directeffects of recreational reading, but it is still one of the best waysto aid learning and improve attitudes toward reading.

No matter how crowded the curriculum, there has to be sometime alloted to recreational reading. One way to do this isthrough SSR or Sustained Silent Reading. SSR is a period duringthe school day when everyone, including the teacher, readssilently for pleasure. SSR ensures that all students have sometime during the day to read for pleasure. In addition, SSR givesmiddle schoolers a chance to see the teacher reading for pleasure.

ENCOURAGE BOOK SHARING

The old-fashioned practice of writing book reports maydiscourage more reading than it encourages. It is not hard to seethat if students have to write extensive reports on every bookthey read, they will not be eager to read many books. Books can

73

lust 7. the Fit of It Retreatw, hrudrng 75

be shared in several more appealing ways, some of which aredescribed below.

SHARING THROUGH FORMS

As a substitute for traditional book reports, the hacher canask students to complete forms such as these:

FORM 1

Student's nameTitle of bookAuthorIt took me hours to read the book.The most exciting part was on pageMy favorite character wasEverybody should read this book: Yes NoChoose one:

I like the way the book ended becauseI did not like the way the book ended because

My favorite incident wasMy least favorite incident was

FORM 2

(for reluctant readers)

Student's nameTitle of bookAuthorThe story took place inThe main character wasThe way the story ended wasThe type of person who should

read this book is

70 RFAI)INC INS rRuc HON IN (III !MIDI)! I S& I k h.)1

FORM 3

(for remedial readers)

Student's nameTitle of bookAuthorChor,se one:

liked this book becauseI did not like this book because

Choose one:Other students should read this book because

Other students should not read this book because

OTHER WAYS OF SHARING

Book sharing works best when teachers make available manyactivities or ways to share books and allow students to selectthe activity that appeals most to them.

1. Creative dramatics with boon> Students who enjoy creativedramatics can choose to dramatize one or more part; of abook they have read. Give students a chance to prepare andpractice their story before performing it in front of theclass. Costuming may or may not be used.

2. Construction type activities Many students enjoy constructingdioramas or scale models. Construction materials can be

furnished by the school or by the student. If possible, allowtime during the day when students can work on theirconstructions. Windowsills, bookcases, walls. and ceilingscan all be used for display purposes.

3. Book characters Some students enjoy making bookcharacters for display in the room. Puppets are popular,especially bowling pin figures, papier-mache figures, sockpuppets, and paper bag puppets.

4. Booklets Middle schoolers enjoy making booklets or

73

be,t tot the Fun of Re, t o'Forhil

scrapbooks featuring scenes from a book or samples ofcreative writing inspired by a favorite book or author.

5. Book posters Posters can be completed in a short time andrequire little in the way of materials. "Wanted" postersfeaturing book characters are often of interest to middleschool students.

6. Other projects Make book jackets; advertise books; makebook trees; group students according to interests tofacilitate sharing books on the same interest level; organizea book club.

IN CONCLUSIONMany activities, including academics, compete for the atten-

tion of teachers and middle school students. Once students aremotivated to do recreational reading, it is up to teachers toprovide time, space. and materials. Although recreationalreading is generally one of the most neglected areas in the middleschool curriculum, It must be given higher priority if students are

into better, more enthusiastic readersto develop

CHAPTER 8EVALUATION OF THEREADING PROGRAM

How do you determine if you have a quality reading programin your classroom or in the total middle school? Many educatorsjudge their own reading program by administering a standard-ized reading test and comparing their school's scores with scoresfrom sc` -,Is across the nation. We believe that standardizedreading :s have very little, if any, value. There are other moreimportant considerations to keep in mind when evaluating areading program:

1. The attitudes of the students toward reading2. The number of students who are making expected progress

in reading3. The amount of printed material read by the students4. The number of students reading content area materials at

instructional and independent levels, as well a.; the numberworking at frustration levels

5. The amok of time spent instructing individu.i! students inreading ct .,spared to the amount spent in group activities

6. The teachers' attitudes toward reading7 The overall responsiveness of the school to the reading

needs of middle school stut:. nts

A discussion of eat. h aspect follows.

THE 'ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS TOWARD READING

Students' attitudes are best measured intuitively, and itdoesn't take very long to sense negative oil positive attitudestoward reading. Usually teachers are quick to report students'general attitude toward reading in their school.

The following auestionnai is a sample of the type that can beused to assess attitudes toward reading. Teachers may modify

7

b.goluglizon of rig,

the individual items to fit their own purposes Although some ofthe items refer to !earring preferences most reveal students'attitudes toward reading. For remedial students, try using theseitems in an interview format.

FEELINGS ABOUT READING

1. I like to read best when2. The worst part of reading is3. I could learn to read better if4. The thing that bugs me most

about reading is5. Reading becomes a drag when6. The easiest thing about reading I7. The best thing the teacher does

to help me read is8. The words I can't pronounce are usuallyo. The hardest part of read 11,.; is

10. Reading is necessary teoa.,

THE NUMBER Or STUDEN I s .MAKING; [VIC 1 -EDPROGRESS IN READING

We think that it is difficult, if not impossible. to measurestudents' reading potentials. It is, however, possible to determineif students are making progress in reading. We do not advocatethe use of formulas to determine expectancy levels or the use ofdevices such as scattergrams. A student of average intelligencewho has no serious learning disabilities should be making readingprogress close to grade level But a middle school student ofsuperior intelligence should be making rapid progress towardbecoming a mature reader.

Schools whose students show high achievement scoressometimes assume that they have a quality reading program andthat all students are mating progress in reading This may ormay :,ot be the case; there is a high correlation between thesocioeconomic level of students in a school and the reading scores

78

80 RI At)IIsit. KU( IR r. I% Till %111)I)I 1 -4 1

in that school. Schools in high socioeconomic areas probablywill rank high even if the reading program is not superior.Schools in very low socioeconomic areas may have an excellentreading program, yet show low reading scores. High achieve-ment scores may make excellent public relations, but they shouldnot be the single means of evaluating the reading program in amiddle school.

In recent years, criterion-referenced tests have received someattention. A criterion-referenced test measures specific skills andshows whether or not a student has mastered these skills Suchtest scores can be helpful in evaluating a reading program,particularly when planning instruction for individual students.Again, however, these test scores should not be the single meansof judging the reading program.

Of course, teacher observation is one way to determine if astudent is making progress. Teachers can note (1 I at what levelof difficulty the student is reading; (2) the number of times astudent asks for assistance with words, (3) the growth of thestudent's vocabulary; (4) the number of minutes a student readsea. h day; 451 the amount of material the student takes home toread: and (b) the confidence a student shows in reading and thatstudent's willingness to assist classmates

What about students'self-evaluations Students who feel theyare making progress will contiswe to make progress Thefollowing questionnaire can help St Uj, document theirprogress Teachers can modify the qui,stiormaire to meet theirown needs.

REAPING; PROC,RESS SELF -RI PORT

(Circle one) I feel my reading has rnrprove,1 has ,wt Improved.

2 In the last two months I have learned the following newwords:

3 In the last two months I have read the tollowing booksor stones in addition to my regular textbook as' wlments.

4. I know that my reading is tmprortrIg or not imprortng because

!;. i.4,i.o;i I r .,;t

THE AMOUNT OF PRINTED MATERIAL READ BY STIIDEN rs

Teachers cannot accurately predict if middle school studentswill read as adults, but they can assess current reading patterns.Of course, this does not mean that teachers should count thenumber of pages students read. A better measure can be hadby looking at the student's content area and re.; ational reading.

Do students read their textbook assignments and materialsrelated to content area learning activities Some students carrytextbooks to and fromgclass, open their books during classdiscussions, yet never really read a sentence. In some classrooms.it is possible to participate in discussions, answer questions, andeven take a test without ever having read the assignment

Do students read for recreation? Some schools count thenumber of students who check out books and the number ofbooks borrowed to get some idea of students' recreationalreading habits. As with other types of reading measurement,caution must be exercised since some students check out mate-rial that they do not read.

THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS READINt; c ) L

AREA MATERIALS AT INST. RUC I IONAIAND INDEPENDENT LEVELS

In some schools a large percentage of the students art readingat frustration levels. Teachers report that in middle schoolswhere they teach, few materials are geared to the instructionallevels of their students. This is often die- ,asc when books arepurchased for the entire school system if-1,h id of giving dueconsideration to the individual school's nef ds or to the needsof a particular class

Chapter 3 covered ways to determine if pupas are reading atindependent. instructional, or frustration level The (lut tee hnique, discussed in Chapter 5, is a good way to determine itstudents can comprehend the textbook or other printed material

THE AMOUNT OF TIME -'ENT INS I RUC TIM;INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS

All middle skr,001 students ma) not need an individualised,

80

A2 RE ANS( INS I MI It t )N IN t Ill Mit )1 II t tic it

oneto-one reading approach, but if students who are havingreading difficulties are going to improve, they should receivesome individual attention. In a middle school of 900 students,there may be only 50 students in need of extra time andattention. Whether or not they receive this help is one indicatorof the quality of that school's reading program

TEACHERS" ATTITUDES TOWARD READING

If teachers were asked, most would probably say they possessfavorable attitudes toward reading. However, are these attitudesobservable? Do teachers act as appropriate models for theirstudents? Do teachers read during their spare time at homeand at school? Do students see teacher,nioving reading? Domiddle schoolers know which teache.-, like to read? Do theykru,w what books teachers are reader.;?

THE RESPONSIVENESS OF THE SCHOOL 10 THEREADING N.'EEDS OF THE STUDENTS

Think about the following questions to determine if yourschool is responsive to the reading needs of students

Is staffing adequate for a quality reading program? Somemiddle schools totally ignore reading In other schools there maynot be enough teachers to cover all needs. In this case contentarea teachers can compensate for the Lick of specialized staff.

Are appropriate materials being rrovided for the readingprogram? If the total school views reading as important, moneywill be allocated to purchase whatever is needed

What about scheduling? Time for reading instruction must beplanned. Reading needs must be accommodated even if othercurriculum areas suffer. If no time is allotted or if the time is ver,short, hure or no reading instruction will occur

In some schools staff and scheduling are adequate. but largeclass size prohibits teachers from being effective In order toensure that remedial readers make progress, individual attentionis necessary This is virtually impossible in large classes

Are coptc-it area teachers really taking every opportunity toteach reading? It is not enough to hire a readine specialist and

i,provide all the elements necessary to a good d mental and

trosheation of 111 grading 'vow 141

remedial reading program. Content area teachers must incor-porate reading instruction into regular lessons As explained inChapter 5, we are not suggesting a full remedial program inthe individual classrooms, but rather reading instruction appro-priate for each content area.

Now often should the reading program be evaluated 7 A certainamount of evaluation should be part of a teacher's daily routinePeriodic evaluation should take place at least once a year todetermine program strengths and weaknesses Evaluation of thereading program is the ongoing responsibility of the total schoolstaff and not just the job of individuals from the central office

N2

NOTES

' Allen Roach Van. letnpag. 1.sperierries ui Corrirriurthatton Houton.tIoughton Mifflin Co 1070

Hat 6r, Walter B., and Abbott, terry 1. Personalized Reading !nstruitionNeu fe, huillises that bit-Vigil Reading SAill and Comprehrmion West Nyack, NewYork Parker Publishing ('o , 1975

' Hormuth, ;ohm 1 hr note Readability Prot edure Heinen/art,ingltsh 45'440 .430; April 100A.

Burmeister. Lou 1:. Reading Strategies for A:fiddle and seioridary School

hashershers Read.ng, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.,107m, p 342

_ Word, 1r, m Pm'? t' Afeaning Reading, Massachusetts:Addison-Wesley Publishing ( , 107!,

( oopersnuth `itanley / he Anti,,.1011 of .sell I stem 'salt I ,sosisicts:

W II I reemari, iDolch, I. W the Palm Sight Word lest liampaign, Illinois Garrard

Publishing ( o , 1942Fader I )aniel, and others I lie New tic rd oil Book.. New i (ilk Berkley

Publishing (. ore , 197oillmer, 11 1 hompson "The Middle. Schoolers' Reading Program

lanXu s ,Ari. -2 1123-112o, Nocember-December 19%5r word Reoding lristris,tion for Cla.,,,iiiikand Oink, New York:

19,2rhe Ernerseniy Reading I ruche, Ntonoil Highland Park,-----

New leesey Dreier I due ational Systems, 1974, p to.

( .00dlad. John I. ',hoof. Cu,rr,ulum and flit Individual. Waltham,Massachusetts Blaisdell, 1960, p 34

ciodman, Kenneth S A Analyse. App/i,,,tion, to Reading lnstruti:o.. r bana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1973.

4 Potter, -th,,mas C , and Rae, Gwermet h. Informal Reading Diagnosn: APratt,' al Guide for the Classroom leather Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey:Prentice-Halt, 1973.

Robinson, Francis I' Fqtairt Study. New York: Harper and Row,1961.

Robirsn, H. Alan Tea, rung Reading and study tin wept.. rhe ContentArno Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1975, p," 100- i

8:?

11,44 pp I !'1 l m.

' 11./.1 pp ic,v 'so',Andrr%, Nul i i5 M ( N. \

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Wtlhant C' Drown , 1473J1 Spat hr, Lvrlyn 14 Re.4.11,,,, f I 110,001, 1'It It

And Raton, 1470StritklAnd, Joann 11 , And AirA, Am. %%itlbam Neck trn,, ntni. It

fn Lark, And Middle Schott! 1 dut Awn"' in t ow.' /,Year. Rraelsn,e% 11. Jited by lame% I. 1 Irrtling And I I. tr,l ( t ,iti(slenvirw, `Stott, rt,- , tr.' 1 IT ,1

{ Liss 1041111 ..,1 otx 1.11T11 i." V 1$1111(1111*

rc

81

ANNOTATED HIBLIuGRAIM

Adler, Mortimer I and Van Doten C harks 11014' 14, Ret Iti a H014 New

York Simon and Schuster, 14)72Discusses the levels of reading and how students respond to those

levels Also gives ways to approai h dif lei ent types of trading and listsgoals of reading rhe book is a rewritten version of a 1040% bestseller

Aukerman, Robert ( Reading in the :etondary ",thetti Nrw orkMt.Craw Mal Hook . 14)72

Contains hapters that relate to all at ademit sublet w the secoodaryschool Very comprehensive in the treationt ot general issues inreading instruction and in guidelines t. r ra, Er t ent area

Aulls, Mark W Ovvelopmental and Prtnrdttt: kraditig in the A11.1.1irBoston Allyn and Bat on, 176

Describes ways to implement developmental and remedial readuiri.Istrut non in middle grade classrooms f he areas disc won cl nt.ludo.comprehension, reading rate. tiling and f trial lonships,diagnosis, decoding, indwidualiting. and tiwourirs

Burmeister, I f. Reading sttategte, tot fiddle att.! '4.otridtatt, 11'4, /ter.

Readmg, Niasachusett AddisonVsiesley Publishu.g , 1978Provides ideas fur content .1 f i..1 tea, her.. Thi hit( suggests I I)

ways to adjust reading material!, tot %, '2).4 rategto. for tea, lungreading in content arras, and i 4) how ti use school f f4 in thereading program as the entire stall works oopetaiivelv

lark, Leonard fl 1-4.404,44g SA sal .stittite I It Ptdatv in N. ,

Macmillan Publishing ( o, JO: 3Contains a chapter on reading and study related if wally to the

teaching of social studies Excellent, practical suggestions for readingcriti. 'Iy. The section on selecting and using textbooks will assist socialstud. teachers

Dillner, Martha H., and Olson, k 11 I' Rradtrtg

Middle, junior, and tient itgh tirhoe.' New lurkPublishing Co., 1977

85

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Robinann. ti Alan I ta4Onts% Rra4Ing and stud!, .rarror I hr c ontottBoston Allyn And liar tin, 147,1

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Shepherd, David I ComorhenutY / figh `. ;tool Ii.adtri, '.10110,1, (ol,;:nhua,h r!t II Mrrnll Publishing ( I 07.4

Examines each Content arra's reading materials with "pet dusuggrolony for teaching trading at the sllOrld.11y Ir VI i hr introdui,tory chapter explore the trading 7rot IrlIllitttt1011% tot thrsexontiary reading t uri 1t ulu,u

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i ',Ache, Evelyn 1.1 Reading A, twitsrs lr I %lad mr,,f llovton 411.'1) andBacon, 107r.

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